TECHNIQUES OF SAMPLING

In Statistics, the sampling method or sampling technique is the process of

studying the population by gathering information and analyzing that data. It is the
basis of the data where the sample space is enormous.

There are several different sampling techniques available, and they can be
subdivided into two groups. All these methods of sampling may involve specifically
targeting hard or approach to reach groups.

There are two primary types of sampling methods that you can use in your research:

 Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to make strong

statistical inferences about the whole group.
 Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based on
convenience or other criteria, allowing you to easily collect data.

Probability sampling methods

Probability sampling means that every member of the population has a chance of
being selected. It is mainly used in quantitative research. If you want to produce
results that are representative of the whole population, probability sampling
techniques are the most valid choice.

There are four main types of probability sample.

1. Simple random sampling

In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance of
being selected. Your sampling frame should include the whole population.

To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number generators
or other techniques that are based entirely on chance.

Example: Simple random sampling You want to select a simple random sample of 1000 employees
of a social media marketing company. You assign a number to every employee in the company
database from 1 to 1000, and use a random number generator to select 100 numbers.
2. Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually slightly
easier to conduct. Every member of the population is listed with a number, but
instead of randomly generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.

Example: Systematic sampling All employees of the company are listed in alphabetical order. From
the first 10 numbers, you randomly select a starting point: number 6. From number 6 onwards,
every 10th person on the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up with a sample of
100 people.

If you use this technique, it is important to make sure that there is no hidden pattern
in the list that might skew the sample. For example, if the HR database groups
employees by team, and team members are listed in order of seniority, there is a risk
that your interval might skip over people in junior roles, resulting in a sample that is
skewed towards senior employees.

3. Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that may
differ in important ways. It allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring
that every subgroup is properly represented in the sample.

To use this sampling method, you divide the population into subgroups (called strata)
based on the relevant characteristic (e.g., gender identity, age range, income
bracket, job role).

Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many people
should be sampled from each subgroup. Then you use random or systematic
sampling to select a sample from each subgroup.

Example: Stratified sampling The company has 800 female employees and 200 male employees. You
want to ensure that the sample reflects the gender balance of the company, so you sort the
population into two strata based on gender. Then you use random sampling on each group, selecting
80 women and 20 men, which gives you a representative sample of 100 people.

4. Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each
subgroup should have similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of
sampling individuals from each subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.

If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from each sampled
cluster. If the clusters themselves are large, you can also sample individuals from
within each cluster using one of the techniques above. This is called multistage
sampling.

This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations, but there is
more risk of error in the sample, as there could be substantial differences between
clusters. It’s difficult to guarantee that the sampled clusters are really representative
of the whole population.
Example: Cluster sampling The company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all with roughly
the same number of employees in similar roles). You don’t have the capacity to travel to every office
to collect your data, so you use random sampling to select 3 offices – these are your clusters.

Non-probability sampling methods

In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-random criteria,

and not every individual has a chance of being included.

This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher risk
of sampling bias. That means the inferences you can make about the population are
weaker than with probability samples, and your conclusions may be more limited. If
you use a non-probability sample, you should still aim to make it as representative of
the population as possible.

Non-probability sampling techniques are often used in exploratory and qualitative

research. In these types of research, the aim is not to test a hypothesis about a
broad population, but to develop an initial understanding of a small or under-
researched population

1. Convenience sampling
A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most
accessible to the researcher.

This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no way to tell
if the sample is representative of the population, so it can’t
produce generalizable results. Convenience samples are at risk for both sampling
bias and selection bias.

Example: Convenience sampling you are researching opinions about student support services in your
university, so after each of your classes, you ask your fellow students to complete a survey on the
topic. This is a convenient way to gather data, but as you only surveyed students taking the same
classes as you at the same level, the sample is not representative of all the students at your
university.

2. Voluntary response sampling

Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly based on
ease of access. Instead of the researcher choosing participants and directly
contacting them, people volunteer themselves (e.g. by responding to a public online
survey).
Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased, as some people
will inherently be more likely to volunteer than others, leading to self-selection bias.

Example: Voluntary response sampling you send out the survey to all students at your university and
a lot of students decide to complete it. This can certainly give you some insight into the topic, but
the people who responded are more likely to be those who have strong opinions about the student
support services, so you can’t be sure that their opinions are representative of all students.

3. Purposive sampling
This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves the researcher
using their expertise to select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of the
research.

It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to gain detailed
knowledge about a specific phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences, or
where the population is very small and specific. An effective purposive sample must
have clear criteria and rationale for inclusion. Always make sure to describe
your inclusion and exclusion criteria and beware of observer bias affecting your
arguments.

Example: Purposive sampling you want to know more about the opinions and experiences of
disabled students at your university, so you purposefully select a number of students with different
support needs in order to gather a varied range of data on their experiences with student services.

4. Snowball sampling
If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit
participants via other participants. The number of people you have access to
“snowballs” as you get in contact with more people. The downside here is also
representativeness, as you have no way of knowing how representative your sample
is due to the reliance on participants recruiting others. This can lead to sampling
bias.

Example: Snowball sampling You are researching experiences of homelessness in your city. Since
there is no list of all homeless people in the city, probability sampling isn’t possible. You meet one
person who agrees to participate in the research, and she puts you in contact with other homeless
people that she knows in the area.

5. Quota sampling
Quota sampling relies on the non-random selection of a predetermined number or
proportion of units. This is called a quota.

You first divide the population into mutually exclusive subgroups (called strata) and
then recruit sample units until you reach your quota. These units share specific
characteristics, determined by you prior to forming your strata. The aim of quota
sampling is to control what or who makes up your sample.

Example: Quota sampling you want to gauge consumer interest in a new produce delivery
service in Boston, focused on dietary preferences. You divide the population into meat eaters,
vegetarians, and vegans, drawing a sample of 1000 people. Since the company wants to cater
to all consumers, you set a quota of 200 people for each dietary group. In this way, all dietary
preferences are equally represented in your research, and you can easily compare these
groups.You continue recruiting until you reach the quota of 200 participants for each
subgroup.