History f4 Notes Champ Final

FORM FOUR
CHAMPIONS COMPREHENSIVE HISTORY NOTES

1. WORLD WARS
 World wars were total wars in the modern history of mankind that involved
almost all countries in the world.
 This wars involve:
 Soldiers who were actually fighting in the front.
 Civilians who were entrusted with the task of providing needs for the
soldiers.
The First World War 1914-1918.
 It was fought between 1914 and 1918.
 The war was called a world war because it was fought on all the continents
 Africans took part in the war because it was colonized by Europeans powers
which were at war.
 Countries involved were:
 Britain
 Germany
 France
 Russia
 Belgium
 Austria-Hungary
 Italy
 Japan
 USA
Causes of the First World War.
 System of military alliance.
 Imperialism.
 Franco-Prussian war.
 The arm race.
 First and Second Moroccan crisis
 Nationalism in the Balkans.
 Sarajevo assassinations.
i.System of military alliance.
CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 1

 Germany started forming an alliance with Austria-Hungary in 1879 which came
to be known as the dual alliance. Italy later joins dual alliances making it Triple
Alliance. Triple Alliance later came to be known as the Central Powers.
 Triple alliance alarmed British and together with France and Russia formed
Triple Entente.Triple Entente later came to be known as the Allied Powers.
 The system of alliances therefore caused the First World War as powers which
were allied to each other had committed themselves to helping their allies in the
event of the war.
ii.Imperialism
 In the 19th many European countries were competing for colonies reason being is
that they were undergoing industrialization and they require raw material for their
industries.
 By 1900 much of the World had been divided into colonies and sphere of
influence.
 German felt that they require more colonies because more they were more
industrialize as a result they started to expand to Eastern Europe and capture
Poland
 Colonial rivalry created friction, disputes and mistrust among European nations
hence leading to war.
iii.Franco-Prussia war
 Franco-Prussia war of 1870-1871 resulted to bitterness between Germany and
France.
 Lost of Lorraine and Alsace by France was blow to the French economy.
 France was still determined to regain these territories and revenge for the war
or seek compensation by acquiring territories elsewhere.
 The defeat of France by Germany left France bitter and it looked for an excuse
to go to war.
iv.Arm race.
 There was competition by Europeans powers to acquire superior arms and get
powerful arms.
 Britain had a strong navy but other European powers began to build great
armies through a system of conscription.
 The arm race made countries more aggressive and militant ready to fight at the
slightest provocation.
v.Disputes over Morocco in 1905-1906 and 1911.

 Britain and France being members of Triple Entente sign a comprehensive
friendly agreement in 1904 called Entente Cordiale.This agreement led to First
and Second Moroccan crisis.
i.First Moroccan crisis

 First Moroccan crisis occur in 1905 after 1904 agreement.
 In the agreement French recognized British occupation of Egypt while Britain
supported the French occupation in morocco.
 Agreement angered German ruler Kaiser William II as a result he visited
Tangier Moroccan coastal town and urged Moroccan revolt.
 These created tension which contributed to the outbreak of the Second World
War.
ii.Second Moroccan crisis.
 It occurs in July 1911 when a German gunboat The Panther was sent to Agadir
in Morocco to protect German interest.
 All these pushed Europeans towards the war.
vi.Nationalism in the Balkans.
 Europeans had experienced a rise in nationalism in the 19th century. Despite
this many parts of Europe were being ruled by large-racial empires. These
empires include:
 Russian empire.
 Austria.
 Ottoman or Turkey Empire.
 Nationalities in Balkans took advantage of wave of nationalism in Europe to
demand for independence.
 Their effort to gain independences was supported by major European powers
like Russia, Britain, Austria-Hungary and France with the hope of gaining
territories.
 This fuelled the already existing rivalry in Europe leading to war.
vii.Sarajevo assassination.
 On 28th June 1914, Austria-Hungary heir Franz Ferdinand and his wife were
assassinated in the Garrison town of Sarajevo by Cabrillo Princip of Serbia.
 This created tension between Austria-Hungary and Serbia and sparked off the
war.

 Austria accused Serbia of being involved in the assassination and as a result
presents Serbia with the following demands:
 The Serbia should suppress all societies which were organizing anti-
Serbia propaganda.
 Serbia should dismiss all officials to whom Austria objected.
 Austria police should be allowed to enter Serbia to ensure that above
demands were fulfilled.
 Serbia agrees to the first two demands and rejected the third one.
 Austria refused to accept Serbia position and declared war on Serbia on 28th
July 1914.
Course of the war.
 After Austria declare war on Serbia on 28th July 1914, Russia started to
mobilize her forces.
 Germany demand Russia to demobilize her forces but Russia declined. As a
result Germany declared war on Russia on First August 1914.
 Germany demands France to remain neutral which France refuses. As a result
Germany declared war on France 3rd August 1914.
 Britain joined the war on 4th august 1914 when Germany invaded Belgium.
 The war in 1914 divided European powers into two that is:
Central Powers.
 Germany
 Austria-Hungary
 Italy
Allied powers include:
 Serbia
 Montenegro
 Belgium
 France
 Russia
 Great Britain
 Turkey joined central powers in 1914.
 In 1915 Italy ditched the central powers and joined war on the side of the
allies. This was because the Allies promise territorial adjustment on their
frontiers.

 Japan also joined the Allies mainly because Germany had objected to her
takeover of Liatoung from China.
 War was fought in three continents:
 Europe
 Africa
 Asia
 In Europe war was fought on two fronts
 The western front.
 Eastern front.
Western front.
 In the Western side German were fighting with British and French forces and
later American forces.
 War was part of the Von Schlieffen plan. This was a plan laid by German Field
Marshall Alfred Von Schlieffen to attack France. In the plan German was to
attack France through Belgium.
 German estimated that they would capture Paris within a fortnight, ending
France resistances.
 Von Schlieffen plan almost succeeded and by September 1914, German forces
were on the outskirt of Paris, but they were forced back by British and French
forces.
Factors that led to Von Schlieffen plan.
 Russia mobilized her forces than expected
 German invasion of Belgium was not as first as anticipated.
 Military stalemate on the Western Front took form of Trench warfare, where
two opposing dig network of trenches for protection against artillery and
machine guns.
 Trenches stretch for 1080 km across France and Belgium.
Eastern front
 On Eastern front the war was between German and Russia.
 Russia army was large but badly led, poorly trained and ill equipped and as
result the casualties remained high.
 In 1917 revolution broke out in Russia which led to removal of Tsars Nicholas
II, new government did not want to continue in war and as a result formally
ended the war with Germany on 3rd march 1918 with the signing of the treaty
of Brest-Litovsk.
 At the course of the war new weapons was used which include.
 Machine gun
 Armored tank
 The sub-marine
 Aircraft.
 Poisonous gas.
War in Africa.
 In Africa war was fought on those regions German had colonies neighboring
those of the Allied forces. These include.
 Cameroon.
 Namibia
 Rwanda
 Burundi
 Tanzania.
 In East Africa British attacked Dar es Salaam and Tanga.
 German East Africa commander General Paul Von Lettoew Varbech move to
attack Uganda railway from Kilimanjaro.
 British got support from India, South Africa, Malawi, Zimbabwe hence
defeated Germany.
 Belgium forces occupied Rwanda and Burundi.
 South Africa occupied Namibia bringing an end to the war in Africa.
War at Sea.
 Britain used her navy to blockade Germany ports to ensure that the Germans
did not get supplies of food and raw materials.
 The Germany on the other hand sank ships moving to British ports from
British and USA.
 In 1917 German declared unrestricted submarines. This means ship from
neutral countries were no longer issues with warning but were sunk on sight
just like war ship.
 Among the neutral states whose ships were sunk by Germany was USA.
 USA remained neutral up to 1917.
 In 1917 President Woodrow Wilson declared war against Germany. This
greatly altered the course of the war in favour of the allies.
Reason why USA remained neutral upto 1917.
 USA did not want to involve herself with European powers. This was
due to Monroe doctrine of 1923.

 USA feared an outbreak of civil war back at home between citizens of
German descent and those of British, French and Russian descent.
 USA was benefiting from the war by selling arms to both sides.
 The war had not interfered directly with USA interest up to 1916.
 In 1917 USA joined the war.
Reasons why USA joined the war.
 Germany‟s declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare and thus sinking of
USA ship.
 Zimmerman letter. USA was anger by a secrete telegram from the German
foreign minister, Arthur Zimmerman to the German embassy in Mexico urging
Mexico to attack the USA incase USA joined the allies
 Pressure from the people in the USA,who pressurized their own government to
join the war on the side of allies
 USA congress voted for the declaration of war on Germany in April 1917 after
Germans sank the Sussex, a British ship that was ferrying American passengers to
Europe.
Factors that led to defeat of central powers.
 The allies had more powerful sea power which was used to blockade the
central powers hence causing food shortages.
 Entry of war of the USA on the allied powers gave them vast resources for
effective execution of the war.
 The allies had good political leadership e.g. Lloyd George, George
Clemenceau, Signor Orlando and Woodrow Wilson.
 Allied powers had more manpower than the central powers, For example they
had a total twenty-five states which include: Britain, France, Russia, Belgium,
Italy,Japan,Portugal and the United States of America
 The allies had more financial and industrial resources.
 Germany was seriously let down by her allies who kept dropping out of the
war one by one.
 Political instability in Germany affected her military strength.
 The Allies had powerful weapons e.g. They used Tankers, Aircraft and
Battleships
 Germany fought the war on many fronts.
Peace Settlement.

 In January 1919, representatives of Allied powers met at Paris, France to
determine the fate of the defeated central powers.
 The central powers were not involved in the discussions but were required to
sign on the final draft.
 The Key personalities at the conference were:
 Lloyd George-Prime Minister of Britain.
 George Clemenceau-Prime Minister of France.
 Woodrow Wilson-President of USA.
 Vittorio Orlando-Prime Minister of Italy.
 Five treaties were signed with each of the central powers separately as follows;
 The Treaty of Versailles with Germany (28th June 1919)
 Treaty of St. Germaine with Austria (10th September 1919)
 Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria (27th November 1919)
 Treaty of Trianon with Hungary (4th June 1920)
 Treaty of Sevres in 1920 and Lausanne in 1923 with Turkey.
 All these treaties together were called the Treaty of Versailles.
 United States of America did not ratify the treaty of Versailles but signed a
separate treaty with Germany.
Results of the Treaty of Versailles.
 Germany was blamed for the outbreak of the war.
 Germany size was reduced by one eight and her population reduced by 6.5
million.
 Germany lost the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine
 The city of Danzig becomes a free city under the jurisdiction of the League of
Nation.
 Saar valley with its deposit of coal and iron was placed under the League of
Nation.
 Germany was required to pay a total sum of 6.6 million pound.
 Germany was restricted to an army recruitment of 100000 men.
 The treaty prevented any possible union between Germany and Austria.
 Germany was required to release all allied prisoners
 It proposed formation of the League of Nation as international body to promote
peace and prevent the occurrence of another war in future.
 It led to the creation of an independent Hungarian state and Yugoslavia from
former Serbia, Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina.
 By the treaty of Neuilly, part of Bulgaria territory went to Yugoslavia
 By the treaty of Lausanne in 1923 Syria, Palestine and Iraq were no longer
Turkish possessions.

Effects of the First World War
Political results
 It led to creation of new nations in Europe e.g. Hungary and Yugoslavia.
 Led to emergences of USA as the world leading power.
 The war led to alterations of the boundaries in Europe. The size of Turkey was
reduced as new countries like Poland, Czechoslovakia emerged.
 The size of Germany was reduced. France regained her lost province of Alsace
and Lorraine from Germany. All the colonies were also taken over as mandate
territories under League of Nations.
 It led to creation of League of Nation in 1919 to preserve world peace and
order.
 It led to the emergence of communism in Russia.
 The war created revolutionary ideas among the colonized people such as
Indians and Africans.
 It led to raise of dictators in Europe, such as Benito Mussolini in Italy, Adolf
Hitter in Germany who becomes the architects of the Second World War
Economic effects.
 Much money was spent on the war by various countries on buying war related
equipments such as guns, food, ammunition and other war materials.
 The war weakened European domination of the rest of the world.
 The war led to insecurity which in turn disrupted economic activities for
example trade and agriculture.
 Many properties were destroyed in the fighting ground e.g. several industries,
towns, schools, factories, roads, bridges and railways were destroyed.
 It led to the development of transport for example motor vehicle and aircraft.
Social effects.
 Many people lost their lives in the course of the war due to warfare, diseases;
starvation etc.The Eastern front cemetery in Belgium had 11952 graves.
 Many people were displaced and rendered homeless creating refugee problems
in the continent of Europe.
 Led to outbreak of diseases e.g. Spanish influenza, pneumonia etc.
 Led to promotion of status of women in Europe and America. For example,
women took up leading position in the military and administration.
League of Nations.

 It was formed in June 1919 after Paris peace conferences.
 The headquarter of the League of Nation was established in Geneva
Switzerland
 The First meeting took place on 10th January 1920.
 Initially League of Nation was made up of the allies and their associates but a
provision was made for other states to join later
 Germany was a member from 1926 to 1933.
Aims of the league of nation.
 To settle international disputes peacefully
 To maintain peace and security in the world.
 To nurture international cooperation hence solve global economic and social
problems.
 To protect sovereignty of the member states.
 To help in disarmament.
 To eradicate trafficking in drugs, women and children.
 To combat diseases.
 To sort out the problem of refugees.
Covenant of the League of Nations.
 This was detailed list of rules by which League of Nations operate.
 It explained the composition, organisation and functions of the League of
Nation.
Obligation enshrine in the covenant or charter.
 Decrease the production of war armaments.
 Guarantee and respect national integrity and independence
 Submit international disputes to the league for peaceful settlement.
 Control and curb aggression through economic rather than military actions.
 Establish mandate/trusteeship territories which were formerly under the triple
alliance powers.
Organs of the League of Nations.
 The assembly
 The council
 The secretariat
 Permanent Court of International Justice
 International Labour Office.
 Specialized Commission and Committees.

The Assembly
 Comprise all League member states.
 Members meet in Geneva annually.
 All members had equal votes.
Functions
 Control of the budget of the League
 Admission of the new members.
 Appointment of Non-Permanent members of the League of Nations.
 Consideration of treaties.
 Supervise the work of League of Nations Council.
Council
 It comprised of five permanent and four non-permanent members.
 Permanent members were reduced to four when USA declined to ratify the
League of Nation charter because they wanted to continue with her foreign
policy of neutrality.
 Convened meetings 3 times a year.
 Sessions were held in Geneva.
 Permanent members of the council include:
 Britain
 France
 Italy
 Japan
 USA
Function.
 Implement the recommendations of the assembly.
 Appointing and controlling various committees of the league.
 Appoint the secretary-general with the approval of the assembly.
 Preparing the agenda for the assembly.
 Deal with any issue affecting global peace.
Permanent court of international justice
 It was formed in 1920
 Based at the peace palace in Hague Netherlands.

 Comprised of 15 judges of various nationalities.
Function
 Settle disputes between states.
 Interpreted treaties.
The Secretariat
 Was administrative body of the League of Nations.
 Headed by the Secretary-General assisted by the selected staff.
 It was based in Geneva.
 First secretary general was sir Eric Drummond of Britain(1919-1923)
Function.
 Preparing the agenda for the Assembly and council meetings
 Collecting materials required before the actual proceedings of the Assembly
and council meetings
 Carrying out all correspondence relating to the League
 Implementing the decisions of the league e.g. registration of treaties
 Providing continuity between one meeting of the council or the Assembly and
the next
Specialized commission and committees.
 Was formed to deal with specific problems ,for examples:
 Territories
 Military affairs.
 Minority group.
 Disarmament.
 Drugs.
 Labour.
Achievements of league of nation.
 It preserves world peace for a period of around 20 years.
 It helps in establishment of international health organization which helps in
fighting epidemics in Europe and the rest of the world
 It set up International Labour Organizations (ILO) which improve the welfare
of workers and enhanced application of labour laws.

 They provided relief for famine areas, diseases zones, refugees and war
casualties.
 It helped in the reduction of trade in dangerous drugs.
 They succeeded in bringing to an end the war that broke out in 1925 between
Greece and Bulgaria.
 It helped in settling disputes between member countries for example between
Sweden and Finland over the Aaland.
 It successfully supervises mandated territories. It also administered areas
which were placed under international control, for example, Danzig city and
Saar valley.
 It helped in the economic reconstruction of European countries for example,
Austria.
 It held a number of disarmament conferences and managed to regulate the
private manufacture of arms and their sales.
Failures of the League of Nation.
 Disarmament commission failed to persuade members to reduce armaments as
stipulated in the covenant.
 Interference by the conference of ambassadors based in Paris.
 It failed to stop Japanese invasion of China in 1931, The Italian attack of
Ethiopia in 1935.
 It failed to raise enough funds to implement some of its programmes.
 It failed to prevent the occurrence of another world war.
 It failed to stop Germany from violating the terms of the peace conference e.g.
German remilitarization programme.
Reasons for the failure of League of Nation.
 There was serious weakness in the covenant which made it difficult for the
decisive action to be taken against aggressor.
 Lack of military force or wing to implement its decision as their depend on
good will of the members.
 It violated it objectives of maintaining world peace by supporting some
nation‟s claims against others.
 Member‟s states were timid and employed a policy of appeasement towards
dictators in Japan, Italy and Germany in order to avoid confrontation.
 Lacked enough funds to run and implement its policies.
 Absence of other important powers was another problem e.g. Germany was
not allowed to join until 1926.

 Conferences of ambassador interfered with the work of League.
 World economic crisis which began in 1929 hastened the decline of the
League.
 Search for colonies diverted member‟s attention from the activities of the
League.
 Rise of dictators in Japan, Germany and Italy that refused to obey the rules of
League of nation exposed the weakness of League of Nation.
THE SECOND WORLD WAR. 1939-1945
 World war started in 1939 and ended in 1945.
 The war was fought between two opposition powers.
Allied powers
 Britain
 France
 USSR
 USA
 Belgium
Axis power
 Germany
 Italy
 Japan
Causes of the war.
i.Hitler ambitions.
 Adolf Hitler of National Socialist Party Nazi came to power in Germany in
1934.When came to power he began plan of restoring German lost glory.
 He began by withdrawing Germany from the League of Nation and also by
demanding rearmament of Germany. This was violation of treaty of Versailles.
 Violation of the treaty of Versailles destabilizes Europeans peace and
contributed to the outbreak of the Second World War.
ii.The treaty of Versailles.
 The treaty of Versailles blamed Germany to be responsible for the First World
War. Because of this treaty of Versailles German become bankrupt,
unemployment rise, they were shortage of food and raw material.
 Germans blamed treaty of Versailles for their troubles.

 When Hitler came to power he wanted to reverse the situation.
iii.Nationalism.
 Nationalism which occurs in Europe in 1920 prevents International
Cooperation.
 Each country becomes to be preoccupied in solving their own problems instead
of cooperating with their neighbours.
 Countries with minorities faced additional problems for example Hitler
encourage German speaking people in Sudetenland to demand for independent
from Czechoslovakia.
 This extreme nationalism hinders international cooperation hence fueling the
outbreak of the war.
iv.The Economic problems
 Economic problems in Europe between 1920s and 1930s caused many
problems which include widespread unemployment, declining wages, poverty
etc.
 These led to social discontent and political unrest in many countries of the
world leading to outbreak of war.
v.The Rise of dictators
 Between 1920s and 1930s many dictators came to power in Europe e.g. Adolf
Hitler of national socialist party (Nazi) of Germany, Benito Mussolini of
fascist of Italy and Josef Stalin of Russia.
 Activities of these dictators contributed to open aggression leading to Second
World War.
vi.Arm race.
 Suspicion among European powers led to increase in armament.
 Hitler began to recruit young men into the army.
 New weapons like guns, aircraft and sub-marines were invented.
 Other countries also began re-armament programmes.
vii.The weakness of the league of nation
 The League of Nation was formed to promote International peace and security.
 However the organization was weak as it failed to prevent rearmament of
Germany, Italy and Japan.
 Other countries like failed to join the League for example USA did not want to
get involved in European affairs.

viii.The policy appeasement.
 Britain was determined to safeguard the world against the outbreak of another
and as result they adopted appeasement policy whereby they gave in to the
demand of Hitler.
 Germany took an advantage of this policy and 1938 they invaded regain
Sudentland which by treaty of Versailles had been given to Czechoslovakia
 This policy encouraged other dictators to carry on with aggression on other
states.
ix.Formation of Alliances.
 European countries formed alliances just before World War 2 which created
mistrust and suspicion.
 Germany and Italy formed an alliance known as Berlin-Rome axis. Later Japan
joins the alliances and came to be known as Berlin-Rome-Tokyo agreement.
 These alliances intensified the aggression as each member was assured of
support in case of an external attack.
x.Territorial violation.
 In 1935 Italy invaded Ethiopia.
 In 1936 Germany invaded Rhineland, and in 1938 they entered Austria in
attempt to unite with Austria Nazi party. This was violation of treaty of
Versailles.
 In 1939 Germany invaded Poland and Belgium.
 Britain and France could not take Hitler-aggression anymore and as a result
declare war on Germany. This led to outbreak of the war.
Outbreak of the war.
 Before the outbreak Germany and USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republic)
sign an agreement called Nazi-Soviet pact of non aggression.
 Treaty gave Germany a chance to fight in one front .As result of this treaty
Germany invaded Poland on first September 1939.
 On the same day British gave Germany an ultimatum to withdraw before 11
am failure to which Britain would declare war on Germany
 When German did not reply German and France declare war on Germany
 Invasion of Belgium by Germany led to the outbreak of the war. Britain and
France supported Belgium.
 Italy joins the war to support Germany.

 France later withdraws from the war making Germany to occupy the coastal
zones and install a puppet government.
Course of the war.
 By 1940, Germany was controlling almost all part of western except Britain.
 When Winston Churchill came to power he rallied British people against
Germany
 When Germany launched daylight attack on Britain. Britain royal air force
fought heroically. German then switch to night attack.
 Hitters also attack Soviet Union and now Germany had to fight on two fronts.
On the attack German reached the outskirt of Moscow and Leningrad but
soviet offensive stop them.
 In 1942 German advances towards South East in a bid to control Russian oil
but they reach Stalingrad where Germany army was trapped.
 In 1941 Japan attack American fleet at pearl harbour making USA to join the
war on the side of Britain and the Soviet Union. Thus both Atlantic and Pacific
Ocean become theatres of war.
 China joined the war on the side of Allied powers but Japan was well prepared
and within short time they were already in boarder of India.
 Fighting broke in North Africa when Italy attack Egypt but were defeated by
the Allied forces under British General Wavell.
 In Europe Anglo-American forces invaded Italy and overthrown Mussolini.
 In 1944 Allied forces being led by Dwight Eisenhower began the war to
liberate France and after hard fight France was liberated.
 Allied forces began to advances towards Berlin and in order to escape being
captured by Allied and Soviet troops; Hitler committed suicide on 30th April
1945 leading to the end of the war in Europe.
 After the defeat of Germany, Japan continued fighting because their Prime
Minister did not believe in unconditional surrendering.
 They even started using suicide bombers known as Kamikaze, where they used
load their planes with explosives and flew straight into USA ships.
 Allied forces defeated had Japan in various places including Burma, China,
Malaysia and Singapore.
 When Japan failed to surrender USA President Harry Truman agreed to use
atomic bomb for the first time.
 On 6th august 1945 USA dropped an atomic bomb on Japanese city of
Hiroshima killing thousands of people and injuring others.
 On 9th august 1945 USA dropped another bomb in Nagasaki killing thousands
of people and injuring others.

 On 15th august Japan surrendered unconditionally leading to end of Second
World War.
Reasons why allied powers defeat axis powers.

 Allies powers had many supporters therefore large army which outnumbered
that of axis.
 Axis powers faced shortage of valuable materials e.g. rubber, cotton, nickel
and oil etc.
 The allies designed methods of checking the blitzkrieg (swift German attacks)
 Axis powers were stretched beyond their basic capacity e.g. German forces
was spread out to Russian front, Coast of Mediterean Sea and Western Coast
of France.
 Allied powers of Britain, USSR and USA had massive combined resources to
sustain in a long drawn war.
 The axis power made serious tactical mistakes e.g. Germany failed to
adequately prepare for the Russian winter.
 Allies had more superior weapons unlike the axis powers whose weapons were
relatively weak.
 Some of German allies like Italy turned against her. This weakened the axis
power.
 Entry of USA into the war on the sides of allied powers gave them a big
advantage over axis powers.
 Axis powers were fighting on two fronts, that is West and East.
Results of World War 2.
Political results.
 It led to emergence of USA and USSR as the superpowers of the world.
 It led to division of Europe into Western bloc and Eastern bloc with
Communist controlling almost half of Europe which led to iron curtain.
 It led to cold war which was an ideological and economic war between the
USA and its allies and Soviet Union and its allies.
 Led to formation of United Nation Organization to help in promoting world
peace and security and International Cooperation.

 It led to division of Germany into East Germany and West Germany. German
democratic republic under Soviet Union and Federal Republic of Germany
under France and Britain.
 It led to creation of the state of Israel on May 14, 1948 to settle the Jews who
had been scattered by among other factors Nazi factor.
 Through the Marshal plan, USA found herself getting more involved in
European affairs.
 The war promoted nationalism and decolonization in Africa and Asia.
 The war led to the production of nuclear weapons.
Economic results.
 The economy of various Europeans countries e.g. Britain, France etc were
destroyed turning to USA for economic support through Marshal Plan.
 It led to destruction of properties in the course of the war e.g. several roads
railways and communication systems destroyed.
 It led to decline of agriculture and industries due to lack of equipment, raw
material and industries.
 It led disruption of both internal and external trade.
 The war created unemployment. This was because the demobilized servicemen
and prisoners of the war increased demand for jobs.
 The war was costly as the countries involved spent a lot of money on the war
efforts. This slowed down economic development.
 It led to development in engineering. During the war, engineers built military
bridges in hours, laid oil pipelines under English Channel and turned jungles
into Airports.
Social results.
 It led to massive loss of human life both the soldiers and civilians. It is
estimated that over 40 million people lost their lives.
 It led to displacement of people as people moved to look for peaceful areas for
settlement. Jews for example was forced out of Germany due to Nazi ideology.
 It led to spread of infectious diseases such as tuberculosis and venereal
diseases mainly syphilis.
 Doctors made great advances in surgery and in treatment of the mentally and
physically disabled as the treat war victims.
 It led to mistrust and bitter feelings among Nations as a result of massive
destruction during the war.

 The bombs that were dropped on Japan released radioactive substances which
affected the lives of many after the war was over.
 It upgrades the status of women since they had to take up duties which were
previously a reserve for men i.e. many women gain recognition as they served
in various capacities during the war.
 It led to widespread suffering in Western Europe. Many homes were destroyed
leading to homelessness.
REVISION QUESTIONS ON WORLD WAR

1. State two causes of world war one
 System of military alliance.
 Imperialism.
 Franco-Prussian war.
 The arm race.
 First and Second Moroccan crisis
 Nationalism in the Balkans.
2. Name the European powers who formed the allied forces
 Britain
 France
 USA
3. Name European powers that formed central powers.
 Germany.
 Austria-Hungary
 Italy.
4. State two agreements under the dual Alliance of 1879
 Both parties will assist each other in case of attack by Russia
 Both parties will remain neutral incase of attack by any other power
5. Name two provinces which France lost to Germany after Franco-Prussia war
of 1870-1871.
 Alsace.
 Lorraine.
6. Name the agreement which British and France and which led to Moroccan
crisis.
 Entente Cordiale.
7.Name the conference convened in 1906 to resolve the dispute between
Germany and France.

 Algeciras Conference
8. Give the immediate cause of World War One.
9. Name the fronts where world war took place.
 Eastern front.
 Western front
 Africa.
 Sea.
10. Give two reasons why von Schlieffen plan failed.

 Russia mobilized her forces than expected.
 German invasion of Belgium was not as first as anticipated.
11. What was the Schlieffen plan?
 The plan by Germany to attack France through Belgium before attacking
Russia
12. Give reason why USA had remained neutral up to 1917.
 USA did not to be involved herself in European affairs.
 The war had not interfered with the interests of USA prior to 1917.
13. Give factors that prompted USA to join the war in 1917.
 Germany declaration of unrestricted submarines warfare and thus sinking of
USA ships.
 Zimmermann letter by Germans which incited the Mexicans to battle USA
14. State reasons why central powers were defeated.
 The allies had more powerful sea power which was used to blockade the
central powers.
 Entry of war of the USA on the allied powers gave them vast resources for
effective execution of the war.
 The allies had good political leadership e.g. Lloyd George, George
Clemenceau, Signor Orlando and Woodrow Wilson.
15. State the results of treaty of Versailles.

 Germany was blamed for the outbreak of the war.
 Germany lost territory in Europe.
 Germany was to pay a huge war indemnity.
 Treaty forbade the union of Germany and Austria.
 It created a league of nation.
16. Explain the results of the First World War.

 It led to destruction of towns, villages, schools, factories, roads and other
facilities.
 It led to starvation of many people.
 It led to outbreak of diseases for example influenza which killed many people.
 It was costly.
 It created refugee problem.
 It led to creation of new nations in Europe, for example Yugoslavia and
Hungary.
 It led to establishment of league of nation.
 It led to development of military technology.
 It led to reduction of size of Germany as well as her population.
17. State the aims of League of Nation.
 Maintenance of world peace.
 Peaceful settlement of disputes.
 Disarmament and reduction in arms manufacture.
 Encourage international cooperation.
 Combat diseases.
18. Name the organs of League of Nations.
 The Assembly.
 The Secretariat.
 Permanent International Court of Justice.
19. Name four permanent members of the Council of the League of Nation.
 Britain.
 France.
 Italy.
 Japan.
20. Name the country that did not join the League of Nation.
 USA.
21. State the performance of the League of Nations.
 Through the International Labour Organisation, it was able to improve labour
conditions worldwide.
 It helped to eradicate slavery, for example in 1932; it set up a permanent
slavery commission.
 It helped in war reconstruction in various, for example, Austria and Hungary.
 It facilitated the repatriation of refugees.
 It helped to fight diseases and epidemics.
 It helped in reduction of trade in dangerous drugs.
22. State the problems faced by the League of Nations.

 Shortage of funds to implement its programmes.
 Lack of commitment among the members.
 It had no military force of its own.
23. State the causes of the Second World War.
 Hitler‟s ambition to restore German dominance in Europe.
 The treaty of Versailles which blamed Germany for being solely responsible
for the First World.
 Nationalism which hindered international cooperation as nations were
preoccupied with solving their own problems.
 Economic problems in Germany, Italy and Japan which made them more
aggressive.
 Rise of dictators in Italy, Germany, Russia and Spain.
 Suspicion among the European countries which led to formation of alliances.
 The weakness of League of Nation caused by lack of mechanism to enforce its
decisions.
 Failure of policy of appeasement.
 The rearmament of Germany led to the arms race.
24.Name dictators in Europe who rose during the world war II
 General Franco of Spain
 Adolf Hitler of Germany
 General Franco of Spain.
 Joseph Stalin of Russia.
 Emperor Hirohito of Japan.
25. State the main reason why USA joined the World War II
 Attack on Pearl Harbour by the Japanese.
26. How did the USA counter the Pearl Harbour?
 By joining the Allied forces and dropping an atomic bomb on Hiroshima in
1945
27. State the main factors that brought World War II to end
 Japan‟s surrender after bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
28. State the immediate cause of World War II
 Germans invasion of Belgium.
29. Name the party formed by Mussolini in 1921
 National Fascist Party
30. Name the party that was founded by Adolf Hitler in Germany.
 National Socialist Party.
31. What caused the second Balkan War?
 Conflict between Bulgaria and Serbia on ownership of Macedonia

32. Describe five factors that enabled the Allied power to win the World War II
 Allies had many supporters hence large army outnumbered that of Axis
 Allies had more superior weapons unlike the Axis powers whose weapons
were relatively weak
 Entry of USA on the side of Allies, hence boosting Allies supplier
 Axis powers did not have enough raw materials necessary for military purpose
 Some of the German territories turned against her.
33. State four reasons that led to defeat of France during World War II
 They were not psychologically prepared for the war
 French troops were divided
 Its troops suffered military weakness
 Poor communication between Army and War
34. Give two reasons for entry of USA in World War II
 Japan‟s attack on the Pearl Harbour
 Japan‟s capture of the French indo- China so as to acquire minerals hence
threaten British in Malaysia
35. Explain five effects of the Second World War.
 Led to Emergence of USA and USSR as the super powers of the world.
 Led to division of Europe into Western and Eastern blocs with communist
controlling halt of Europe hence Iron curtain
 It led to division of Germany into East Germany and West Germany.
 It created unemployment.
 It led to improved military technology, for example, atomic bombs.
 It led to displacement of millions of people.
 Led to destruction of homes, industries, roads and railways.
 It led to cold war.
 Through the Marshall plan, USA got more involved in European affairs.
36. Explain five social results of World War II
 Led to massive loss of human life of civilians and soldiers through war and
atomic bombs respectively
 Led to homelessness, displacement and refugee situations following Nazism
ideologies
 Led to advancement in medicine and surgery due to need to treat war-stricken
people
 Led to spread infectious diseases i.e. T.B.
 Led to increased mistrust and bitter feelings among nations .

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS.
 International relations refer to the cooperation or interactions between
individuals or groups of nation of the world.
Categories of international relations
 Economic relations.
 Diplomatic relations.
 Political relations.
 Socio-economic relations.
Benefits international relations
 Promote economic growth in the world due to expanded international trade.
 Provide Financial and technical assistances to developing nation.
 Enhancement of peace and security due to policies geared toward peace
settlement.
 Promotion of world understanding through cultural exchange.
 Collective solution of global problems such as desertification, armament,
environmental pollution and global warming‟s.
Types of international organization
i.International Governmental Organization (IGO).
 Created by two or more sovereign states.
Examples.
 United Nations Organization.
 Common Wealth.
 African Union.

ii.International Non-Governmental organization.
 Created by individuals or private organization.
Examples
 Red Cross.
 Amnesty international.
 Transparency International.
The United Nation Organization (UNO).

Formation.
 Formed in 1945 after the end of Second World War to replace League of
Nation.
 UN charter was drawn up by the representatives of 50 countries at the United
Nations conference on International Organization held in San Francisco,
USA.The conference was held from 25th April to 26th June 1945.
 The charter unlike the covenant of the League of Nations was independent
from the post war peace treaties.
 The UN was formally born on 24th October 1945 when the charter was ratified
by the Allied powers leaders from the USA, Britain, France and China. They
include Franklin D.Roosevelt, Winston Churchill and Joseph Stalin.
 The headquarter of the UN is in New York USA.
Membership.
 Membership is open to all countries willing to abide by the obligations of the
charter.
 Admission of new members is done by the General Assembly with the
recommendation of the Security Council.
 At the formation they were only 50 members who signed the charter.
 Currently they are 193 members of the UN.
Aims of the UN/Reasons for the formation.
 To maintenance world peace and security.
 To promote friendly relations among member states
 To replace League of Nations which had collapse.
 To promote international understanding cooperation

 To prevent occurrences of another war.
 To promote cultural co-operation among the members state.
 To promote fundamental human rights and freedoms.
 To promote social progress and better living standards.
 To promote economic development among members states.
 To protect interests of marginalized groups such as women and children.
Examples of countries belong to United Nations
 Kenya
 Uganda
 Japan
 USA
 Britain
 Brazil
 Argentina
 Jamaica
 India
Principles of United Nations.
 Sovereign equality of all member states.
 Member states fulfillment of their charter obligation in good faith.
 Peaceful settlement of international disputes, without endangering peace,
security and justice.
 Refrain by member states from threats or use of force against others
 Member states assistances to the UNO in any actions it takes in accordance
with the charter.
 Ensures non-member states act in accordance with UN principles.
Organs of United Nations.
 The General Assembly.
 The Security Council.
 The International Court of Justice.
 The Economic and Social Council.
 The Trusteeship Council.
The General Assembly.

 Made up of representatives from all the member states.
 Meet once a year in what is called plenary session.
 Each member is entitled to one vote regardless of the size, population,
economic or military strength.
UN official language
 English
 Chinese
 French
 Russia
 Spanish
 Arabic.
Function.
 It maintains peace and security through disarmament and arms regulation.
 To admit new members, suspend or dismiss members from the UN with
recommendation of the Security Council.
 To make recommendation of peaceful settlement of any situation regardless of
its origin.
 Receive and considered reports from the Security Council and other organs of
the UNO.
 It elect the on-permanent members of the security council
 It elects judges of International Court of Justice jointly with Security Council.
 To promote higher standard of living e.g. employment
 To considered and approve UN budget.
 Investigates disputes that may disrupt world peace.
 Promotes peaceful resolution of disputes through mediation and arbitration.
 Recommends to members states procedures of solving disputes.
 It facilitates the realization of human rights and fundamental freedoms.
 It may initiate military action against aggressor.
The Security Council
 Its permanent decision making organ of the UN.
 It is made of 15 members.
 Five permanent members are permanent and have veto powers.
 10 non-permanent members are elected by the General Assembly to serve for a
period of 2 years.
 Five permanent include:
 United States of America.

 Russia
 The United Kingdom
 France
 China
 For a decisions to be undertaken here must be two thirds agreement and must
include all the permanent members who have a vote power.
 This means that if one permanent member votes “No” no decisions can be
reached.
Functions of the Security Council.
 Maintain international peace and order.
 To investigate any disputes threatening international peace.
 To recommend procedures for peaceful resolution of disputes.
 To regulate the production and use of dangerous arms such as nuclear bombs.
 It may also decide what military action may be taken against an aggressor.
 Admit, suspends and expel members from the united nation.
 To call upon states to settle dispute peacefully through negotiations and
mediation
The International Court of Justice
 Main judicial organ of the UNO.
 It is base at Hague, Netherlands.
 It has 15 judges who are elected by the General Assembly.
 Judges served for a period of 9 years and may be re-elected.
 The courts is open to parties signatories to it is statues.
 Disputes the court can resolve include:
 International boundaries.
 Fishing right.
 Nuclear test.
Functions of International Court of Justice.
 It settles disputes over international borders.
 Handle cases of human rights violation and crimes against humanity.
 It also deals with other disputes like treatment of diplomatic and consular staff,
fishing rights, nuclear tests, territorial waters delimitation and human right
violation.
Economic and Social Council
 It has 54 members who serve for three years, 18 elected by General Assembly
each year to replace another 18 whose term has expired.
Function of Economic and Social Council.
 To promote social and economic development.

 Making and submitting reports to the United Nation General Assembly for the
purpose of promoting human rights.
 Drawing of conventions for the General Assembly on matters within its
mandates.
 Organising international conferences on economic and social matters.
 Creating a link between the UN and the civil society by supporting activities of
the NGO‟S working with other UN agencies on international issues.
The Secretariat
 It has 16,000 staff headed by the Secretary-General.
 Secretary-General of the United Nation is elected by the General Assembly for
five year term of office.
 Secretary-General is generally chosen among the world‟s minor powers.
Functions of the Secretariat.
 Bring to the attention of the Security Council any problem that threatens peace
and security.
 Mediate on international disputes and monitor peace keeping missions.
 To monitor human rights issues and sustainable developments.
 To hold conferences on international issues.
 To implement the UN resolutions and policies.
 To register treaties.
 To promote world awareness of global trends and human rights.
 To conduct research or survey and economic trends and social problems.
 To interpret speeches or translate documents into UN official languages.
 To publish reports of United Nation.
The Trusteeship Council
 Formed to supervise UN mandates territories.
 Consist of five permanent members and six appointed by the General
Assembly.
Function.
 To work towards decolonisation
Countries that attained independence under Trusteeship Council
 Ghana.
 Somalia.
 Togo.
 Cameroon.
 Tanzania.
 Rwanda.
 Burundi.

 Western Samoa.
Specialized and affiliated agencies of the United Nation Organisation.
Examples of the UN Agencies.
 International Labour Organisation.
 Food and Agricultural Organisation.
 United Nation Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation.
 World Health Organisation.
 World Bank.
 International Monetary Fund.
The International Labour Organization (ILO).

 There is an annual conference with over 120 member countries are represented
with equal voting powers.
 Its headquarters of ILO is in Geneva, Switzerland.
Function.
 To promote workers welfare.
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).
 The headquarters of FAO is in Rome, Italy.
Functions
 To increases production of food by using improved seeds and fertilisers and
new types of plants.
 To improve marketing and distribution of all food and agricultural products.
 Promote rural development and improve living conditions of rural population.
 To helps to control pests such as locust and combat epidermis of animal
diseases such as rinderpest
 At the request of member governments, FAO sends agronomists and
technologists to give instructions on such matters as the control of soil erosion,
afforestation and irrigation.
United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).
 It was formed in 1946
 Its headquarters is Paris in France.
Functions.
 To fight illiteracy.
 It also publishes books and other research journals.
 It‟s also concerned with the preservation of historic monuments, Artificial and
valuable cultures.
 It promotes dissemination of information as social sciences, instruments of
peace and justice.

World Health Organisation.
 It was set up in 1948.
 Its headquarters is Geneva Switzerland.
Functions.
 Its main purpose is to combat diseases on a worldwide scale
The World Bank
 It‟s also known as International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.
 It was formed in 1945.
 Its headquarter is Washington DC.
 The bank is headed by a Board of Governors who comes from member states
who meet once in year to assess and guide the bank‟s activities.
 Those with the greatest influence are the U.S.A, Britain, France, Germany,
Japan and India.
Functions
 They give loans to nations for development or job balance of payments
support.
The International Monetary Fund (IMF)
 It works closely with the World Bank
Functions
 Its help to stabilize the different currencies of the world.
 It also promotes international trade.
 It also raises funds from subscriptions from member states.
United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund. (UNICEF).
 Its headquarter is in New York United States.
Function.
 It provides the basic needs for the children of the world e.g. medicine,
vaccination and milk for under nourished.
United Nations Environment Programmes (UNEP).
 Headquartered in Nairobi, Kenya
Functions.
 Overseas the implementation of programmes aimed at managing and
conserving the environment
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
 It‟s concerned with maintaining weather equipment for the North Atlantic
region to guide pilots through fog and darkness.
Other agencies are:
 Universal postal union (UPU)
 World meteorological organization (WMO)
 International telecommunication union (ITU)
 United Nation High commissioner for refugees (UNHCPR).
Financing of the UNO
 This is provided by member states
 The member states are assessed according to their ability and they pay a
percentage of the total budget according to that assessment. For example
 USA for contributes 25 percent of the total budget,
 Russia 10.54 percent.
 Japan 10.32 percent.
 Germany 8.54 percent.
 France 6.51 percent
 Britain 4.67 percent.
 Canada 3.08 percent.
 The poorest countries in the world like Afghanistan, Lesotho, Tanzania and
Zimbabwe contribute 0.01 percent of the total budget.
Performance of the UN
 It has promoted disarmament through its policies and signing of treaties e.g.
Antarctica treaty of 1959 which probihibited military activities in the
Antarctic.
 It has promoted human rights. In December 1948, UN General Assembly
adopted the universal declarations of human rights and freedoms of individual.
The document outlawed all forms of discrimination based on race, gender,
culture, economic status o religion.
 It has come up with convention that has promoted interest of person living with
disability. Convention prohibits discrimination of people on grounds of
disability.
 United nation has helped in decolonisation by prevailing colonial powers such
as Britain and France to grant independence to their territories all over the
world. It also recognised liberation movements and their struggle.
 Through United Nation Development Programmes (UNDP) it has offered
financial assistances to developing nations amounting millions.
 It has promoted humanitarian assistances by assisting the victims of the natural
disaster, epidemics and wars. United Nation agencies that provide
humanitarian assistances are the World Food Programme and the United
Nations High Commission for Refugees.
 United Nation through World Health Organisation has helped in the fight and
eradication of diseases among the people of the world e.g. malaria,
tuberculosis, small pox and HIV and AIDS.
 It has promoted the right of women by spearheading the change and raising
awareness of their rights.

 It has promoted democracy and good governance by assisting member
countries during transition of governments and elections. It also sends
observers to monitor the conduct of election so as to ensure they are credible,
free and fair.
 It has enhanced cooperation among members to address global issues such as
environmental degradation and energy crisis.
 It has assisted in fighting terrorism.
 It has successfully led the fight against production and use of land mines. Use
of landmines on battle in Angola and Mozambique killed and maimed many
innocent civilians especially women after the war.
 It has assisted in development of safety standards while travelling on sea and
air. This is through the International Telecommunication Union.
 It has promoted international cooperation between scientists, scholars among
others.
 The World Bank has played a crucial role in reconstruction of the economies
of many nation affected by the Second World War. It has helped some
countries to develop economically by providing development assistance and
other budgetary support for the economies.
 It has promoted agriculture which is economic mainstay of the global
population.
 It has promoted world peace and security through UN peace-keeping mission,
imposing sanction etc.
Challenges facing U.N.O
 Ideological disputes between communities and capitalist countries. For
example Communist China and Russia have always been suspicious of other
capitalist members and vice versa.
 Nationalism has affected the performance of United Nation. Members of UNO
are sovereign and serve their own interest at the expenses of international
concern.
 Lacks sufficient funds which to carry out it work efficiently, for example
sending enough peace-keeping forces to troubled areas and delivering relief
food.
 Border disputes among the member states like India and Pakistan have
undermined the work of United Nation.
 Mass production and sale of arms poses a threat to world peace.
 Lacks the machinery to enforce its decisions. United Nation does not have an
army on its own, it relies on troops availed by willing members states.
 The veto power of the permanent members of the UNO Security Council has
makes it difficult to pass resolution.
 Deep rooted regional conflicts is another problem facing UN.For examples
Arab - Israel conflicts, The Gulf crisis, Problems in Angola and Sudan, Ethnic
strife in Rwanda and Burundi among others. All this end up stretching the UN
beyond its capability and resources.
 United Nation members are also members of other regional or international
organization for example Arab league, The North Atlantic Treaty
Organization, Non – Aligned Movement, African Union etc.This has led to
divided loyalty.
 The decisions of UNO have often been ignored and member states have
frequently taken action without any reference the UNO. For example American
and British invasion of Iraq in 2003 without UNO approval.
 Natural calamities like droughts, epidemics and floods have led to
overstretching of resources hence delayed development.
 Terrorism has become a threat to international cooperation and peace.
THE COMMON WEALTH
 It is a voluntary association of independent states which were formerly part of
the British Empire.
Formation.
 Countries forming commonwealth are independent and equal partners
 Some of these countries are
 Canada
 Australia
 New Zealand
 Kenya
 India
 Lesotho
 Malawi.
 Its origin is traced to publication of the Durham report in 1839.
 In1931 statute of West Minister was enacted which helped to shape the
association.
 The Statute stated the following
 No act of the British parliament could be law of any dominion unless
the dominion parliament itself agreed to pass it.
 It also stated that any law relating to succession to the throne could
require the consent not only of the British government but for each
Dominion parliament.
 It defined the United Kingdom and the dominion of Canada, New
Zealand and Australia as autonomous communities within the British
Empire.

 Statues established equality of all independent states.
 Members were united by a common factor, their allegiance to the
crown.
Membership of the common wealth
 Modern commonwealth started in 1947 after India gained its independence.
 Each commonwealth state chooses on it free will to become a member of
commonwealth.
 When India and Pakistan achieved Independence they opted to become
members of the commonwealth.
 Membership increased as Africa states became independence beginning with
Ghana in 1957.
 Most African states joined the association in 1960‟s and 1970‟s.
 Modern commonwealth has also allowed membership from independent non –
British colonies. For example:
 Mozambique.
 Cameroon.
 Togo.
 Tanzania.
 There are 53 countries in commonwealth.
Common features of the members.
 They recognised queen of England as the head of the commonwealth.
 Have similar education system.
 They use English as the official language of communication.
 Members co-operate in the field of education.
 Members appreciate each other‟s cultural values.
 They all take part in the commonwealth games.
 Have adopted similar forms of government.
 Practise universal adult suffrage.
 Government within the commonwealth practice consultation and exchange of
information.
 They hold regular conferences of Head of States where they discuss matters of
common interests.
Principles and ideal of the Commonwealth
 To promote peace and security.
 To support human dignity and equality.
 To attempt to remove disparities in wealth among nations worldwide.
 They opposed all forms of colonialism and racial discrimination.
 They aimed at achieving free flow of international trade.

 They believed in international co-operation.
Structure of the Commonwealth
It is made up of three major organs. These are:
 Head of state summit.
 Ministerial meetings
 Commonwealth secretariat.
i.Head of State Summit.

 Made up of President or Prime Minister of member states.
 Meetings are held after every two years.
 Meeting may take place in any of the member states.
 Meeting is opened by the Queen or the King of England
Function.
 It is the chief policy organ of the commonwealth.
ii.Ministerial Meetings.
 Are held regularly.
 Involve the ministers of Finance, Foreign affairs, Defence, Health and
Education.
 Ministers discuss matters of common interest to their countries.
iii.Commonwealth Secretariat.
 It is based in London.
 It is headed by the Secretary General.
 Difference officials at the secretariat perform different duties. The overall is
the secretary general.
 He or she is assisted by two deputy general secretaries and two assistant
secretary generals.
Function.
 It is in charged with the day to day running of the organization.
 It organizes meetings for the head of states and prime ministers of the member
states.
 It circulating information and anything of general interests to member
countries.
 It co-ordinates business that is it makes careful study of commonwealth
organization that deals with matters of economic and financial.
 It encourages those projects that will be of some benefit to the commonwealth
members.
 It organises the Prime Ministers conferences which take place after every two
years as well as other conferences.
 It is also responsible for several programmes of co-operation.

Commonwealth agencies
 There are various Agencies that help in focusing particular work of the
commonwealth.
Example of the Commonwealth agencies.
 Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation.
 Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau.
 Commonwealth Parliamentary Association.
 Commonwealth Regional Health.
i.Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation.
Function.
 Is to assist in funding of projects, training programmes and supply of experts
to member countries.
ii.The commonwealth Agricultural Bureau
Function
 Is mainly concerned with assisting countries in agricultural production by
providing technical assistance and researching in the field of agriculture.
iii.Commonwealth Parliamentary Association
 Is a forum for the Member of Parliament from commonwealth countries where
parliamentarians meet to exchange ideas aimed at improving debates in their
respective countries.
iv.Commonwealth Regional Health
 Works in collaboration with WHO to improve the health and general hygiene
of the people of commonwealth member countries.
Consultation within the commonwealth
 Commonwealth states hold various conferences which are seen as important
forums for consultations. This include:
The president or prime ministers
 Hold their meetings every two years.
 In this meeting they discuss international economy and politics and
whatever decisions they make are made by consensus, not voting.
The ministerial meetings.
 Cover ministers of foreign affairs, defence, supply and finance ministers.
 They meet yearly.
Minister for Health and Education .
 Meet every after three years.
 Commonwealth states are represented by High commissioners in the capitals
of other member states. The main duty of this commissioner is to maintain
close co-operation between member states.
Functions of the commonwealth

 To provide financial assistance to member countries example the special
commonwealth African assistance plan which was established in 1960.
 To provide a forum for promoting peace among the member states.
 To promote education and research among member states.
 To provide technical assistance to member countries in the fields of
Agriculture, medical, industry, transport, communication and engineering.
 To grant member states favourable trading opportunities.
 To promote democratizations amongst member states by sending election
observes and monitors.
 To promote friendship and understanding among member states e.g. through
commonwealth games.
 To enhances the development of legal system among member states.
 To provides a forum for heads of states to consult on international issues.
 To serve as watchdog against the violation of human rights among members.
Achievements of the commonwealth
 It has maintained peace by sending peace keepers to war-torn member
countries e.g.Siera Leone.
 It has established a fund to assist the poor member states e.g. through the
special commonwealth African assistances.
 It has provided technical assistance to member states in various fields.
 It has promoted the development of education and research in member states
e.g. by offering scholarships and training facilities.
 It has promoted mutual understanding and co-operation among members states
e.g. common wealth sports.
 It has promoted consultation among member states in areas of common interest
e.g. through joint heads of state summit.
 It has promoted good governance among members.
 It has promoted the development of the youth for example through
commonwealth youth programme.
 It has promoted trade among member states through removal of trade barriers.
Challenges facing the common wealth
 Shortage of funds. Commonwealth relied on member‟s states are supposed to
contribute funds to run its activities. Due to their weak economies many states
have defaulted payment of the funds.
 Ideological differences between capitalist and communist countries have
resulted into misunderstanding between members states.
 Members of commonwealth members are also members of other regional
organization such as AU, COMESA etc hence has led to divided loyalty.

 Civil Wars: After attainment of independence, many African countries have
experiences civil wars. This has made them to attend to the more crucial
internal problems before engaging in any external affairs.
 Boarder disputes among the member states e.g. between India and Pakistan
 Absence of enforcement machinery. Commonwealth lacks a standing army to
enforce its decisions. It relies on member states good will
 Withdrawal of some countries from the organisations, for example Gambia and
Zimbabwe.
 Colonial rivalry was an immediate challenge when the body was formed.
Britain was still leading in colonial possession hence plan on peace initiatives
could not be achieved.
 Personality differences between the leaders e.g. Robert Mugabe and Tony
Blair undermine cooperation.
THE COLD WAR
 The term cold war refers the rivalry which emerged between communist
nations led by USSR and capitalist nations led by USA between 1945-1990.
 It was a war of propaganda and was characterized by economic hostilities
towards each other and military and financial to their allies.
 After Second World War USA and USSR emerged as world superpower.
 USSR spread communism in Eastern Europe. They occupied Romania,
Bulgaria, East Germany, Poland and Czechoslovakia.
 USA tries to stop spread of communism by pushing for a community of non-
communist states.
 Each side claimed superiority of its own political and economic system by
building more powerful military force.
Factors that led to development of cold war
i.Ideological differences.
 USA and her capitalist allies did not trust the Soviet Union even when both
were fighting against Germany. USSR was also cautious when dealing with
her Western allies.
 The main reason for this was ideological difference between the Capitalist
West and Communist Soviet bloc.
ii.The disagreements over disarmament between USSR and the USA
 After the war one thing was important how peace could be maintained. It was
the wish of the USA that manufacture of deadly weapons is checked. They
thus came up with the plan of international control of atomic energy which was
presented to the United Nation. This plan was accepted by the UN‟s atomic
Energy commission. The plan suggested international ownerships and
unlimited international inspection of Atomic energy materials and production.

 The USA agreed to destroy the stockpiles of atomic bombs after the plan was
affected.
 The Soviet Union viewed this issue as propaganda because she had not yet
manufactured any atomic bombs thus wanted the Atomic weapons destroyed
before the plan on inspection was effected.
 The two powers could not agree on the arms issues and as a result the United
States and the Soviet Union continued to increase their stock pile of Atomic
bombs.
iii.The Iron curtain policy adopted by the USSR
 The USSR already occupied part of Eastern Europe before the end of the
Second World War. Among the countries Russia occupied include: Romania,
Bulgarian, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, East Germany and Poland.
 Soviet power over these nations was so thorough that it prompted Winston
Churchill Prime Minister of Britain, to say that an iron curtain has been
dropped by Soviet Union to seal Eastern Europe from the West. This made
International relation very poor.
iv.European Conflicts.
 Conflicts in Europe in the late 1940‟s, such as the civil war in Greece,
increased the tension between the two superpowers.
v.The UN Domination by Western Power
 The UN was one of the battlegrounds of the cold war. Proposals at the UN
would never get anywhere because of the Russian Veto.
 When USA suggested that Veto powers be limited, USSR maintained that the
veto was only way of asserting herself in the UN which was mostly pro-USA.
 The situation increased the tension between the two powers even more.
vi.The Formation of military alliance.
 USA and her of Western Europe formed a military alliance called NATO in
1949.The organization committed the USA to the defence of Western Europe
in return those countries would support the U.S.A.
 USSR and her satellites states saw this as threat and as a result they formed a
similar alliance called the Warsaw pact.
 Formation of these military alliances intensifies rivalry in Europe.
vii.Construction of Berlin wall.
 The USSR constructed the Berlin wall in Germany in 1961.This was aimed at
blocking western influence. This further increase tension.
viii.The Marshall Plan of 1949
 Marshal plan initiated by America to revive European economies after the war
made the USSR to counteract by forming a similar one called Council for
Mutual Economic Assistance. This further intensifies Cold war.
ix.The Truman doctrine.
 Spreading of soviet influence prompted the US President Truman to introduce
the Truman doctrine in March 1947.This doctrine stated that the USA would
support free people who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed
minorities or by outside pressure.
 The declaration widely considered as the official eruption of the cold war.
 It led to American intervention in Greece, Turkey and other countries where
the Soviet Union was trying to spread communism.
The course of the war.
 The cold war was experienced from 1946 to 1991.
 The main combatants were the USA and the former USSR.
The main weapons used were.
 Propaganda
 Economic sanction.
 Military assistances
 Financial/technical aid.
Cold war in Europe.
 To stop further spread of communism, USA felt that improved economic
conditions were necessary. Europe needed financial and material aid for
reconstruction.
 To achieve this aim the USA in 1947 put forward the European recovery
programme (ERP) which later known as the Marshall plan. It was named after
it initiator, the American Secretary of State General George Marshall.
 The Soviet Union hated the Marshall plan and discouraged its satellites states
from benefiting from it. It closed all the land routes to Berlin, a city in East
Germany which had been partition between the allied countries and the Soviet
Union.
 The allies then airlifted material AID to West Berlin from 1948 to 1949.In
addition they blocked the passage of goods meant for East Berlin, in the soviet
Zone.
 After the Second World War German was divided into two states. The allied
power took control of the West which they named West Germany. The Soviet
Union controlled East Germany.
 In response to the Marshall Aid plan, Russia formed Council for Mutual
Economic Assistance (COMECON. Russia then poured it money in its
satellites to assist them in attaining the production targets set by the Soviet
government.
 The Allied powers formed military organization called North Atlantic Treaty
Organization ( NATO) in 1949 Soviet Union responded by forming the War
saw Pact in 1955.The pact brought all the soviet satellites into a military union.

 From 1950s, Europe remained a divided house and a major battle field of the
cold war.
 The dominance of the two major superpowers continued to be a towering
reality.
 They almost went to actual war in 1961 when the Soviet Union built a wall
which physically divided Berlin into soviet controlled east and allied
controlled West.
Cold war in Asia
 In Indo-China USA and USSR clashed over Vietnam which had been
colonized by the French but was taken over by the Japanese after the Second
World War.
 USA and USSR got involved in Vietnam each supporting different Nationalist
leaders.
 USSR supported Hochi Minh whereas USA supported Bao Dai.
 The intervention of foreign powers led to division Vietnam into two that is
North Vietnam and South Vietnam.
 Soviet Union supported the North Vietnam and the United States supported
South Vietnam.
 Division led to the Vietnamese war in which the two powers were involved.
 During the war the Viet Cong, the Communist guerrillas continued to operate
in South with the hope of establishing a communist government there.
 USA on the other hand wished to block the spread of communism to the south
and as such gave direct military aid in the form of troops, military aircrafts and
warships to the South.
 Even with these effects the Americans were defeated by the communist and
forced to withdraw.
 There was cold war in China, Russians helped Mao Tse-tung and his
Communist Party to gain power by ousting Kuomintang forces driving them to
Formosa Island now Taiwan in 1949.It was evident that there was a strong
Sino-Soviet (China-Russia) treaty of friendship in 1950.
 Korea provided another front for the cold war with Japan defeat in 1945, Korea
was occupied from the south by American forces and from the north by
Russians.
 In 1948 USA announced the formation of independent democratic republic of
Korea in south while Russians formed the people‟s republic of Korea in the
north.
Cold War in Cuba Central America
 In 1959, Fidel Castro took over power in Cuba with the support of the Soviet
Union.USA tried unsuccessfully to remove him.

 The Soviet Union gave Cuba weapons and hoped to use the Island nation as a
military launching base against USA in the event of war. This came to be
known as the Cuban missile crisis.
 The US was concerned and feel threaten because some of the weapons the
USSR gave Cuba included dangerous missiles which were within US range.
 In October, 1962, President John Kennedy declared that US would stop the
USSR military build up in Cuba by blocking all communist military ships
approaching Cuba.
 It asserted that the only condition for peace was the removal of the missile
from Cuba.
 Nikita Khrushchev, the then Soviet leader was compelled to accept Kennedy‟s
demands.
 With the removal of the Soviet missiles from Cuba, a dangerous crisis war
ended.
Cold War in Angola
 The Soviet Union and Cuba supported the Movement for Popular de Libertaca
de Angola (MPLA) of Agosthine Neto in the war of independence against the
Portuguese.
 A civil was begun and the USA who was against the spread of the soviet
influence joined the crisis.
 The secretary of state Henry Kissinger moved to counter the soviet/Cuban
influence by supporting Frente United National De Independencies total de
Angola (UNITA) of Jonas Savimbi.
 This came to be known as Angola crisis which saw Angola torn by civil war
right through into the 1990s.
The collapse of cold war.
 The cold war increased hostility between the two super powers over political
and economic dominance in the world.
 However, the superpowers made attempts to co-exist without taking
advantages of one another.
 They adopted the de‟tente policy‟ for example they made several attempts to
improve relation between them. This attempt led to several agreements on
disarmaments. For example
 The partial Test Ban treaty of 1963
 The non proliferation treaty of 1968.
 Strategic arm limitation talks (SALT )1972
Disintegration of USSR
 In April 1991 the Warsaw pact was cancelled. This was a step towards the end
of the cold war.

 After the Gulf war Soviet Union disintegration into many independence
republics.
 By the end of 1991 several states left the union and formed their own republic.
 Others led by colonialist Russia under President Boris Yelsin joined to form
the confederation of independence states (CIS).
 Others like Georgia plunged into civil war.
 Groups of people in other states called for secession.
 This was the final straw in the ending of the cold war.
Factors that led to collapse of cold war.
 The death of Josef Stalin and the flexibility of Stalin successor Nikita
Khrushchev.Kruschev were more willing to relax cold war abroad and
authoritarianism at home.Nikita Khrushchev sign Camp David treaty with
President Eisenhower of USA in 1959.Treaty promoted cooperation between
the two powers in arms reduction.
 The signing of the strategic arms limitation treaty (salt treaty) in 1972 and
1979.The treaty signed between USA and Russia limit strategic arms to certain
quantities. The production of nuclear weapons was also checked.
 The introduction of reforms in Russia by President Mikhail
Gorbachev.Gorbachev introduced reforms that greatly weakened communism
in former USSR.Gorbachev introduced crucial policies for instances glasnost
meaning openness and peretoika referring to economic restructuring. This was
aimed at fixing soviet economy which was in bad shape. His policies won him
Nobel Peace Prize of 1990.
 The collapse of the communist rule in Europe. Russian recognized the
independence of other republics of USSR thus weakening Russia position.
Western democracy was introduced in Romania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia and
Poland.
 Reagan policy.US president Ronald Reagan played a leading role in diffusing
tension during the cold war. He longed for peace and asked Russian leaders to
consider the easing the tension between their states.
 The successful re-unification of Germany under Helmut kohl in 1990 after the
collapse of Berlin wall. The nations united to form the Federal republic of
Germany.
 Russian support for the Gulf war. In 1991 Iraq forces invaded Kuwait.Saddam
Hussein the President of Iraq declared Kuwait to be Iraq 19th provinces. This
led to the gulf war in which America led allied forces to liberate kuwait.The
USSR supported the USA leading to the collapse of the cold war.
 The dissolution of the Warsaw pact. With the fall of communism in Eastern
Europe, the Warsaw pact started to fall apart.

Impacts of the cold war
 It led to space race. After the first and second world war, the two super powers
competed in development of space craft (Rockets) which could be used to
explore outer space.
 It led to insecurity. The war caused insecurity as each power tried to spread its
own ideology either by force like in the case of Hungary or through peace like
the case of Cuba.
 It led to actual wars in some countries e.g. civil wars in Korea and Vietnam.
 It led to formation of economic alliances and military alliances like NATO in
1949 and Warsaw pact in 1955.COMECON in 1949 and European Economic
Union in 1957.
 It led to division of some countries into two due to influence by the
superpowers e.g. Korea and Vietnam.
 The mistrust, accusations and counter accusations of the two super powers
resulted in international insecurity and disruption of World peace leading to the
arms race.
 Europe was divided into two with an iron curtain, that is, the Berlin wall
restricting movement of people from East to West Germany and vice versa.
 It led to formation of non-aligned movement.
 It led to spread of capitalist and communist ideologists.
 It intensified the arms race and stockpiling of weapons.
The Non-Aligned Movement (Nam)
 It is a movement formed by the developing and independent states of Asia,
Africa and the Middle East to protect their sovereignty from interference from
the two super powers i.e. USA and USSR.
 The movement was to promote neutralism and neutrality in world affairs.
 Neutralism is the policy of not actively co-operating with any power bloc.
Formation of NAM
 After World War II former Europeans colonies in Africa and Asia began to
attain independence.
 Many Nations feared that the super powers were threatening their sovereignty.
 They found it necessary to form an association which would unite them against
nomination of either US or the Soviet Union.
 This resulted in the formation of NAM in 1947.
 The movement grew steadily from 1947 when it had a few founding members
among them India and Yugoslavia.
 The leaders of these two countries Jawa Harlar Nehm and Marshal Tito played
a key role in shaping NAM.

 The bandung conference was held in Indonesia in 1955. It was the first NAM
meeting and had 29 participants from Africa, Asia and the Middle East.
 These included heads of five states from China, India, Egypt, Indonesia and
Yugoslavia.
 The main issue during this conference was how they were going to tackle
international issues such as Cold war which were threatening the new
independence states.
Founders of non-alignment movement.
 Jawaharlal Nehru-India
 Sukarno-Indonesia.
 Marshal Tito-Yugoslavia.
 Gamal Nasser-Egypt.
 Chon-en lai-China
The Objective of Nam
 Member states must pursue independence policy based on peaceful co-
existence without taking advantage of one another.
 Not to participate in military alliance e.g. NATO or WARSAW of which were
prompted by the superpowers.
 The safeguard the sovereignty of member states and support liberation and
independence movement.
 Not to participate in bilateral military alliances with great powers or have
foreign military bases on their territories.
 To discourage Neo-colonialism by promoting economic independence of the
members countries.
 To try and get better terms of trade particularly for the countries whose
economies depend on exploitation of raw materials.
 To fight all forms of discrimination, for example racism.
 To encourage the member to actively participate in UNO programmes.
 To strive to improve agriculture and increase food production by making funds
available towards this goal.
Countries that are admitted to the Non-Aligned Movement as observers.
 Brazil
 China.
 Costa Rica.
 Croatia.
 Dominica republic.
 El-salvador.
 Kazakhstan.

 Kyrgyzstan.
 Mexico.
 Paraguay.
 Uruguay.
 Ukraine.
Examples of countries of Non-Aligned Movement.
 Afghanistan.
 Algeria.
 Bahamas.
 Angola.
 Guinea.
 Palestine.
 Tanzania.
 Tunisia.
The structure of NAM.
NAM has the following structures.
The Summit.
 Held their meeting once every three years.
 Hosting countries head of state assumed the chair till the next meeting in
another member country.
Ministerial Meeting.
 Made up of ministers from member states.
 Meet once every 18 months.
Function.
 Reviewed developments and implementation of decision following the
previous summit.
 Discussed matters of formal interest.
UN Ambassadors’ Forum.
 The ambassadors of the countries in the movement used their frequent UN
meetings to organise their events.
The Co-ordinaing Bureau.
 This was the focal point in management of the movement.
 It harmonised all the working groups of the non-aligned movement.
Non-aligned Security Council.
 Made up of NAM members elected to Security Council.
 Work to achieve NAM objectives within the UN.
 Joint co-ordinating committee.
 Formed in 1964 with the purpose of promoting co-ordinated approach to NAM
activities.

Other organs are:
 Working groups, task forces and committee
 The Troika
 Panel of Economists.
 Documentation and decision making.
Performance of NAM.
 NAM succeeded in making many achievements.However; it also faced a
number of challenges.
Achievements of non-aligned movement.
 It provides forum to members with a forum that discussed issues related to
arms race.
 It addressed issues related to unfair practices among world‟s countries that
disadvantaged third world countries.
 The movement provide forum to members to discuss global problems such as
health, education, pollution and terrorism. This has helped to find solutions to
global problems.
 It has helped in decolonization of some states.
 The movement prevented the outbreak of war between the super powers.
Hence promoted peace and security in the world.
 It has provided forum to members to speak in one voice.
 The NAM set up a solidarity fund in 1986 during the Harare summit. The fund
gave assistance to frontline countries in the struggle against apartheid rule.
 The movement encouraged member countries to articulate their national
interest before those of super powers.
Challenges of the NAM.
 Border dispute has prevented unity among the member states e.g. India and
Pakistan, Somali and Kenya.
 Political instability. Most or some members of NAM are affected by civil wars
and hence hinder efficiency of NAM.
 Poverty among the member countries has hinders complete neutrality.
 Inadequate funds. The non-align movement lacked adequate funds to effect its
policies.
 Poor coordination of NAM activities. Lack of a secretariat makes the co-
ordination of its activities difficult.
 Personality differences among the leaders affected its performances.
 Lack of commitment. Some member countries are members of other
organizations such as African Union, commonwealth and French communities.
This created divided loyalty.

 Collapse of USSR has destabilized the movement.
 Conflicting interest. In many cases individual national interests failed to agree
with the objectives of the Non-Aligned Movement.
Revision.
1.What is international relations?
 International relations refer to the cooperation or interactions between
individuals or groups of nation of the world.
2. Identify the different levels of international relations
 Political cultural relations.
 Economic relations.
 Diplomatic relations
3. List the benefits of international relations
 They promote economic growth through trade enabling states to acquire goods
they don‟t have.
 Enhance industrial development through financial and technical assistance.
 Promotion of peace and security through diplomatic relations.
 Promotion of cultural exchange enhancing international understanding.
 Enhances collective solving of problems e.g. terrorism.
4. State two types of international relations
 International Government Organization.
 International non-governmental Organization.
5. State examples of International Government Organization.
 United Nations Organisations.
 Commonwealth.
6. State examples of International Non-Government Organization.
 Red Cross.
 Amnesty International.
7. When was the UN formed?
 In 1945
8. Name the official languages of UN
 English
 Russian
 Chinese
 Spanish
 French
 Arabic

9. State the main reasons for the formation of UN
 Maintenance of international peace and justice
 Develop friendly relations among nations
 Promote human social progress and better living standards
 Promotes human rights and freedoms
 Prevents occurrence of another war
 Replace the collapsed League of Nations.
10. Name the organs of the united nation organisation.
 The Security Council.
 The International Court of Justice.
 The Economic and Social Council.
 The Trusteeship Council.
11. State the functions of general assembly.
 Discuss and sort out international problems.
 Approve UN budget.
 Elect members of the Security Council.
12. State the 5 Security Council permanent members of UN
 USA
 China
 Russia.
 Britain
 France
13. State the functions of the secretariat.
 Draws the agenda of the UNO.
 Register treaties.
 In charge of day-to-day administration.
14.List two functions of the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
 Conducts study and reports and recommends to the General assembly
concerning health food etc
 Convenes international economic and social conferences
15.State 3 commissions set up by ECOSOC
 The population commission
 The statistical commission
 The commission for social development

16. Where and how many times do delegates of ECOSOC commission meet?
 They met in Geneva twice per year
17.Name the organ of the League of Nations from which the trusteeship council
took over.
 League of Nations mandate commission
18.State the work of the Trusteeship council
 To administer the mandated territories.
19.Name the territories under trusteeship council
 Territories voluntarily placed under the council by other powers
 Territories under the former league of Nations
 Territories taken by Allied powers from Axis powers in world war II
20.What is the main administrative organ of the UN
21.Who appoints the UN secretary general?
22.State 3 main functions of the secretary general of the UN
 Informs the security council about threats to international peace and security
 Administers peace keeping operation and mediates international disputes
 Organizing international conference on matters concerning the world
23.Name four countries that were under the UN trusteeship council
 Ghana 1957 -
 Tanzania 1961
 Somalia 1960 -
 Togo 1960
25.State 5 functions of UN security council
 Investigates disputes or situations that threaten peace causing international
frictions
 Recommends members to use peaceful method to settle disputes like
negotiation

 Admits, suspend or expel members from the UN in conjunction with general
assembly
 Calls for member states to volunteer forces in maintenance of world peace and
security
 Regulates production and use of lethal weapons.
26.State three agencies of the UN.

 International Labour Organisation.
 Food and Agricultural Organisation.
 United Nation Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation.
 World Health Organisation.
 World Bank.
 International Monetary Fund.
27. Name two organs of the UN that provide humanitarian assistances.
 World Food Program.
 United Nations High Commission for Refugees.
28.Identify the disease that has been eradicated by UN agencies
 Small pox
29.Identify two ways through which UN has helped developing nations
 IMF has given shorter loan to help stabilize the different currencies
 IMF has helped member state having foreign currency exchange problems by
selling to them suitable amount of foreign exchange inform of US dollars
30.State the achievements of United Nation Organization.
 It has promoted world peace and security through UN peace keeping mission,
imposing sanctions.
 It has helped in disarmament through its policies and signing of treaties.
 It has promoted human rights.
 It has provided humanitarian assistances by protecting refugees.
 It has enhanced cooperation among members to address global issues such as
environmental degradation.
 It has assisted in fighting terrorism.
31. State the challenges facing UN
 Ideological differences in which during the cold war issues were perceived
along capitation and communion
 Inadequate funds to co-ordinate her various programmes
 Lack of standing military force needed during peace keeping thus prone to
volunteer ship
 Inability to implement some of its policies because of the issue of veto power
 Members have loyalty to other continental or regional co-operation. Thus
divided attention
 Most of the time national matters override international issues
 Many natural disasters e.g. floods, famine that strain UN budget preventing
delaying development projects
 Threats of terrorism to international peace and security
 Different levels of development inhibit co-operation between member states
since the rich feel that they have nothing to gain
32. Who is the Head of Common Wealth?
 The queen of England
33. Why did South Africa withdraw from Common Wealth Association in 1961
 When some members rejected her apartheid policy.
34. Give the guiding aim and principles of the common wealth.
 Promote peace and security.
 Ensure equal liberty and equality of rights to all citizens.
 To right poverty ignorance and diseases.
 Promote exchange of knowledge, professionalism and cultural economic and
legal issues.
 To enhance international trade by removing restrictive barriers etc.
35.State the three organs of common wealth.
 Head of State Summits
 Ministerial Meetings
 The Secretariat
36.Name one African country that is a member of common wealth and was not a
British colony
 Tanzania.
 Mozambique.
 Cameroon.
 Togo.
37.Who was the founding leader of None aligned movement?
 Jew Harlal Ne hru of India
38.Give the reasons for the formation of NAM
 Formed by member states who did not want to be sucked into the power bloc
rivalry between capitalist and communists

 Member states wanted to liberate themselves eradicating poverty and
promoting development
39.Explain the policy of Non alignment.
 The policy non alignment stands for neutrality or independence of policy and
action in international affair.
40.What were the aims of NAM
 Safeguard sovereignty of member states.
 Fight for decolonization of third world countries.
 Work for disarmaments of world powers.
 Discourage military alliances advocated by superpowers.
 Fight racism in the world.
41.State the achievements of non-aligned movement.
 It provides forum to members with a forum that discussed issues related to
arms race.
 It addressed issues related to unfair practices among world‟s countries that
disadvantaged third world countries.
 The movement provide forum to members to discuss global problems such as
health, education, pollution and terrorism. This has helped to find solutions to
global problems.
 It has helped in decolonization of some states.
 The movement prevented the outbreak of war between the super powers.
Hence promoted peace and security in the world.
 It has provided forum to members to speak in one voice.
42.State the challenges by the NAM.
 Border dispute has prevented unity among the member states e.g. India and
Pakistan, Somali and Kenya.
 Political instability. Most or some members of NAM are affected by civil wars
and hence hinder efficiency of NAM.
 Poverty among the member countries has hinders complete neutrality.
 Inadequate funds. The non-align movement lacked adequate funds to effect its
policies.
 Poor coordination of NAM activities. Lack of a secretariat makes the co-
ordination of its activities difficult.
 Personality differences among the leaders affected its performances.
43.Define the term cold war
 Refers to hostility or struggle between the communist nations led by USSR and
capitalist nations led by USA between 1945-1990.
44.What were the causes of cold war?

 Ideological differences where the two super powers USA and USSR wanted to
spread their ideologies of capitalism and communism
 Disagreements over disarmament between USSR and USA.
 Iron curtain policy adopted by the USSR.
 Europeans conflicts in the late 1940‟s
 Construction of Berlin wall.
 Economic rivalry
 Formation of military alliances and military support to opponent enemies
 Use of Russian veto powers in the UN.
 Truman doctrine.
45.Name two ideologies which were spread during the cold war.
 Communism.
 Capitalism.
46.Name the economic plan formed by the USA to assist her allies.
 Marshall Plan.
47.Name the economic assistances formed by USSR to assist its allies.
 Council for Mutual Economic Assistances.
48.Why did COMECON not succeed as well as the Marshall Plan?
 The Russian economy was weak
49. Name the military alliances formed by USA and its allies.
 North Atlantic treaty Organization. (NATO)
50.Name the military alliances formed by USSR and its allies.
 Warsaw Pact.
51.What was the aim of formation of NATO?
 To form a defensive organization against any form of organizations and also to
unite European nations
52.What was the importance of war saw pact?
 To attack any state that would militarily attack any of NATO‟s state
53.List the countries that form NATO?
 Britain
 France
 Belgium
 Netherlands
 Luxembourg
54.Name the events that marked cold war
 Mutual suspicion between powers
 Economic alliances

 Military conflicts witnessed between communists and non communis ts.
55.Name the country in Europe which was mostly affected by cold war.
 Germany which was divided into two i.e East Germany and West Germany.
56.Name the countries in Asia where cold war took place.
 China.
 Vietnam.
 Korea.
 Afghanistan.
57.Name the individuals supported by Russia to become to power in China.
 Maotse-Tung of Communist Party.
58.Name the various side supported by USA and Russia in Vietnam.
 USSR supported Hochi Minh
 USA supported Ngo Dinh Diem.
59.Give the evidences of cold war in Asia.

 China becoming a communist state.
 Division of Korea republic into two i.e. North Korea and South Korea.
 Division of Vietnam into two i.e. North control by Soviet Union and South
control by the USA.
60.Give the main reason which led to easing of cold war in Asia.
 USSR began a phased withdrawal of its troops between 1987 and 1989.
61.Which side USA supported in Latin America during the cold war.
 USA-General Fulgencio Batista.
 USSR-Fidel Castro.
62.Name the countries where cold war took place in Africa.
 Angola.
 Ethiopia.
 Democratic republic of Congo.
63.Which side USA and Soviet Union supported in Angola.
 USA supported rebels led by Jonas Savimbi and his UNITA movement.
 Russia supported MPLA government based at Angola.
64.Which side USA in democratic republic of Congo.
 NATO and USA supported President Mobutu Seseseko.
65.State the effects of Cold war
 Led to the spread of capitalist and community ideologies
 It caused was e.g. Korean, Vietnam war
 There was formation of economic and military alliances e.g. NATO
 Cold war resulted to development in science and technology

 Suspicion, mistrust and hostility developed among nations
 Cold war undermined international peace and security
PAST KCSE QUESTIONS
1. 1990: What two problems has the UN faced in its effort to achieve world
peace
2. State 5 objectives of Non aligned movement
 Safeguard sovereignty of member states
 Fight for decolonization of 3rd world countries
 Warm for disarmament of world powers
 Fight racism in the world
 Establish new economic world order to ensure favourable trading terms
3. Explain the factors that undermine activities of the Non aligned movement
 Some NAM members have been affected by political instability
 Most developed nations have weak economies
 Membership of members to other organizations has led to divided attention and
loyalty
 Personal differences between leaders of members states have undermined the
movement
 Some member‟s personal / national interests have also been in conflict with the
objective of the movement.
4. 1993: Apart from China name the three permanent member states of the
UN security council
 Britain
 America
 Russia
5. 1994: Name three member states of the common wealth in West Africa
 Ghana
 Nigeria
 Gambia
 Cameroon
 Sierra Leone
6. 1994: Explain 6 ways the commonwealth member countries have benefited
from the organization
 It has promoted partnership and co-operation among member state on social
economic and political issues affecting them
 Provides financial assistance to members from less developed countries
 Promoted understanding and tolerance among members through free exchange
of ideas
 Supports youth programmes geared towards national development e.g. youth
projects
 Supports education and training e.g. through commonwealth scholarship
 Provides machinery for maintenance of peace
7. 2003: Name two agencies of UN that deals with the problem of health
 World Health Organization (WHO)
 United Nations International Children‟s Emergency Fund (UNICEF)
8. 1996: Name one leader who was a founder member of the NAM
 Jewa harlal Neharu of India
9. 2004: Give one factor that led to the end of the cold war
 Mutual suspicion between powers
10.State two reasons for the establishment of the UNB
 To maintain world peace and security thus preventing another world war
 To develop friendly and cordial relations among nations
11.2005: What are the functions of Security Council of the United Nations?
12.2007: State two duties of the UN secretariant
13.2008: Give two achievements of the commonwealth
 It has promoted development of legal systems of members countries
 It has promoted democracy and good governance through parliamentary
meetings as well as sending election observers

CO-OPERATION IN AFRICA
 It refers to the way African countries relate to each other
 This relation is manifested in the existence of organizations such as OAU and
other regional organizations.
 The earliest organization which was aimed at African Unity was referred to as
Pan-Africanism.
Pan-Africanism
Formation:
 Pan-Africanism was a movement aimed at uniting all people of African
descent all over the world to fight injustices which the African people had
suffered at the hands of the white people.
 Pan-Africanism was coined by Sylvester Williams, an African lawyer from
Trinidad.
Origin.
 The term Pan-Africanism is derived from two words Pan which mean act
Africanism referring to African Origin.
 Pan-Africanism is defined as a belief in the uniqueness and spiritual unity of
black people.
 Origin of Pan-Africanism is not traced in Africa. It has its origin in New World
in the 19th Century.
 Atlantic slave trade led to dispersal of black people over American and the
Caribbean.
 Slave suffered untold suffering and misery. This made them to be conscious of
their colour and origin in Africa.
 Mistreatment, discrimination and humiliation the black people underwent
convinced them that they could find true friendship, understanding and
brotherhood and home only in Africa.
 However Africa had been colonized by European powers at the start of the
century. Therefore black people in America and West Indies joined with the
Africans Pan-Africanist movement as a vehicle to fight for their social,
political and economic right.
Factors that led to formation of Pan-Africanism.
 Slave trade and slavery which made the Africans to suffer seriously.

 Colonialism in Africa where Africans were subjected to many ills e.g. forced
labour, forced taxation, poor wages etc.
 Racism in the New World also promoted Pan-Africanism.
 Realization by Africans that they had close cultural factors, for example,
common ancestry.
 European imperialism in the late 19th Century.
 Reaction by educated Blacks in the Americas against racist claims by
Europeans that Africans were destined to slavery
Aims of Pan-Africanism.
 To unite peoples of African origin to free themselves from social
discrimination & colonial rule.
 To challenge ideological supremacy of the Whites.
 To improve African conditions in the Diaspora and Africa.
 To restore dignity of black people
 To create a forum to channel African grievances.
 To fight neo-colonialism in Africa.
 To secure independence for all African states.
Development of Pan-Africansm.
 Many Negroes passively accepted their position as the bottom dogs and as a
race created to serve others in a world dominated by the whites.
 They were made homeless by slave trade and slavery.
 They were viewed as inferior people because of their colour.
 In 19th century there were many developments mainly economic development
which led to introduction of machines.
 These machines changed the mode of production whereby human labour from
slaves was replaced by machines rendered slaves to be redundant and thus a
burden to their owners who freed them.
 British began anti-slave trade and anti-slavery campaigns in 1807 and 1833.
 There was also American civil war which was caused by the issue of slave
trade and slavery. These changes finally brought about the freedoms of slaves.
 Negroes started receiving western education. Education grew a new spirit
among the blackmen in the new world.
 They travelled widely and wrote about their plight in their own newspapers.
Such people who received western education were:
 Booker T. Washington
 Dr. W.E.B Dubois
 Marcus Garvery
 George Padmore.

The earliest pan- Africanists from Africa included :
 J.E.K. Aggrey from gold coast (Ghana)
 wilmost blyden from Liberia.
Booker T. Washington- 1856-1915-Southern USA
 He was born in 1856 in the southern part of the USA in a poor family of
slaves.
 In spite poverty he managed to raise school fees and proceeded to Hampton
institute where he graduated with a degree in agriculture.
Contribution to Pan-Africanism.
 He encourage Africans-Americans to work hard to achieve progress
 He started the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, where he trained blacks in
industrial and agricultural skills.
 Founded the National Negro Business League (NNBL) which taught virtues of
business development to the blacks in United States of America.
 He supported African education.
D.R W.E.B DU BOIS
 He was born in USA in 1868. he went to Fisk university before proceeding to
Harvard university where he become first African to graduate with doctor of
philosophy.
 He becomes a professor of history, economics and sociology.
 He was a scholar who authored several works in politics and novels and edited
the association‟s journal.
 This association championed the struggle for Negroes civil rights in America.
His contribution.
 In 1905, he established Niagara Movement to protect against racial
discrimination
 He advocated for higher education for capable blacks, whom he called
“talented tenth”
 In 1900, he jointly with others formed National Association for the
Advancement of coloured peoples (NAACP).
 He organized Pan-African congresses.
 In 1961, he went to Ghana
Marcus Garvey -1887-1940 –Jamaica (West Indies)
 He was born in Jamaica in 1887 to a family of freed slaves.
 He migrated and settled in America in 1916 where he developed his
philosophy of pan-africanism.
 He wanted Africans to take pride in the blackness and their cultural heritage.
Contribution to pan-africanism.

 He founded Negro empire to campaign for pan-africanism.
 He organized black convention in New York to discuss how to improve
the economic and political status.
 He founded the universal Negro improvement association.
 He founded a magazine called Negro world to explain his ideas.
 He founded African Orthodox Church and argued that African must
practice one faith for unity.
 He was an advocate of the return to Africa crusade and even sent two
missions to Liberia in 1920 and 1924.
 He advocates for Africans economic empowerment so as to be free from
the white domination. He mobilized africans-americans to raise funds for
the establishment of business.
 Marcus was arrested and repatriated to Jamaica where died in 1940.
 He had experienced suffering as a young boy because he was black, which
made him be despised as a domestic servant and plantation labour.
George Padmore. (1902-1959)
 Was born in Trinidad in 1902
Contributions.
 He played role in the anti-colonial and international movement for change in
1930‟s and 1940‟s
 He was instrumental in the organization of the 5th Pan-African Manchester
congress in 1945.
 He served as an advisor to Kwame Nkrumah before and after the independence
of Ghana.
 Padmore vision was a world without racial discrimination and domination by
some countries.
The Pan-African congresses
First pan Africanist congress, in London, 1900.
 Was held in London in 1900
 It was sponsored by a Trinidad lawyer called Henry Sylvester Williams.
 Was at the conference that Dr. E. B Dubois was first introduced to Pan-
Africanism and made his famous statement “The problem of the 20th Century
is the problem colourline”
Objectives of the First Pan African Congress`
 To bring people of African origin in all parts of the world together and
thereby serve as a forum through which they could protest against
European aggression against blacks.
 To appeal to an end to European colonization and exploitation of Africa.

 To initiate a movement for securing all Africans in and outside Africa,
their full rights and to promote their economic rights.
 To appeal to missionaries and philanthropists in Britain to protect African
against aggression by the colonizers.
 To address the living standards and conditions of Africans (blacks) in
different parts of the world and more so black in South Africa and
condemn their inhuman treatment.
 This congress, the quotation of South Africa and Rhodesia was discussed and
congress condemned mistreatment of blacks in this countries.
 It also set up upon Pan-African association and journal.
 Significant achievement of this conference was that it laid down the foundation
for future solidarity meetings and sowed the seed of togetherness of the black
people.
Second Pan-Africans Congress (Paris, 1919)
 It was convened under the leadership of Dr. W.E.B de Bois.
 It was held when the peace conference ending the World War I was taking race
in Paris in 1919.
 Dubois aim at presenting the grievances of people of African origin before the
delegates to the peace conference.
This congress made some recommendations
 The need for international laws to protect the black people.
 African land to be held in trust.
 The prevention of exploitation by foreign campanies.
 The right of Africans to be educated.
 Africans to participate in their government as fast as their development
permitted.
Third Pan Africans Congress (London, Paris And Brussel, 1921)
 This congress was held in three sessions, London, Brussels and Paris.
 London session was attended by 41 Africans, 35 Americans coloureds, West
Indians and 24 Africans who were living in Europe at that time.
 It was also under the patronage of Dubois.
 Main demand was establishment of political organizations among
suppressed black peoples.
 The congress emphasized international and interracial harmony and
democracy.
Fourth Pan – African Congress (New York 1927)
 Du Bois was the main figure in the congress
 Main issue discussed was:

 The attitude of the communist towards Pan-African.Communist tried
to discredit Du Bois and Marcus Garvey after they failed to central
both men.
 After the congress, Pan-Africanism ceased for almost twenty years when a new
star on Pan Africanism came into the scene name was John Padmore.
 However, up to 1945, the movement was not active on the African continent.
The fifth Pan-African Congress, Manchester, 1945
 In 1944, 13 organisations representing students‟ welfare and political grouping
formed the Pan-African federation among them, George padmore, C.L.R.
Wallace Johnson and Jomo Kenyatta.
 The participants included:
 Du Bois
 Jomo Kenyatta (Kenya)
 Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana)
 George padmore(Trinidad)
 Peter Abrahams(south Africa)
 Otto Mackonnel from West Africa
 Magnus Williams(Nigeria)
Conferences were different from other Pan-Africans meeting because.
 It addressed itself to the problems facing Africa.
 It was dominated by Africans.
 The trade unions from Sierra Leone, Nigeria, gold coast, Gambia, West Indies
were represented making it a mass movement.
 It was more vocal and radical. It expressed the hope that before long the
peoples of Asia and Africa would have broken their chains of colonialism.
Resolution of the fifth Pan-African congress.
 Africans should concentrate on winning political power through non-violent
means.
 African intellectuals should organize the Africans to fight for political
liberation.
 It pleaded for African Unity.
 They demanded political independences for African countries.
 Delegates condemned the artificial boundaries imposed by colonial
governments in Africa as they divided the African people.
Reasons Why the Movement had Not Established Itself in the African Continent
Before 1945
 There were very few African representatives and the few who existed were
their students abroad or in exile.

 Colonial harassment as they were opposed to colonialism crippled the effort by
the Pan-Africanism
 Use of divide and rule policy by the colonial governments
 Lack of suitable venue to be held conferences on African soft until when
Ghana gained independence and provided one.
 Lack of means of communication to pass ideas / Machinery.
 There was little attention given to the movement by two independent African
countries namely Ethiopia and Liberia. The two were pre-occupied with their
own internal problems.
Example
 Ethiopia was trying to consolidate the Nation after the death of Menelik
II.
 Liberia was still under considerable influence from U.S.A.
 Policy of assimilation blinded the Africans as they thought they were
privileged.
 Africa had more internal pressing problems to which they paid more attention.
Pan-Africanism after 1945
Pan-Africanism activities increased in Africa after 1945. The activities increased
because of:
 Change of international opinion about colonialism of the World War
II.
 The inspiration of colonized African counties by India independence
in1947, Burma 1948 and Ghana 1957.
 The support from trade unions and Nationalistic movements formed in
Africa
 Encouragement from UNO which supported the ideas of equality of all
human races regardless of race.
 Attainment of Ghana‟s independence which provided a base for
holding conferences on African soil. Consequently in1958, a
conference was held in Accra Ghana.
 In 1960, a second conference was held in Addis Ababa Ethiopia here
differences emerged among African leaders.
 Some former French colonies formed the Brazzaville group and were
less critical of their colonial masters. They wanted continued political
links with them.
 Anglo-phone countries formed the Casablanca group which adopted a
militant attitude towards all the Western powers.
 By 1963, these differences had reduced

 Another conference was held in Addis Ababa in 1963. It was attended by 32
African states.
 At this conference OAU was born. It was to reflect the ideals and aspiration of
Pan-Africanism.
Performance of Pan Africanism

 The movement enlightened black people all over the World and created
awareness in them about their suffering. This later turned into active
nationalism and struggle for independence in colonised Africa.
 It was provided a forum for black people to voice their grievances and discuss
internal and external problems.
 It natured the spirit of solidarity among black people.
 It encourage co-operation among African leaders and states towards
organization.
 It laid down the foundation for the interest in research on African culture,
story, music, religion, medicine etc.
 Pan-Africanism was seen in action during the Ethiopian crisis in 1935.Benito
Mussolini invaded Ethiopia and this sparked protest among blacks all over
world against Italy. However, Italy lost the war.
 It led to the establishment of OAU.
 It restored African dignity by demanding respect for African values.
 The movement put pressure on the international community to act against the
apartheid regime in South Africa.
Challenges faced by Pan-African movement.
 Movement lacked adequate funds to run its operations.
 Movement failed to fully resolve the differences that arose among the
independence African countries that emerged between the French speaking
countries and the Anglophones.
 It did not have a base in Africa since most African countries were still under
colonial rule.
 They were sharp differences between extremist and moderate e.g Dubois and
Booker T. Washington.
 Economic empowerment of African states was not achieved as most of them
remained dependent on their colonial masters for economic support.
 Harassment of Pan-African leaders like arrest and deportation of Marcus
Garvey.

 Difficulty of Africans on the continent to attend Pan-African meetings abroad
as they were denied travel permits by the colonial governments.
 Widespread illiteracy and ignorance among people hindered them from
offering constructive support to the Pan-African leaders.
 Restriction of the movement to the African continent after independence
deprived it of support of African Americans.
 Spread of negative propaganda against the movement by the European powers
through the international media, which they controlled.
 Discrediting of the work of Pan-africanism by communist countries, who were
expected to support the movement.
 Suspicion and mistrust among the members about their real intentions.
THE ORGANISATION OF AFRICAN UNITY(OAU)

Formation
 Organization owes its origin to Pan-Africanism movement and was born in
May 1963, 30 out of 32 independent African states met in Addis Ababa
Ethiopia.
 Two independent African states which were not present were Morroco and
Togo,
 It was during this meeting that the leaders agreed to form a continental
organization.
 Among the leading statesmen present were:
 Julius Nyerere (Tanzania)
 Kwameh Nkrumah (Ghana)
 Haile selassie (Ethiopia)
 Ghana and Uganda supported a union government African whereas the other
African states were prepared to accept association of states.
 African leaders drew up a charter on 25th May 1963 and signed the OAU
charter.
 African states that had not yet gained independence sent observers.
 They included Kenya which becomes a member in 1964.
 Formation of OAU saw the dissolution of all the previous groupings
Brazzaville and Casablanca groups.
Aims of OAU
 To promote the unity and solidarity of the African states.
 To co-ordinate and intensify members collaboration and efforts to achieve a
better life for the people of Africa.

 To defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of African
states
 To eradicate all forms of colonialism from the continent of Africa especially in
Portuguese Africa, Namibia and South Africa.
 To avoid interfering in the internal affairs of member stats and to recognize the
sovereignty and equality of all African and Malagasy states.
 Promote international co-operation having due regard to the charter of the UN
and universal declaration of human rights.
 To uphold – non- Alignment in African relation with the rest of the world.
 To promote peaceful settlements of disputes among African countries.
OAU Charter.
 This charter was drawn in 1963 and signed by 30 heads of states.
 It contained 33 Articles which outlined the right and duties of the organization
Article One.
 Established the president and heads of states assembly
Article two.
 Outlined the aims and purpose of the organization e.g promotion of unity etc.
Article three.
 Points out the purposes stated in Article two, that is to adhere to Sovereignty
equality Non-interference and condemnation of political Assassinations.
Article Four:
 Outlined OAU membership i.e. each sovereign African states was entitled to
membership.
Article five.
 Give all members states equal right and opportunities.
Article Six.
 It committed all members‟ states to pledge and observe the principles of the
organization.
Article Seven.
 It established four principles organizations which are:-
 The assembly of head of states and governments.
 Government Council of Ministers.
 General secretariat
 Commission of mediation, conciliation and arbitration
Article 8 – 11.
 It spelt the function of the assembly of heads of states and governments as
supreme organs.
Article 12 – 15.
 These created the council of ministers and spelt out its functions

Article 16-18.
 Deal with the General secretariat headed by the secretary general.
Article 19.
 Established the commission of meditation, conciliation and arbitration of the
organization.
Article 20 – 22.
 It set out specialized commission in the areas of co-operation as outlined in
Article number 2(two).
Article 23.
 Deal with OAU budget as drawn by the secretary general. It was approved by
the council of minister. Member states paid contribution according to
assessment scale. No member state was allowed to pay 20% of the total
budget.
Article 24 – 25.
 Dealt with the preparation of the charter text in English, French and other
African languages. These were to be ratified with a two third majority.
Article 26.
 Provided for rectification and registration with the UNO.
Article 27.
 Stipulated that the interpretation of the charter was by two-third majority of the
assembly.
Article 28.
 Spelt out the procedure of the admission to the OAU by independent African
states which was to be decided by a simple majority of the assembly.
Article 29.
 Specified the working language of the organization as French, English and if
possible any other Africa language.
Article 30.
 It authorized the secretary General to receive gifts and donations on behalf of
the organization provided that this was approved by the council of ministers.
Article 31.
 It provided for the privileges and immunities of the secretariat staff working
for member states as decided by the council of ministers.
Article 32.
 It stipulated the conditions for leaving the organization. If a member state
wished to leave the organization it had to give a one year notice formally and
withdraw the following year.
Article 33.

 It deals with the amendment of the charter on a written request by a member
state after a year notice.
The structure of O.A.U
To effects it objectives and purposes the OAU‟s charter provided for the
establishment of various organs.
These organs were:-
 The assembly of Heads of states and governments
 The council of Ministers.
 The General secretariat.
 The commission of mediation, conciliation and arbitration.
The assembly of Heads of states and Government
 It was the supreme organ of O.A.U
 Met once a year although it could hold extra ordinary sessions to discuss the
matters and issues affecting the continent
 Members had equal voting rights.
 They elected a chairman every year from among the head of states and
government and the head of states and government.
 Heads of state and government conferences used to be held on a rotational
basis.
 Head of state of the hosting state automatically became chairman.
 This was changed in 1982 over the issue of whether Colonel Muamar Gadafi
of Libya was eligible to head OAU.
 Result was many African leaders boycotted the meeting which aborted due to
lack of quorum.
 Result was president Moi of Kenya was chairman for two terms 1981-1983.
 In1983 it was agreed that all OAU summit meeting would be held in Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia.
OAU Council of ministers
 It consisted of all foreign ministers of OAU member states.
 The council met twice yearly but again extra ordinary sessions could be called
led discuss urgent and important matters.
 The council meetings preceded those of the Assembly of the Heads of States
governments and each.
 Minister has one vote.
Functions
 It discussed urgent and important matters.
 It prepared agenda of meetings of Heads of States and governments
 It implemented decisions made by meeting of Heads of States and
Governments.

 It prepared budget of OAU for approval by Heads of States and Governments.
The General Secretariat
 It was headed by Secretary General elected by the Assembly on 4 year term
and could offer himself/herself for re-election.
 Its headquarters was at Addis Ababa
Function.
 It deals with day-to-day affairs.
The following served as secretaries-General of the OAU.
 Kifle Wodajo –Ethiopia -1963-1964.
 Diallo Telli Bonbaker –Guinea 1964-1972
 Nzo Ekangaki-Cameroon -1972-1974
 Eteki Mboumona –Cameroon 1974-1978
 Edem Kodjo –Togo 1978-1983
 Peter Ouu- Nigeria 1983-1985
 Ide Oumarou –Niger -1985-1989
 Salim Ahmed Salim –Tanzania 1989-2002
Commission for medication, conciliation and arbitration
 Had a total of 21 states.
 OAU has also specialized commission and agencies which dealt with the more
technical aspect of the organization.
Functions.
 It settled disputes between members.
Performance of O.A.U
In history OAU witnessed a number of achievement and failures.
Achievement of O.A.U
 It supported liberation movements for African states.
 It provided forum for African states to speak in on voice at international
forums.
 It promoted friendly ties among member states through annual meetings of
heads of state and governments.
 It stood firmly behind the African nationalist in South Africa, in their fight
against apartheid.
 It appealed to the security council of United Nations to stop member countries
from selling arms and military hardware to South Africa.
 OAU mediated border between member states e.g. between Kenya and
Somalia and between Chad and Nigeria.

 Through its specialized Agencies OAU has promoted areas of transport and
communication, postal and Telecommunications link e.g. through URTNA
(Union of Radio and Television Network of Africa)
 It managed to maintain peace and stability on the continent like in 1963 it
broke a ceasefire between Algeria and morocco.
 It has contributed to economic development of Africa through organisation
such as African development bank.
 It has awakened and sensitized Africans on their common problems like
desertification, external interference, dependency and over-reliance on one
trade commodity.
 It has united the diverse countries of Africa with their differences in ideology,
level of economics and technological developments.
 Has promoted social and cultural heritage e.g. All African games enabled
African countries to meet and co-operate in sports.
 Through scientific and technical Research Agencies OAU has encouraged
research into medical use of African herbs and has contributed to eradication of
some livestock diseases like East Coast Fever.
 The OAU has encouraged regional economic co-operation as a start of
achieving continental economic integration. For example East African
community(EAC),Common Market for Eastern and South Africa
(COMESA),Economic community of West Africa (ECOWAS)
Failures of O.A.U
 It failed to effectively deal with the Congo crisis of 1964 which almost dealt it
affected blow.
 The charter of OAU was silent of issues of democratic reforms, peace justice
and freedom of expression. The result was that a large number of OAU leaders
turned out to be military rulers and dictators. This led to instability and abuse
of human rights in most member states.
 OAU failed to achieve total unity and peace in Africa. This disunity manifested
itself in the form of conflicts between member states and division on which
liberation movement to support.
 The organization watched helplessly as hundreds of thousands Tutsi and Hutu
moderates were killed in Rwanda Genocide.
 It failed to intervene in the civil war in Zaire when Rwanda and Uganda
invaded and occupied vast pasts of that country.
Challenges faced by O.A.U
 Ideological differences among member states, especially during the Cold war
period, hampered the operations of the OAU.

 Memberships to other regional or international bodies. Members of OAU were
also members of other organization e.g. comonwealth, comesa and sometimes.
This led to divided loyalty.
 Financial problems. It lacked sufficient funds to carry out its work efficiently.
The members were poor given that all of them were third world countries.
 External intefearences.There were massive interference in African affairs by
external powers mainly superpower countries like USA.
 Boarder disputes between member countries e.g. Between Somalia and Kenya,
Libya and Sudan, Somalia and Ethiopia. This has undermined unity of the
African states.
 Portioning of Africa through scramble divided the continent into colonial
territories which led to different groupings. For example the France – Phone
African states felt more united among them that the Anglo-phone states. This
left a negative legacy which had to be fought in attempt to forge close ties
among member states.
 Personality diffrences.personality differences between some African leaders
undermined unity between African countries.
 Membership was voluntary making it easy for members to join or withdrew at
will.
 Military coups. It is estimated that over seventy African leader were
overthrown in the first 25 years of independence beside many other abortive
coups. This coups interrupted OAU plans and programmes.
 Lack of military force is another challenge OAU faced. OAU lacked a
permanent army that could maintain of peace.
The African Union.
 The union was launched in Durban, South Africa on 9th July 2002 to replaced
the OAU.
 It was attended by 41 heads of states.
 It was also attended by Louis Farrakham and the Nation of Islam delegation
representing black in the diaspora.
 Thabo Mbeki was elected the chairman of the union.
 Former Ivorian minister (foreign) Amara Essy was elected the secretary
general.
 He replaced Tanzania Salim Ahmed Salim who served OAU for 12 years.
Differences between African Union
 The AU challenges the principle of non-interference emphasized by OAU
 The AU is an ambitious agenda of accelerating growth and eradicating poverty
unlike OAU.

 AU is a union of African people unlike OAU seen as an organization for
African executives.
 AU has an accountability mechanism which involves peer review amongst
states unlike OAU
 The AU proposes to establish a peace and security council with a standing
African army which was not existent in OAU.
Aims of the African Union

 To achieve greater unity and solidarity in Africa.
 To defend independence of African states.
 To promote political, social and economic integration of African.
 To promote and defend African Common positions on issues of interest.
 To encourage international co-operation.
 To promote peace, security and stability in the continent.
 To promote democracy and good governance.
 To promote and protect human and people‟s rights.
 To promote necessary conditions for African participation in global economy.
 To promote sustainable development to integrate the African economy.
 To lift/raise living standards of Africans.
 To coordinate and harmonize policies between the existing and future regional
economic communities to achieve the objectives of the union.
 To advance the development of the African continent in Science and
Technology.
 To eradicate diseases and promote good health in the con
Structure of the African Union
 The African union consists of the following organs
 The Assembly
 The execute council
 The permanent representative committee
 The commission
 Specialized technical committee
 The pan-African parliament
 The economic, social and cultural council
 Financial institutions.
 The peace and Security Council

The assembly
 It consists of the heads of states of all member states.
 It is the most important decisions making body of the union.
 It meets annually and elects a chair person.
 In this assembly decisions are made by consensus or two third majority.
Functions of the assembly.
 It decides on common policies for the union
 Considers application for membership
 Adopts the budget of the union.
 Direct the process of conflict resolution
 Appoints judges for the court of justice.
The executive council
 The council is made up of foreign affairs ministers of the member states.
 The council is accountable to the Assembly.
Functions of the Council
 Prepares materials for the assembly to discuss and approve.
 Decides on matters such as foreign trade, social security, food, agriculture and
communications.
The permanent representative committee.
 It is composed of ambassadors to the African Union
Function.
 Has the responsibility of preparing the work for the executive council.
The commission
 The form the secretariat of the union
 It‟s made up of the chairman, a deputy and eight commissioners.
 It‟s based in Addis Ababa.
Functions of the Commission
 Handles the day to day administrative issues of the union.
 Implements the decisions of the union.
 Co-ordinates AU activities and meetings.
 Receives application for membership.
 Initiates proposals for consideration by other organs.
Specialized technical committees.
 It deals with monetary and financial issues, the rural economy, trade,
immigration, industry and science and technology.
 They are responsible for implementation of projects and programmes of the
union they are:
 The committee of rural and agricultural matters
 The committee on the monetary and financial affairs.

 The committee of trade, customs and immigration matters.
 The committee on industry, science and technology, energy natural
resources and environment.
 The committee on health, labour and social affair.
 The committee on transport, communication and tourism.
 The committee on education, culture and human resources.
The Pan-African parliament
 Established in March 2004
 Made up of 265 representatives elected by the legislature of the AU member
states
 It is legislative organ of the AU
 It is based on midrand, South Africa.
The court of justice
 The court rules on human rights abuses in Africa in terms of a legal statute
framework.
The economic, social and cultural council.
 Performs an advisory functions and is composed of professional and cruel
representatives.
Financial institutions.
 Three financial institutions were set up under the African Union.
 These institutions were to provide funding for projects and programmes. These
include:
 The African central bank
 The African monetary fund
 The African investment bank
Peace and Security Council
 This has 15 members responsible for monitoring and intervening in conflicts.
 The council is a lerted by an early warning system as to any threat to security
in the continent.
 It is financed by a peace fund.
 The council is advised by a council of elders and has an African force at its
disposal.
 This function of the council is outlined in Article 6 of AU charter.
Functions of Peace and Security Council
 Promotion of peace, security and stability in Africa.
 Early warning and preventive diplomacy.
 Peace making including the use of good officer, medication, conciliation and
inquiry.

 Peace support operations and intervention, pursuant to article 4(h) and (J) of
the constitutive act.
 Peace building and post conflict reconstruction
 Humanitarian action and disaster management.
 Any other function as may be decided by the assembly
The AU charter.
 The AU charter was signed by 55 heads of states and of states and
governments of the member states of the former organization of African unity
(OAU) on 9th July, 2002 in Durban South Africa.
 Like the OAU charter, it is a lengthy document with 33 articles.
Article 1
 Deals with definitions of key term in the charter.
Article 2
 States the establishment of AU in accordance with the provisions of the
constitute act.
Article 3
 Outlines the objectives of the union.
Article 4
 Defines the organs of the union.
Article 5
 Defines the organs of the union.
Article 6
 Outlines the composition and functioning of the assembly.
Article 7
 Stipulates the process of decision making by the Assembly.
Article 8
 Outlines the rules of procedure of the Assembly.
Article 9
 States the powers and functions of the Assembly.
Article 10
 Gives the composition of the Executive council and outlines it procedures and
functions.
Article 11 – 13
 Stipulates the decision making process of the executive council rules of
procedures and functions.
Article 14 – 16
 Outlines the establishment and composition of the specialized and technical
committee, giving their functions and organization.
Article 17
 Establishes the Pan-African parliament and defines its composition, powers,
functions and organization.
Article 18
 Establishes the court of justice, its statutes, composition and functions.
Article 19
 Spells out the financial institution of the union.
Article 20
 Deals with the establishment of a commission of the union to function as the
secretariat.
 It defines its composition, structure, functions and regulation as determined by
the assembly.
Article 21
 Establishes the permanent representative committee and spells out its
responsibilities.
Article 22
 Establishes the economic, social and cultural council as an advisory organs and
states that its composition, power and organization are to be determined by the
assembly.
Article 23
 Deals with the imposition of sanctions against member states.
Article 24
 Identifies the headquarters of the union as, Adis Ababa in the Federal
Democratic Republic of Ethiopia.
Article 25
 Defines the working languages of the union as, if possible African language,
English, French and Portuguese.
Article 26.
 Empowers the court to deal with matter of interpretation arising from
application on implementation of the charter.
Article 27
 Deals with the signature, ratification and accession to the charter.
Article 28
 Stipulates that the act shall enter into force 30 days after the deposit of the
instrument of ratification by the member states of the AU.
Article 29 – 31
 Outlines the procedure for membership, suspension and cessation of
membership.
Article 32

 Outlines the process of amendment and revision of the charter.
Article 33
 Outlines the transitional arrangement and final provision in the transformation
of OAU in the AU.
Challenges facing the AU
 Political instability in many member states makes it difficult to implement
some of the programmes of the union.
 A Border dispute between some member states undermines unity in the
continent.
 Lack of democracy in some member states has contributed to inability by the
union to end human rights violations.
 Interference in African affair by external powers undermine implementation of
policies by the union.
 Due to neo-colonialism, some member states are more attached to their former
colonial masters at the expense of the union.
 Ideological differences between some African states create division within the
union making it difficult to reach agreements.
 Lack of a standing army renders the union ineffective in implementing
decisions which call for military intervention.
 National interests are given priority at the expenses of the union‟s interests.
 Inadequate funds make it difficult for the union to fulfill all its obligation.
 There is divided loyalty as members states are also members of other
organisations.
 Personality differences between some leaders undermines unity within the
union.
THE EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY
Formation of E.A.C
 In 1967, Presidents Jomo Kenyatta (Kenya) Milton Obote (Uganda) and Julius
Nyerere Tanzania signed a treaty which established the East African
Community.
 This treaty came into effects on 1st December 1967.
 It was made up of Kenya, Tanzania & Uganda
Objectives of EAC
 To promote trade among the three East African countries, that was now
independent.
 To provide common services in areas such as railways, habours, post and
Telecommunication.
 To provide for free trade of goods provided within East Africa. A common
currency was introduced by East African currency board.
 To provide a wider and more secure market for good produced in the region
 To facilitate free movement of people.
 To enable and strengthen closer ties and understanding between the member
states.
 To help bring economic balance between the states and equally share the
former EACSO assets.
 To establish similar custom tariffs and duties 10 non member states.
 To enhance self – sufficiency, self reliance and full independence from the rest
of the world to avoid being trodden upon.
Organization of East African Community
To facilitate its organization the following structures and institutions were set up.
The institutions were:-
 The East African authority
 The East African legislative assembly
 The common market tribunal
 The councils
 The central secretariat
 The court of appeal
The East African Authority
 This was the supreme authority
 It consisted of the three Heads of states.
 The first chairman was Julius Nyerere.
Function.
 Their duty was to decide of major issues affecting the countries.
The East African Legislative Assembly.
 It had 36 member, three of whom were ministers, one secretary general and
members chosen from the three states.
Function.
 Incharge of charged with making of laws concerning the services provided by
the community.
The Common Market Tribunal
 This was a tribunal to settle trade disputes between the partner states.
The Councils
The councils established five council namely :
 Finance
 Communication
 Common market
 Economic consultative

 Planning and research and social council
 Each council had its own responsibility
The Central Secretariat
 To- co-ordinate the work of these councils, a central secretariat was set up in
Arusha, Tanzania.
 It was headed by a secretary General.
Function.
 The secretariat was responsible for seeing that the common market council
succession was carried out.
The Court of Appeal.
 It was based in Kampala.
 The court of appeal for East Africa was established in 1951.
Function.
 It was to hear appeal from the courts in three member states.
 The East African industrial court was a staff tribunal.
The East African Development Bank ( EADB)
 Another important organ of the East African community was the East African
development Bank (E.A.D.B) which had its headquarters in Kampala.
 The bank was established to promote balanced industrial development.
Objectives of the East African Development Bank
 Provide financial and technical assistance to partner states.
 Give priorities to industrial development in relatively less developed partner
states.
 Finance the projects designed to make the economies of partner states
complementary in the industrial field.
 Supplement the activities of National development by joint financing,
specifically using the agencies as channel for financing specific projects.
 Co-operate with other National or international organs private or public.
 Undertake „such other activities and provide such other services as may
advance the objectives of the Bank.
 Establish similar custom tariff and duties to non member states.
East African Community Corporation.
Four East African community corporations set up in addition to the council.
These were
 East African Railway corporations were set up with its headquarters in Nairobi
 The East African habours corporation with it‟s headquarter in Dar – es salaam.

 The East African post and Telecommunication corporation with the East
African airways corporation with it headquarters in Nairobi.
Service Headquarters
 E. A Railway corporation Nairobi
 E. A Habours corporation Dar-es-Salaam
 E.A Post and Telecommunication corporation Kampala
 E.A Customs and exercise Mombasa
 E.A Development Bank Kampala
 E.A income tax Nairobi
 E.A Agriculture, veterinary and forest Research Muguga (Kenya)
 E.A Amani institute (scientific Research) Amani (Tanzania)
 E.A Fisheries Research Jinja
 E.A Literature Bureau Nairobi
 E.A Metrological Department Nairobi
 E.A Civil Aviation Directorate Nairobi
 E.A Marine Fisheries Zanzibar
 Court of Appeal for East Africa Nairobi
 E.A industrial Research Nairobi
 E.A Tropical Pesticides Research Centre Arusha
 E.A Airways Nairobi
Achievements of EAC
 EAC initiated development projects in the member states through east African
development bank
 The community promoted regional co-operation through provision of common
services like railway transport.
 The EAC provided an external market for member states to sell goods outside
EAC.
 The community encouraged economic co-operation in the region.
 The organisation attempted to balance economic growth among the three
member countries.
 The EAC provided a large market for east African goods.
 The community enabled free movement of people within the region.
Challenges of EAC up to 1977

 Uneven economic development, Uganda and Tanzania believed that Kenya
benefit more from the EAC than them.
 National pride and interest:-National interests of the respective countries were
given priority than that of regional interest.

 Ideological difference. Tanzania was committed to socialists‟ ideologists while
Kenya and Uganda pursued capitalist ideologies.
 Political Instability in Uganda: In January 1971 Idi Amin staged a military
coup against Milton Obote there followed a period of political instability in
Uganda.
 Personality differences. President Nyerere and Idi Amin became bitter enemies
because Obote was given refugee in Tanzania after he was overthrown by
Amin.
 Failure to remit funds. Failure to remit funds was particularly a serious
problem. It was a source of dispute and caused much bitterness in corporations
such as the railways and harbours and east Africa airways.
 Use of different currencies made transactions difficult
 Personal ambitions: Each leader of the member states wanted to appear as the
most powerful
 Boundary closures: This was between Tanzania and Uganda during the 1978 –
1979 war. Tanzania also closed it boarder with Kenya.
 Harassment of nationals of member states. Kenya complained that its Nationals
working in Tanzania were being harassed. Tanzania didn‟t act on the complain
as a result Kenya pulled her Nationals and established her own state
organization.
 From 1975 Kenya and Tanzania began to nationalize the asset of EAC that
were within their boarder.
 Tension between Uganda and Tanzania. the tension between Tanzania and
Uganda in 1972 widened the rift in the community when Uganda alleged that
Tanzania had given support to an invasion of Uganda by Ugandans loyal to the
deposed president Milton Obote.
Rebirth of the EAC
 In 1993, however the three East African leaders president Moi of Kenya,
Museveni of Uganda, and Mwingi of Tanzania met to discuss the possible
revival of the community.
 On 30th November 1993, the three leaders signed an agreement in Arusha,
Tanzania, reviving the East African community.
 During the second summit of 3 heads of states in Arusha on 29th April 1997 it
was decided that a process of treaty making begin that would involve further
negotiation among the member states including the public.
 The result was the establishment of East African community which was signed
in Arusha on the 30th November 1999.
 It became operational on the 7th July 2000 and the new regional organization
came into being.

Formation
 On 15th January 2001, the summit of the new East African community was
held in Arusha.
 It signed various protocols relating to the rules for the admission of other
countries to the E.A.C
 Thereafter the community was formerly launched.
 Rwanda and Burundi were admitted in June 2007.
 In March 2016 South Sudan was admitted to the EAC.
Aims of the East Africa Community.
 To harmonise the fiscal and monetary policies.
 To encourage free movement of capital.
 To liberalize trade and development by removal of internal tariffs to member
states.
 To co-operate in agriculture and food security.
 To promote development of areas of common economic interest e.g. Lake
Victoria and it basin.
 To promote development of infrastructure and supportive services e.g. roads,
railway, telecommunications etc.
 To develop adequate and reliable energy supply in the region.
 To develop of human resources, science and technology.
 To develop social sector issue e.g. health, culture and sport.
 To encourage free movement of persons by easing of border crossings.
 To promote co-operation in legal and judicial affairs.
 To strengthen political co-operation so as to attain peace and relation with
other regional and international organizations.
Organisation of the EAC
The East African community has several organizations and institutions.
These are:
 The Summit
 Council of ministers
 The co-coordinating committees
 Sectoral committees.
 The East African court of Justice
 The East African legislative Assembly.
 The secretariat.
The Summit
 It comprises heads of governments of member states.
 Meets at least once every year but may hold extra-ordinary meetings on the
request of any member of the summit.
 There is office of the chairperson and it‟s rotational among the member states.
 Decisions are made by consensus.
Function
 The summit is to give general direction toward the realization of community
goals.
The Council of Ministers
 It is made up of ministers from the member states that are responsible for
regional co-operation.
 The council meets twice a year but a member state can request for an
extraordinary council meeting.
Functions.
 It is the main decision making institution.
 It implements the decision and directives of the summit and submits annual
report.
 It prepares agenda for the summit.
The Co-ordinating Committee
 It comprises permanent secretaries responsible for regional co-operation.
 It is subject to the direction of the council.
 It meets at least twice a year.
Function.
 It co-ordinates the activities of the secretarial committees.
Sectoral Committees
 Established by the council on the recommendations of the respective
coordinating committees.
 They meet as often as is necessary.
Functions.
 They are responsible for the preparation of a comprehensive implementation of
the programme of the community in respect to it sector.
The East African Court of Justice
 The court comprises of 6 judges two from each member states who are
appointed by the summit.
 The court is based in Arusha Tanzania.
Function
 It ensure the adherence to the law in the interpretation, application of and
compliance with the East African community treaty
The East African Legislative
 It has 27 elected members and 5 ex official members consisting of the minister
responsible for regional co-operation from the partner state and the secretary –
General and the counsel to the community.

 There is the speaker of the Assembly, committee of the Assembly and cleric to
the Assembly.
 It is based in Arusha Tanzania.
Function of EALA.
 It makes laws for the EAC
 It acts as a watchdog to ensure that member states comply with the EAC treaty.
 It provides a forum for debates of democratic issues
 It represents the interests of the member states.
The Secretariat
 It is headed by the secretary-General who is appointed by the summit on
rotation basis.
 He serves for a 5year period.
 It is based at EAC headquarters in Arusha.
Functions.
 Is the head of the secretariat.
 Authorises expenditure on behalf of the members.
 Keep records of proceedings during summit meetings.
 Implements the decisions adopted by the EAC summit.
 Prepares the agenda for the summit meeting.
Achievements of the EAC 2001.
 Movement of citizens has been made easier with introduction of the EA
passport.
 It has facilitated improvement and expansion of transport and communication
network in the region.
 It has promoted industrial development in the region by abolishing tariffs on
industrial goods.
 It has eased investment procedure to enable citizens and foreigners to invest
easily within member states.
 It has enabled professionals, farmers, artisans and business people to interact
more easily within member states.
 It has enabled civil society and other organisations to co-operate in order to
enhance their role in the various fields
 It has promoted trade among the member states by eliminating tariffs.
 It has enabled members‟ states to speak with one voice in international forums
through co-ordination of foreign policy.
 It has enabled security personnel to work together to improve security in
member states through co-operation on security issues.
 It has provided employment opportunities to people of member countries in
established common services.
Challenges facing the new EAC.
 Member states give more preference to their internal matters at the expense of
community affair. This has slaved down the process of integration.
 Uneven levels of economic development have given Kenya on undue
advantage in the competition. Fr example Kenyan manufactured goods are
more competitive.
 Member countries also belong to other regional organization such as
COMESA, SADC leading to divided loyalty.
 Insecurity along the common boarders caused by banditry, cattle rustlers etc
has in some cases several relations between member states e.g. the insecurity
along Kenya Uganda border.
 Member states produce similar goods making it difficult for them to trade with
each other.
 The East African community members do not have a common currency.
Besides the currency e.g. the Dollar, sterling pound, Euro etc this has hindered
trade among the countries.
 Poor transport and communication Network among the member countries
which hinders the movement of people and goods.
 Conflicts over the exploitation of common natural resources e.g the use of
Lake Victoria resources (Migingo Island).
 Political instability in south Sudan and Burundi has undermined activities of
the EAC.
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)
ECOWAS is an economic organization formed by West African states.
Formation
ECOWAS was born on 28th may 1975.following the signing of the treaty of Lagos by
15 West African states in 1977, the membership of the organisation increased to 17
when Cape Verde was admitted.
Member states of ECOWAS
 Benin
 Senegal
 Liberia
 Guinea
 Mali
 Sierra – Leone
 Burkina Faso
 Mauritania
 Cape Verde
 Gambia
 Togo
 Ghana
 Guinea Bissau
 Niger
 Nigeria
 Ivory Coast.
 Togo
Aims of the ECOWAS
 To foster economic co-operation among member states in various fields.
 To ensure free movement of goods, within the area by removing trade barrier
among member states.
 To achieve economic independence for its members.
 To develop Agriculture, commence and industry as well as other sectors of the
economy.
 To set up technical and specialized commission of mutual interest.
 To enhance co-operation in communication and cultural matters
 To improve the living standards of the people in member states.
 To promote and improve good relation between member states.
Organisation of ECOWAS
The ECOWAS in order to streamline its operations put up the following structures in
it organization.
 Authority of Heads of States and Government
 Council of Ministers.
 The Tribunal
 Executive secretarial.
Authority of Heads of States and Government
 This is the supreme organ of ECOWAS
 It meets once year, although extra ordinary session may be held if need arises.
Council of Ministers
 It is composed of one minister from each member states and responsible for:
 General management of the organization.
 Advising the authority of heads of state.
 Giving direction to the subordinate organs.
The Tribunal
 Made up of judges appointed by the authority.
Functions
 It is charged with the responsibility of interpreting the treaty.
 It settles disputes between the member states.

Executive Secretariat
 It is based in Lagos, Nigeria
 It is headed by an executive secretary who serves for a four year term.
Function
 It is charged with the day to day administration of the organization and
implementation of policies.
Specialized commissions.
 There are four specialized commission dealing with the following matters:
 Trade, customs, tariffs, immigration and monetary affairs.
 Industry, Agriculture and Natural resources
 Transport, communication and Energy
 Social and cultural affair.
Performance of ECOWAS
 It has standardized education in the region by use of common exam syllabus.
 It has fostered peace through military wing-ECOMOG.
 It has promoted cultural exchange among its members.
 It has improved regional transport / communication system / links.
 It has improved agriculture through sharing of technological knowhow.
 It facilitated free movement of people in the region.
 It has increased job opportunities in the region.
 It has promoted the spirit of togetherness in the region.
 It has promoted mutual cooperation.
 It has promoted inter-regional trade within regions.
Challenges to ECOWAS
 Influx of workers from less developed areas to move developed states within
the organization. For example, many Ghanaians went to Nigeria expecting to
find better opportunities. But following complaints from its citizens, the
Nigerians government expelled thousands of Ghanaians and other foreign
workers in 1983.
 The closure of boarders between some member states has also been a problem
e.g. Ghana and Togo as well as Burkina Faso and Mali
 Foreign interference especially through the presence of Israel and French
Soldiers in cote de-ivore is another problem
 Ideological differences between various leaders have prompted suspicion and
mistrust among the member states.For example: - there was tension between
the president of Ivory Coast, the late Felix Houphonet – Biogony and the late
Burkina Faso president Thomas Sankara.
 Member states of ECOWAS are also members of other organization. For
example Mano-River Union, the cape Verde/Guinea Bissau Free Trade Area,
the commonwealth and the Annual Franco African Conference This create
divided loyalty and commitment
 There has also been friction between Anglo-phone and Franco Phone
countries.
 Member states have not been making their annual payment regularly to
ECOWAS in foreign currency. If this continues for long, it will weaken the
organization.
 Nationalism – Member states gives domestic interest priority and not the
common issues affecting the community.
 The region is poorly linked with transport and communication Networks which
hampers the smooth running of the organization.
 A number of member states have experienced military coups e.g. Ghana and
Nigeria. Countries like Liberia have had civil wars leading to the intervention
of ECOWAS by sending a peace keeping force between 1990 and 1990. Others
are like Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso.
 Member‟s states have different currencies which fluctuate widely against
major international currencies like American dollar and British pound. This
creates the problems of rates of exchange hindering trade among states.
The Common Market for Eastern and Social Africa (COMESA)
COMESA replaced the former preferential Trade Area (PTA) which had been in
existence from the early days of 1981.
It was established as an organization of free independent sovereign states which had
agreed to co-operate in developing their natural and human resources for the good of
all their people.
Formation of COMESA
 The treaty establishing COMESA was signed on 5th November 1993 in
Kampala Uganda.
 It was ratified a year later in Lilongwe Malawi, on December 8th 1994 when
the first COMESA Summit was convened.
 The second COMESA was held on April 20th 1996 in Lusaka Zambia.
 It focused on promotion of regional trade, economic integration, security and
peace.
 The third summit was held in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo on
June 29th 1998 under the theme “information – a tool for increased Trade and
investment in COMESA”
 The Headquarters of COMESA is located in Lusaka Zambia
The Member Countries of COMESA
 Angola
 Malawi

 Burundi
 Swaziland
 Comoros
 Uganda
 Dr. Congo
 Zambia
 Eritrea
 Zimbabwe
 Egypt
 Sudan
 Ethiopia
 Seychelles
 Kenya
 Rwanda
 Madagascar
 Namibia
 Mauritius
Function of COMESA
 COMESA sustains growth and development of the member states by
promoting a more balanced and harmonious development of its production and
marketing structures.
 It promotes joint development in all fields of economic activity.
 It creates an enabling environment for foreign cross boarder and domestic
investment including the joint promotion of research and adaptation of science
and technology for development.
 COMESA strengthens the relations between the common market and the rest
of the world and the adaptation of common position in international.
 It contributes towards the establishment, progress and the realization of the
objectives of the African Economic community.
 COMESA works for promotion of peace, security and stability among member
states in order to enhance economic development in the region.
Organization of COMESA
There are four organs of COMESA which are empowered to take decisions on behalf
of the organization.
These are:
 The Authority of head of states and government.
 The council of ministers
 The court of justice

 The committee of governors of Central bank
 The Inter Government committee
 The technical committees
 The secretariat
 The consultative committees mark recommendation to the council of ministers
which in turn make recommendation to the authority.
The Authrority of Heads of States and Government.

 Consist of heads of states and governments
 It is the supreme policy organ of the COMESA
 It meets once a year but may hold extra ordinary meetings at the request of any
member state.
 All decisions are by consensus.
Function
 Provide general policy direction for COMESA.
 It controls the common market.
 It approves the budget of the organization.
 It appoints judges of the court of justice
 It elects the secretary-general.
The Council of Ministers
 It is composed of ministers designated by member states.
 Decisions are made by consensus.
 It makes policy decisions on the programmes and activities of COMESA.
Functions.
 It monitors and ensures proper functioning of the organization
 It makes recommendations to the authority
 It directs other organs
 It regulates and takes decisions for the organization
 It requests for advice from count
 It considers and approves budget of secretariat and court
 It considers measures to be taken to achieve the objectives of the organization
 It makes regulations for the secretariat.
 It designates the economically poor areas.
Court of Justice
 It is headed by a president and consists of six other judges appointed by the
authority.
 The court acts independently on the authority and the council.
 Decisions of the court are binding to member states and are final.
Functions
 Court ensures proper interpretation and application of the COMESA treaty,
 It solves disputes arising among member states.
The Committees of Governors of Central Banks.
 Comprises of governors of central banks of member states.
 Meet atleast once a year.
Functions.
 It gives financial and monetary plan
 It monitors to ensure proper implementation of programmes and plans
 It requests for intervention of Secretariat General.
 It considers reports and recommendations from the technical committee on
finance.
 It submits report and recommendations to the council.
The Inter - Government Committee
 It is made up of Permanent secretaries.
Functions.
 It develops programmes and action plans
 It monitors to ensure proper function of market and its development
 It oversees implementation of the provisions of the treaty

agriculture, comprehensive information systems, energy, finance and monetary
affairs, industry, labor, human resources, social and cultural affairs, legal
affairs
 It also handles natural resources and environment, tourism and wildlife, trade
and customs –transport and communications.
The Secretariat.
 It is headed by the secretary – General appointed by the authority for a five
year term.
 He is the chief executive of COMESA.
Functions.
 The secretariat provides technical support and advisory services the number
states in the implementation of the treaty.
 Submits report to the council and the authority.
 It is responsible for administration and finances of COMESA.
 Submits the budget of COMESA to inter-governmental committee
 Act as secretary to the authority and to the council.
 Ensures smooth operation of COMESA.
 Refers breach of COMESA treaty to the court.
 Promotes adoption of joints positions by member states in negotiations with
other countries.
The Consultative Committee of the Business Community and other Interest
Groups.
 It consists of business community and other stakeholders.
Functions
 It monitors the necessary provisions of the treaty.
 It consults and receives reports from other interest groups
 It participates in technical committee and makes recommendations
Technical Committees.
 They are twelve
 They are responsible for preparation of comprehensive implementation of
programmes and monitoring their implementation before recommending to the
council
They are one
 Adminstrative and budgetary matters
 Agriculture,Energy,Tourism and wildlife
 Trade and customs committee
 Transport and communication committee
 Finance and monetary affairs committee
 Legal affairs committee
 Natural resources and social affairs committee
 Comprehensive information systems committee.
 Industrial development committee.
 Human resources and social affairs committee.
Achievements of COMESA.
 It has liberalized trade
 It has enabled the achievement of computerised customs networks across the
region.
 It has adopted measures to improve transport and communication to ease
movement of people, goods and services in the region.
 it has created enabling environment for investment within the region,
 Small scale economic activities and policies have been accomplished.
 Financial activities have been harmonized.
 It has created competitive market for members.
 Industrial production has been improved with good market and
competitiveness.
 Agricultural production has been improved due to large market.
 It gives members national way of exploiting their natural resources for their
welfare as each deals with the product in which it is good.

 It has encouraged good governance, hence reduced internal conflict.
 It has provided employment opportunities.
Challenges facing COMESA
 Poor transport network has hampered movement of goods.
 The member countries produce similar goods, thus limiting the market.
 Some member countries are belonging to other regional economic blocks,
hence not fully committed to COMESA.
 Undermining of neighbours,like rwanda and uganda assisting rebels in
DRC,causes conflicts.
 Civil wars in some member states hamper smooth flow of goods due to
insecurity hence lowering the volume of trade.
 Boundary conflicts and eventual closure among member states make it difficult
for them to cooperate.
 Some member states prefer trading with their former colonial masters, thus
posing stiff competition to products from the COMESA region / Foreign
interference.
 Failure of some member states to harmonize tariffs has undermined free flow
of goods / services.
 Member states pursue their national interests thereby working against the
objectives of COMESA.
 Personality differences between leaders e.g. Museveni and Al-Bashir
 Quarrels over trading rights within COMESA e.g between Egypt and Kenya.
 Natural calamities like drought / floods leading to massive food shortage /
famine.
 Withdrawals of some member states,like tanzania and namibia which pulled
out and joined SADC,weakens the organizations.

NATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES (KENYA).
 A philosophy is a system of ideological beliefs and values championed by the
ruling party‟s leadership and it is accepted by most of the citizens.
Philosophies Kenya has adopted since independences.
 African socialism,
 Harambee.
 Nyayoism.
African socialism.
 African socialism is a national philosophy coined by KANU in its manifesto of
1963.
Origin of African socialism.
 It was drafted in sessional paper no. 10 of 1965 called African socialism and its
application to planning in Kenya.
 It was authored by the then Minister for Economic Planning Thomas J.Mboya.
African socialism was based on two African traditions
 Political democracy.
 Mutual social responsibility.
Reason for adoption of African socialism.
 The leaders wanted to create a new society different from the colonial society
i.e. one free from socio-economic inequalities, racism, oppression and other
social injustices.
 Desire to create a just and humane society in which all were considered equal
before the law.
 Desire for a united and free Kenya where individual rights and freedoms would
be guaranteed.
Objectives of the African socialism.
 To promote democracy by allowing people of Kenya to freely elect their leader
from time to time.
 To promote social justice by enhancing equality of all before the law.
 To eradicate diseases and ignorance by fighting poverty, providing medicine
and promoting literacy.
 To promote equal economic opportunities.

 To ensures high and growing incomes by promoting a rapidly growing
economy.
 To promote equal distribution of resources to all region.
 To promote freedom of conscience of human dignity by enforcing the bill of
rights
Main features of African socialism.

 It advocate for political democracy where all people are politically free and
equal.
 African socialism advocate for various forms of ownership of wealth. This
include:
 Private ownership.
 State ownership.
 Partnership between state and private.
 It emphasised on development of agriculture in former African areas, this was
to be done through land consolidation, land registration, co-operatives and
provision of development loan and extension services.
 It emphasised on mutual social responsibility. The idea demands that Kenyans
be motivated by the spirit of service and not greed for personal gain.
 A range of control to ensure that property is used in mutual interests of society
and its members.
 It emphasis on progressive taxation where the rich were taxed more than the
poor.
 It emphasised on diffusion of ownership to avoid concentration of economic
power on a few people in the society.
 It emphasised on fair distribution of resources to all citizens in order to
enhance equity.
 It emphasised use of planning to mobilize resources for development
 There was nationalisation of key industries where it was practical and
justifiable.
 Philosophy emphasised on control of rapid population as family planning
services were to be provided to facilitate provision of social services.
Impacts of African socialism on national development.
 It has promoted respect for individual rights as enshrined in the constitution.
 It has encouraged political democracy in the country. Elections have been held
regularly even during single party democracy in Kenya.
 It has led to fair distribution of wealth and income through progressive
taxation.
 It has provided equal opportunities by providing education to all Kenyans for
social and economic change,
 It has provided essential services to all Kenyans e.g. water and health.
 It has led to proper management of agriculture which is backbone of the
economy. Farmers have been given loan facilities and field extension services.
 The government has allowed both private and state ownership of property to
thrive side by side.
 It has led to the development of other related philosophies e.g. harambee and
nyayoism,
 It has motivated Kenyans towards a sense of services to each other and not to
be driven by personal gain or greed that may lead to widespread corruption.
 The philosophy led to establishment of cooperative societies in Kenya. This
has
 It has promoted social and economic development in Kenya.
 Since the philosophy is built on African traditions, it has promoted African
cultures.
 It has promoted national unity and coexistence among Kenyan communities.
 It has given Africans the right to participate in their economy. This was
through the policy of Africanization in which industrial enterprises hitherto
owned by Asians and Europeans, changed ownership.
HARAMBEE.
 Harambee is Kiswahili slogan which means pulling together or working
together.
 Philosophy was founded by Jomo Kenyatta.
 When Jomo Kenyatta become the first prime minister of Kenya he said three
problems facing Kenyans were poverty, disease and ignorance and that
Kenyans should learn to be self-reliant in the spirit of concerted effort to
supplement government effort in development.
Features of Harambee movement.
 Unity which brings about co-operation among people before they settle down
for a common project.
 Volition which is the willingness of people to work wholeheartedly without
supervision
 Determination, forms a useful ingredient whenever undertaking a Harambee
venture. Members of the public must see the reality of the project being
completed and serving the purpose.
 Free participation, allows the harambee spirit to acquire its democratic nature
as a mass movement.
 Sense of purpose. Projects to be put up are guided by the needs of the majority

Categories of Harambee projects:
 Social projects like schools, labarotories, libraries and medical facilities.
 Economic projects like roads, bridges.
 Agricultural and livestock development projects like cattle dips, irrigation and
tree planting.
Objectives of harambee
 To promote development through pooling together resources.
 To promote self-reliance among the citizens.
 To promote national unity.
 To promote patriotism.
 To supplement government efforts through contribution by the citizens.
Principles of harambee
 It is a development strategy that is aim at mobilizing the people at local level to
participate in their development.
 Participation is guided by the principles of collectives goods as opposed to
individual gain. In most cases harambee projects are for the benefit of the
community.
 In the implementation of the projects they should be maximum utilisation of
local resources, such as labour, construction material and money.
 The Choice of project is supposed to be guided by the needs of the majority of
the people. Participants should be involved in decision-making.
Impact of Harambee movement to the development of Kenya.
 Harambee movement has led to development of education in Kenya through
fundraising to construct schools and colleges.
 Through harambee a number of health centres, dispensaries and Nyayo wards
have been set up. Funds have been raised in aid of specialised units such as the
heart unit and hospices for the terminally ill.
 The harambee has enabled the setting up of public projects such as soil
conservation; afforestation and flood control as people from different parts of
the country raise funds or take part directly in the above projects.
 Harambee movement has promoted agricultural development e.g., through
construction of cattle dips and purchase of farms through Harambee.
 Harambee spirit has enabled Kenyans to pool their resources together to assist
the needy, pursue education, and pay medical bills and support disabled
through material and financial support.
 It has encouraged Kenyans not to wait for external assistances in order to face
the challenges of national developments.
 Harambee spirit has promoted unity among Kenyans. People from different
communities meet to contribute towards a worthy cause.
 It has contributed to the redistribution of resources among the Kenyan people.
Those who do not have resources for their existences can benefit from projects
undertaken by the wealthy through harambees.
 Numerous bridges and access roads have been built using harambee funds.
 Through harambee, spiritual growth has been enhanced, since many churches,
mosques and other religious centres have been built.
 Harambee forums have provided forums for leaders to educate the public.
Ways through which it has promoted education in Kenya.

 Many education institutions have been constructed using funds raised through
harambee effort, thus enabling many children to attend school.
 Many students have been assisted to pay school fees/pursue further studies,
thus enabling the needy to go on with learning.
 Physical facilities have been constructed /improved through harambee. This
enables learning in a conducive environment.
 Teaching/learning materials have been purchased / donated to schools to
improve the quality of education.
 Additional staff/workers in schools have been paid through harambee
contributions by the parents to offset the inadequacy.
 Through the harambee spirits, co-curricular activities have been supported by
well-wishers thus helping the learners to exploit their talents.
 School furniture has been bought through harambee effort, thus making
learning / teaching comfortable.
 Parents have contributed funds to supplement the government school feeding
programme, thus improving enrolment / retention.
Ways through which it promotes national unity in Kenya.
 It encourages people to work together.
 It promotes cooperation.
 It promotes equity in the distribution of resources.
 It enhances interaction of the people.
 It promotes patriotism.
Challenges facing harambee philosophy.
 Misappropriation of funds/corruption.
 Poverty among Kenyans.
 Forced contribution.
 Ethnicity/tribalism/nepotism/racism.
 Abuse of harambee contribution for personal gains.
NYAYO PHILOSOPHY.
Origin of Nyayo philosophy.
 Nyayoism is derived from a Kiswahili word Nyayo, which means footsteps.
 Moi was the late Mzee Kenyatta‟s vice president for 12 years, he became
president in 1978 and he decided to follow in the footsteps (Nyayo) of Mzee
Kenyatta of harambee.
Development of Nyayo philosophy.
 Nyayo philosophy is guided by the need by every Kenyan to be mindful of the
welfare of each over.
Source of the Nyayo philosphy.
 Sessional paper no.10 of 1965 that articulate African socialism.
 Biblical teachings of the Ten Commandments.
 Moi long political career.
Pillars of Nyayoism
i. Peace:
 The state of being free from war and disorder.
ii.Love:
 Love brings about trust and readiness to cooperate by working together.
iii.Unity:
 Unity enables the various communities and people from various backgrounds
to work together harmoniously in nation building.
Role of nyayoism in development.
 It has helped Kenyans of different ethnic or racial backgrounds to live together
in harmony.
 It has promoted peace throughout the country which is essential for national
developments.
 Guiding principles in foreign affairs. The peaceful co-existences within the
country has been used largely as guiding principle in Kenya‟s foreign relations.
 Nyayo philosophy has led to the improvement and expansion of the health
sector.e.g.nyayo wards
 Through the creation of the jua kali sector, the philosophy has encouraged
Kenyanisation of the economy.
 Nyayo philosophy has resulted into expansion in education at all levels for the
benefit of all the people.
 It has resulted in rural development through the establishment of the district
focus for rural development in 1983.
 The nyayo philosophy has led to the promotion of sports and cultural activities
throughout the country. Sports grounds have been built to international
standards e.g. Moi sports centre, Kasarani.
 Through nyayo philosophy, agriculture has been boosted trough the creation of
nyayo tea zones. The agricultural society of Kenya has hosted many shows for
farmers throughout the country which were opened by the head of state.
 The philosophy has laid emphasis on issues related to environmental
conservation and management e.g.afforestation and re-afforestation.
Challenges of nyayoism.
 Corruption becomes entrenched in many parts of the country when nyayoism
was implemented.
 Tribalism increased as members of some communities were favoured in
employment and allocation of resources.
 Nepotism spread as some public officers favoured their relatives in
employment.
 Inefficiency increased as performances in the public sector become very bad.
 Mismanagement affected many public projects, resulting in the collapse of
some.
Impact of national philosophies on national development.
Social
 It has promoted Education through building of schools and colleges.
 It has led to improvement medical services by constructing dispensaries, health
centres and hospitals.
 It has encouraged co-operation, understand and unity among Kenyan
communities.
 It has raised living standards by promoting the spiritual and social welfare of
the people by encouraging Kenyans to actively participate in development
projects.
 Disadvantaged groups have been considered by organizing harambee to assist
them.
 It has promoted African cultures through borrowing of positive African
traditions.
 They have promoted the spiritual wellbeing through building of churches.
Economic
 It has encouraged setting up of Co-operative societies.
 They have promoted agriculture through the creation of nyayo tea zones.
 It has improved transport and communication in the country.
 They have created employment as many jobs have been created in the jua kali
and agricultural sector.
 They have accelerated national developments as they have helped to mobilize
citizens to supplement limited government resources.
Political
 It has promoted nationalism and patriotism.
 They have encouraged democratic practice as the country has conducted
regular elections since independence.
 They have promoted peace and stability in the country by encouraging equity,
justice and equal distribution of resources.
Challenges and problems facing national philosophy
 It has promoted overdependence on foreign aid.
 It has fuelled corruption e.g. leaders have abused harambee for personal gain.
 Leaders tend to exploit citizens e.g. through forced harambee.
 Lack solutions to emerging problems like HIV/AIDs, corruption and ethnic
clashes.
REVISION
1. Define the term national philosophy
- A national philosophy is a system of ideological beliefs and values
championed by the ruling party leaderships that has become widely spread
and accepted
2. Mention three national philosophies adopted in Kenya since independence
- African socialism
- Nyayo
- Harambee
3. Name the paper that contained the idea of Africa socialism
- Session paper Nola of 1965
4. What is made by the term African Socialism?
- It‟s an African political economic system that is positively African not
imported from any other country which is capable of incorporating useful and
compatible techniques whatever source
5. State three reasons for adoption of African Socialism
- Need to create a new society different from the colonial society, Society from
racism, oppression and other social injustice
- Desire to create a just and humane society where everybody is equal before
the law
- Desire to united and free Kenya where individual rights and freedoms are
respected
6. State six objectives stated on the sessional paper
- Political equality
- Social justice
- Human dignity and freedom
- Equal opportunities
- High growing income per capital
7. Explain the main features / characteristics of African socialism
- Political democracy. It states that all people are politically equal. Everybody
has a right regardless of gender, race, colour or residence
- Mutual social responsibility. It demands Kenyans to be motivated by the spirit
of service but not greed and personal gain
- Diffusion of ownership. This is to avoid concentration of economic power on
a few people in the society
- Equity. Property should be used for mutual benefit of the society and its
members
- Progressive taxation. This is to ensure equitable distribution of wealth and
income the rich are taxed more
8. State the various forms of ownership brought out in the session paper no
10 of 1965
- Free enterprise, which allows private ownership of property
- Nationalization policy where the state controls and owns major industries
- Partnership, where the state is in partner with private sector
9. Explain the significance of African Socialism
- It has promoted democratic processes in governance. This has been realized
through multi-party system of government, the growth of the civil society
- It has led to building of a society where human dignity is upheld and respected
- It has encouraged unity and peaceful co-existence
- It has promoted African culture
- It has promoted education and health development
- The establishment of co-operative societies in Kenya can be attributed to this
policy
NYAYOISM
1. Deprived from the word ‘nyayo’ which means ‘footsteps’ Moi pledged to
follow the footsteps of his predecessor. He was to follow:
- Social
- Economic and,
- Political policies adopted by Kenyatta
2. Nyayoism comprises traditional virtues of
- Peace
- Love and
- Unity
Nyayoism evolved from three sources
1. Sessional paper No. 10 of 1965 that articulated African socialism. It lays
emphasis on cooperative existence, storing and unity f action i.e. encourages
love, peace and unity
2. The biblical teachings of the Ten Commandments, summarized as love for
God, fellowman and oneself. Moi believed that through the virtue of love the
people of Kenya would build the nation and work against all forms of disunity.
3. Moi‟s long political career inspired him to develop the philosophy. He realized
that nation building required love
PILLARS OF NYAYOISM
1. Based on three pillars
- Peace
- Love and,
- Unity
a) Peace
- Refers to the state of being free from war and disorder
- Nyayo philosophy emphasizes peace and discourages political instability
which disrupts progress.
- Peace promotes development because where there is peace
 Trade will be promoted
 Foreign investors will have confidence and invest in various activities
 Exchange of technology, research and innovation will be enhanced
 Farmers will work on their farms to increase food production
 International cooperation will be enhanced
 Social interaction will be encouraged
b) Love
- The nyayo philosophy stresses love because it brings about trust and readiness
to cooperate by working together to foster national development
c) Unity
- Unity is the cornerstone to nation-building.
- Unity refers to the state of being one, being in harmony or in agreement in
objectives and feelings
ROLE OF NYAYOISM
- The spirits of nyayoism become a guiding principle in Kenya‟s principle in
Kenya‟s development. This is evident in the following ways
 Mutual social responsibility was promoted through the practice of
being mindful of other people‟s welfare. This promoted unity by
discouraging discrimination in resource allocation
 Nyayoism perpetuated the harambee spirit. President Moi mobilized
Kenyans to participate in harambee activities. President Moi, guided
by the principle of being mindful of other people‟s welfare, held
harambee for
 Improving education and health services
 Establishment of Nyayo buses to promote public transport
 Improving the cultural sector
 Setting up a fund for physically challenged, disaster funds to help
victims at their dependants e.g. heart fund, famine relief fund
- The philosophy enhanced cooperation and unity among Kenyans. This
encouraged good international relational relations with her neighbours
- The philosophy encouraged the government to promote the Jua kali sector and
create parastatal provide employment opportunities
Challenges to Nyayoism
1. Difficulties in applying the pillars of peace, love and unity i.e. it is not easy to
monitor and evaluate them as people attach different meanings to them
2. Corruption, a vice that became rampant in the country negated the spirit of
being mindful of other people‟s welfare.
3. World economic recession that slowed down the pace of development
10.Define the term national philosophy
- A national philosophy is a system of ideological beliefs and values
championed by the ruling party leaderships that has become widely spread
and accepted
11.Mention three national philosophies adopted in Kenya since independence
- African socialism
- Nyayo
- Harambee
12.Name the paper that contained the idea of Africa socialism
- Session paper Nola of 1965
13.What is made by the term African Socialism?
- It‟s an African political economic system that is positively African not
imported from any other country which is capable of incorporating useful and
compatible techniques whatever source
14.State three reasons for adoption of African Socialism
- Need to create a new society different from the colonial society, Society from
racism, oppression and other social injustice
- Desire to create a just and humane society where everybody is equal before
the law
- Desire to united and free Kenya where individual rights and freedoms are
respected
15.State six objectives stated on the sessional paper
- Political equality
- Social justice
- Human dignity and freedom
- Equal opportunities
- High growing income per capital
16.Explain the main features / characteristics of African socialism
- Political democracy. It states that all people are politically equal. Everybody
has a right regardless of gender, race, colour or residence
- Mutual social responsibility. It demands Kenyans to be motivated by the spirit
of service but not greed and personal gain
- Diffusion of ownership. This is to avoid concentration of economic power on
a few people in the society
- Equity. Property should be used for mutual benefit of the society and its
members
- Progressive taxation. This is to ensure equitable distribution of wealth and
income the rich are taxed more
17.State the various forms of ownership brought out in the session paper no
10 of 1965
- Free enterprise, which allows private ownership of property
- Nationalization policy where the state controls and owns major industries
- Partnership, where the state is in partner with private sector
18.Explain the significance of African Socialism
- It has promoted democratic processes in governance. This has been realized
through multi-party system of government, the growth of the civil society
- It has led to building of a society where human dignity is upheld and respected
- It has encouraged unity and peaceful co-existence
- It has promoted African culture
- It has promoted education and health development
- The establishment of co-operative societies in Kenya can be attributed to this
policy
NYAYOISM
3. Deprived from the word ‘nyayo’ which means ‘footsteps’ Moi pledged to
follow the footsteps of his predecessor. He was to follow:
- Social
- Economic and,
- Political policies adopted by Kenyatta
4. Nyayoism comprises traditional virtues of
- Peace
- Love and
- Unity
5. The philosophy is the good of the people and therefore, condemns
confusion, greed, immorality and cultural decay
6. Promotes public education of the masses, stressing the value of being what
we are by rediscovering out past
ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT
Nyayoism evolved from three sources
4. Sessional paper No. 10 of 1965 that articulated African socialism. It lays
emphasis on cooperative existence, storing and unity f action i.e. encourages
love, peace and unity
5. The biblical teachings of the Ten Commandments, summarized as love for
God, fellowman and oneself. Moi believed that through the virtue of love the
people of Kenya would build the nation and work against all forms of disunity.
6. Moi‟s long political career inspired him to develop the philosophy. He realized
that nation building required love
PILLARS OF NYAYOISM
2. Based on three pillars
- Peace
- Love and,
- Unity
d) Peace
- Refers to the state of being free from war and disorder
- Nyayo philosophy emphasizes peace and discourages political instability
which disrupts progress.
- Peace promotes development because where there is peace
 Trade will be promoted
 Foreign investors will have confidence and invest in various activities
 Exchange of technology, research and innovation will be enhanced
 Farmers will work on their farms to increase food production
 International cooperation will be enhanced
 Social interaction will be encouraged
e) Love
- The nyayo philosophy stresses love because it brings about trust and readiness
to cooperate by working together to foster national development
f) Unity
- Unity is the cornerstone to nation-building.
- Unity refers to the state of being one, being in harmony or in agreement in
objectives and feelings
ROLE OF NYAYOISM
- The spirits of nyayoism become a guiding principle in Kenya‟s principle in
Kenya‟s development. This is evident in the following ways
 Mutual social responsibility was promoted through the practice of
being mindful of other people‟s welfare. This promoted unity by
discouraging discrimination in resource allocation
 Nyayoism perpetuated the harambee spirit. President Moi mobilized
Kenyans to participate in harambee activities. President Moi, guided
by the principle of being mindful of other people‟s welfare, held
harambee for
 Improving education and health services
 Establishment of Nyayo buses to promote public transport
 Improving the cultural sector
 Setting up a fund for physically challenged, disaster funds to help
victims at their dependants e.g. heart fund, famine relief fund
- The philosophy enhanced cooperation and unity among Kenyans. This
encouraged good international relational relations with her neighbours
- The philosophy encouraged the government to promote the Jua kali sector and
create parastatal provide employment opportunities
Challenges to Nyayoism
4. Difficulties in applying the pillars of peace, love and unity i.e. it is not easy to
monitor and evaluate them as people attach different meanings to them
5. Corruption, a vice that became rampant in the country negated the spirit of
being mindful of other people‟s welfare.
6. World economic recession that slowed down the pace of development
1. State the three challenges that faced Kenya according to Jomo Kenyatta
- Poverty
- Ignorance
- Diseases
SOCIAL, POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND

CHALLENGES IN KENYA SINCE INDEPENDENCE
On attaining political independence in 1963 Kenya encountered a number of
challenges, some inherited from colonial government which include:
 Huge imbalance in land ownership between Africans and European settlers.
 Fast expanding population.
 Ever-changing international socio-economic and political situations.
Challenges that faced the country according to Jomo Kenyatta
 Ignorance.
 Disease.
 Poverty.
Political Development.
Main political problems inherited by Kenya from the colonial government.
 Lack of technocrats who could give political direction to the country.
 Suspicion and jealously between different communities due to the divide-and-
rule tactic employed by the colonial administration for many years.
 An illiterate population, ignorant of its political obligations.
Political developments 1963-1991.
Kenya has witnessed a number of political changes since independence. These
includes:
i.Defacto single party state.
 At independences Kenya adopted a multi-party political system. After
independence there were three political parties. It includes.
 Kenya Africa National Union
 Kenya African Democratic union
 Africa people party.
 Kenya African National Union (KANU) and Kenya African Democratic Union
(KADU) had both political and ideological diffrences.The differences between
the two parties were.
 KANU was supported by the Luo and the Agikuyu, two dominant
parties while KADU was supported by the smaller communities such
as Mijikenda,Kalenjin,Maasai and the Abuluhya
 KANU wanted unitary government while KADU wanted a federal
(majimbo) constitution because it was suspicious that smaller
communities would be dominated by the larger ones.
 In 1963 Kenyatta appealed to KADU to join KANU.He authorized his vice
president Oginga Odinga to persuade KADU and App to join KANU.
 In December 1964 KADU crossed the floor to join KANU.From then KANU
established unitary governments in Kenya from 1964 to 1966.
 Kenya was a de facto (by fact and not by law) one-party state even though the
constitution had provision for multi-party system.
ii.Abolition of federalism.
 In 1964 parliament abolished the regional system of government which Kenya
had at independences.
iii.Limuru conferences of 1966.
 Sharp division began to emerge among the KANU top leaders between the
radicals such as Oginga Odinga, Achieng Oneko and Bildad Kaggia and
Kenyatta.
 Radicals accused Kenyatta and his supporters of lacking commitment to uplift
the lives of the majority of Kenyans in the spirit of African socialism.
 Kenyatta accused Odinga and his team of being on the payroll of communist.
 Following the conflicts KANU delegates held a conferences, in the
conferences KANU constitution was amended leading to creation of eight
provincial party vice presidents instead of a single national vice-president.
 Jaramogi Oginga Odinga left the conferences a bitterman.He resign from
KANU and together with other radicals formed Kenya People‟s Union in 1966.
 Joseph murumbu was elected vice-president after Oginga Odinga in 1966.He
resigned in 1967 and left the seat for Daniel Moi.
 Kenya peoples union remained an opposition party but it was banned in 1969.
iv.The little general elections.
 In 1966 a mini general elections was held following resignation of KANU
members to join KPU.
 During that election KANU defeated KPU.KANU got 21seats while KPU got
seven in the lower house. In the senate KANU took eight while KPU got two.
v.Banning of KPU.
 Following violence‟s of 1969 during of new Nyanza general hospital Kenya
Peoples Union was banned.
vi.The single chamber parliament.
 In 1966 senate was abolished and amalgamated into one chamber parliament
vii.Political assassinations.
 The following political assassination took place.
 Murder of Pio Gama pinto in 1965.
 In July 5, 1969 Tom Joseph Mboya was assassinated this lead to lack of
confidence of the public in the government.
 Later in 1969 43 people killed when Kenyatta had gone to open the
Nyanza general hospital and he was pelted with stones and rotten eggs.
This caused his guard to open fire which killed the people
 There was also the murder of Josiah Mwangi Kariuki (J.M) in March 2,
1975.
 This political assassination increased tension in the country.
viii.Harassment of governments’ critics.
 The political situation in Kenya following the murder of JM Kariuki was
characterized by strong criticism against Kanu government by backbenchers in
parliament.
 The government responded to the criticism by arresting and detaining a
number of parliamentarians which include Martin Shikuku mp for Butere, Jean
Marie Seroney deputy speaker and George Anyona for Kitutu central.
ix.The change of the constitution compaign.
 As Jomo Kenyatta was aging, politician closer to him got worried about his
succession, they began to call for constitution change to prevent the automatic
ascension to power by the vice-president.
 Campaign was being led by Kihika Kimani and Njenga Karume.
x.Death of Kenyatta.
 Jomo Kenyatta died in 1978 and succeeded by Vice President Daniel Arap Moi
who followed the footsteps of his predecessor.
xi.Release of political prisoners.
 On ascending to powers president Moi release all political prisoners.
xii.Dejure-one party state.
 In June 1982, section 2A of the constitution was passed by parliament making
Kenya a dejure one party state.
 It meant that no one was allowed to form any party other political party apart
from the ruling Kanu.
xiii.1982 abortive coup.
 On the 1st august 1982, junior Kenya Airforce officers led by senior private
Hezekiah Ochuka attempted to overthrow the governemt.
 They took over the government broadcast,voice of Kenya and announced the
take-over of government. They were in charge for several hours before they
were defeated by loyalist forces.
xiv.The infamous 1988 general elections
 In 1988, general elections, KANU opted for the unpopular queue voting
method (mlolongo) against secret ballot.
 They system was characterized by rigging out popular politician was perceived
to be party critics. It led to many politicians leaving the ruling party.
xv.The assassination of Robert Ouko
 In February 1990, Dr. Robert Ouko the minister of foreign Affairs and
international co-operation was found murdered.
 His dead was a shock as result there was demonstration in the country.
xvi.Repeal of section 2A of the constitution.
 The infamous section 2A that made Kenya one party state was repealed
returning Kenya to multypartism.
Political challenges.
 One party dictatorship introduced in 1982.
 Political assassination.
 Post election violence of 2007.
 Political detention and torture.
 Attempted military coup of 1982.
 Gender inequality in leadership.
 Boarder conflicts from neighbouring countries e.g. Uganda.
 Formation of militia group e.g. shifta and alshabaab.
 Introduction of section 2a of the constitution
 Banning of KPU.
Multi-party democracy in Kenya
 It is a system of government in which many political parties vie for power.
 At independence Kenya was a multi-party democracy.
 In June 1982, section 2(A) of the constitution was passed by parliament to
make Kenya single party state.
 In 1991 sections of 2(A) of the constitution was repeal by parliament leading
re-introduction of multi-party democracy.
Factors that led to introduction of multi-parties.
i.Alleged rigging of the 1988 general Elections.
 The general elections held in March 1988 were alleged to have been massively
rigged. There were rule that anyone who gained 70 percent majority of votes in
a queue during the preliminaries win the election. However percentage was not
always arrived and people with short queue were being declared winners.
 This led to dissatisfaction within the ruling party.
ii.KANU’s policies who failed to accommodate divergent views.
 Those who were held different opinions were stigmatized, strenuously grilled
and either suspended or expelled from the party.
iii.Development in Eastern Europe.
 After Mikhail Gorbachev introduced liberal reforms in the Soviet Union, wind
of change swept over Eastern Europe, where one-party dictatorships were
replaced by more liberal regimes.
 These developments intensified demands for more serious democratisation in
Africa as a whole and Kenya in particular.
iv.Pressure from multilateral and bilateral donors.
 From 1990 a number of western countries made it clear that they would in
future grant aid to only the developing countries that initiated democratic
policies and were willing to change to pluralistic politics.
 This encouraged critics to pressurise the government to legalise multi-
partyism.
v.Multi-party success in other parts of Africa.
 By 991, wind of change demanding and replacement of the single party
systems with pluralism was widespread in Africa.
 In Zambia president Kenneth Kaunda allowed multi-partism, his party of
united national independence party was defeated by movement for multiparty
democracy led by chiluba.
 These changes encouraged multi-partism.
vi.Pressure from the civil society, lawyers and intellectuals.
 Members of the civil society in Kenya, mainly non-governmental
organizations, supported by lecturers in the public universities, journalists and
lawyers also played an important role in the fight of multipartism.
 Law society of Kenya led by Paul muite,Gitobu Imanyara and others put
pressure on the government to grant Kenyans their wishes for more political
spaces through introduction of multipartism.
vii.Pressure from the clergy.
 Several members of the clergy joined the struggle for multi-partyism.They
called upon the government to create an environment in which Kenyans could
participate in their governance.
 Among prominent church leaders include Timothy Njoya,Bishop Alexander
Muge and right reverend Dr.Henry Okullu ACK bishop of Maseno South
diocese.
viii.Saitoti review committee report of 1990.
 Kanu set up committee which was being led by the vice president professor
George Saitoti.
 The committe recommended abolition of the quieng-voting system and
expulsions from the party.
 However the recommendations did not appease the proponent of multi-
particism.
ix.Repeal of section 2A of the constitution.
 In December 1991 following immense pressure, the government gave into the
demands of the people and as a result repeal section 2A of the constitution
reverting back the country to multipartism.
 As a result of repeal of section 2a a number of parties were formed. First being

Forum for the Restoration of Democracy (FORD).
 Ford later split due to leadership wrangles. They split into Ford Kenya led by
Oginga Odinga and Ford Asili led by Kenneth Matiba.
 Other political parties which emerged include:
 Democratic Party of Kenya.
 Social Democratic Party.
 Liberal Democratic Party.
 Ford-people.
 Kenya National Congress.
 Kenya social congress.
 National Development Party.
 In 2002 several opposition parties came together to formed coalition in order o
defeat Kanu.Those parties include:
 Democratic Party of Mwai Kibaki
 Liberal Democratic party led by Raila Odinga.
 National party of Kenya led by Charity Ngilu.
 Ford Kenya led by Kijana Wamalwa.
 They formed a coalition called national rainbow coalition.
Challenges of Multi – Party Democracy
 Many of the parties that were formed were ethnic-based and lacked nationwide
support
 Lacked of funding of the parties has been a serious problem for most political
parties. Most of them are unable to sustain competition for political power due
to inadequate funds.
 Some members of civil services took part in party politics thus being used
against the opposition.
 Personality differences among leaders lead to infighting and wrangling within
the parties this weakened and disintegrate the party.
 Interference by government machinery like provincial administration.
 Ideological differences among party leaders have affected the democratization
process.
 Due to poverty, many citizens are still comprised, particularly during elections.
Some politicians are known to bribe voters to vote for a particular candidate.
 Inadequate civic education has been major challenges to the democratization
process. Many citizens are not sufficiently educated to appreciate multi-
partyism.
 Selfish and greedy politicians are lured through bribes to defect from
opposition and vice versa.
 Leadership wrangles.
The role of political parties in government and nation building.
Nation building refers to the deliberate action of the government which assures
improvement and increased social economic welfare of a people.
Role of the Ruling Party and Government and National Building
 It forms the government with the leader becoming the president of the country.
 They formulate policies and programmes on how effectively run the
government especially 2003.
 It lays down the policy to guide its members of parliament.
 Party officials work hand-in-hand with civil servants at all levels in
implementing government policies
 The party is charged with the responsibility of promoting the country‟s socio –
economic development.
 They provide civic education to the electorate.
 It formulates foreign policy and protects Kenyan nationals out of the country.
 It provides economic frame work that enhances proper utilization and
exploitation of natural resources.
Role of opposition parties in nation building
 They offer constructive alternative solution to country‟s problems in
parliament.
 They participate actively in political decision-making especially in committees
of the legislative
 They sell their alternative ideas to the general citizens of the country.
 They support strict adherence to the process of democratization, good
governance, accountability, transparency in public affairs and wages was
against corruption.
 They work relentlessly to ensure repeal of unjust and oppressive laws.
 They pressurize the government to release all political prisoners and guard
against arbitrary arrest and detention.
 They ensure the availability of alternative government-in-waiting in the event
that the ruling party is incapable of governing the state.
 They act as a training ground for political leadership.
Revision.
Main political differences between KANU and KADU.
KANU agitated for unitary government while KADU agitated for federal
government.
Main objectives of the change of constitution campaign led by gema.
To ensure the then vice president Daniel Toroitich arap Moi would not succeed the
president since the constitution provided that the vice presidents take over for 90 days
after the president death.
Significant amendment was made to the constitution.
Kenya was made one party state.
Results of the 1982 coup.
The airforce was disbanded.
Suspects were jailed or fire.
What was the repealing of section 2a of the constitution mean.
The re-introduction of a multiparty democracy in Kenya.
What led to the split of ford into ford Kenya and Ford Asili
Leadership wrangles.
Why donors did suspended aid to Kenya from November 1991 to April 1993.
Moi had refused to heed demands for multi party democracy.
Economic development and Challenges.

 At independence in 1963, the young nation of Kenya encountered a number of
economic challenges that needed to be tackled urgently.
These challenges include.
 Investment had stagnated in the four years subsequent to political
independence owing to the substantial transfer of capital from the country by
the white settlers.
 Many African were suffering due to landlessness as most of the best arable
land had been acquired by the white settlers.
 There was a serious economic disparity in the country. In the former settler
occupied highlands, roads, electricity and piped water were adequately
provided.
 In the urban centres, the facilities were under pressure due to the effects of
rural-urban migration.
 The economy was being controlled by the European community e.g. the large
industries and prosperous farms were owned by the Europeans.
 There was lack of qualified manpower to run the technical sectors of the
economy.
Types of land holding in Kenya.
 Land holding refers the various forms of land ownership.
 In pre-colonial period landownership in Kenya was communal.
 During the colonial period private ownership of land was introduced. Africans
were dispossessed of their communal lands through land alienation.
 On attainment of independence, the constitution of Kenya 2010 has one
chapter (chapter 5) dedicated to land and the environment.
In the constitution land is classified as:
 Public land.
 Community land.
 Private land.
Public land
 This land belongs to the public and the custodian is the National or County
government.
Public land falls under the following descriptions.
 Land used or occupied by the state organ.
 Land transferred to the state by sale, surrender or reversion.
 Land which no individual or community ownership can be established
 Land where minerals and oils are found.
 All government forests, games reserves, water catchments areas, national parks
and animal sanctuaries.
 All roads and thoroughfares provided by an act of parliament.
 All rivers, lakes, and water bodies defined by act of parliament.
 The territorial sea, the exclusive economic zone and the sea-bed.
 The continental shelf
 All land between the high and lower water-marks.
Community land
 This is land held by communities identifies on the basis of ethnicity, culture or
similar community of interest.
 Land lawfully registered in the name of group representatives
 Land lawfully transferred to a specific community by any process of law.
 Any other land declared to be community land by an act of parliament.
 Land that is lawfully held, managed and used by specific communities as
community forest, grazing areas or shrines.
 Ancestral lands are lands traditionally occupied by hunter gatherer
communities.
 Land lawfully held as trust land by the county government.
Private land
 Registered land held by any person held under any free hold tenure.
 Land held by any person under leasehold tenure.
 Any other land declared private land under an act of parliament.
 Land holding by non citizens.
 Its hold by someone who is not a Kenyan citizen through leasehold training
and doesn‟t exceed 99 years.
National land commission
Functions.
 To manage public land on behalf of the national and county governments.
 To recommend a national land policy to the national governments.
 To carry out research on land uses by the state.
 To investigates on complaint into present or past land injustices.
 To encourage the use of traditional methods of resolving disputes in land
disagreements.
 To assess tax on land and premiums on immovable property in any region.
 To monitor and have oversight responsibilities over the planning of the use of
land within the country.
Land policies
Land policies are the general guiding principles over land ownership and land use.
Since independence government has developed a number of land policies and these
includes:
i.Establishment of land ministry.
It formed the ministry of lands and settlement. The ministry was formed to formulate
and implement land policies in the country.
ii.Establishment of settlement schemes.
The government established settlement schemes around the country. The aim was to
resettle landless Africans. These were created by subdividing large-scale farms
formerly owned by Europeans settlers.
Examples of the scheme.
 The million acre scheme.
 The harambee scheme.
 The haraka scheme.
 The shirika scheme.
There were other schemes in the coastal area as land was plenty of underdeveloped
land.
iii.Formation of co-operatives and land buying companies.
Co-operatives and land buying companies were also formed to help purchase farms
for member.
Main types of co-operative in Kenya.
 Producer cooperatives
 Consumer cooperative.
 Saving and credit cooperatives.
iv.Provision of loans.
The government gave new African settler loans for purchase of land farm inputs.
v.Land adjudication.
It set up the land adjudication and registration programme concerned with converting
the traditional African land tenure system to one based on registered freehold tenure
originally, it was known as land consolidation because fragmented plots owned by
one person in a particular area were consolidated into one holding before registration.
vi.Development of large-scale farming.
The government promoted development of large scale farms through Agricultural
Development Cooperation (ADC) which established to manage these farms.adc
retained several farms for the production of certain key inputs such as hybrid seeds
and high quality breeding stock.
vii.Diversification of agriculture.
The government diversification of the agriculture sector to avoid reliance on two
crops as was the case in the colonial period. In addition to coffee and tea which
formed the backbone of the colonial economy other crops such as sisal,
wheat,phyrethrum.horticulture crops.sugargane was also introduced.
viii.Establishment of research stations.
The government laid great emphasis on research through the Kenya agricultural
research institute and livestock (karlo) established at Muguga near
Nairobi,Tigoni,Bogoria,Embu and Bukura among others.
ix.Establishment of irrigation schemes.
The development of irrigation in agriculture in Kenya is important since dry land
constitutes about 80 percent of the total land area.
At independence, the total area under irrigation was 3,340 hectares (8,300 acres) in
1983 irrigation covered.
Examples of irrigation schemes are:
 Bura irrigation scheme in Tana River County
 Ahero irrigation schemes in Kisumu County
 Mwea Tebere irrigation schemes in Kirinyaga County
 Perkerra irrigation schemes in Baringo County.
x.Establishments of development authorities.
The government established development authorities, such as the Tana-Athi river
development authority (TARDA) Kerio valley and Lake Basin Development
Authorities, which are responsible for the co-ordination and proper use of resources
in each water catchment area.
xi.Land reclamation.
There was land reclamation about 56,600 hectares of irrigation and reclaimed land in
Western Kenya.
xii.Conservation of the environment.

The decline in soil fertility, the high rate of population increase, overstocking and
demand for firewood have emphasised the need for conservation of water, soil and
forest
The government has put in place major changes in land use which increase action to
arrest land degradation caused by
 Destruction of forests through clearing for cultivation or timber.
 Poor cultivation methods especially on hillsides.
 Reduction of water and grazing areas, particularly in arid and semi-arid areas.
 Successive crop failure and diminishing crop yields.
 Over stocking and cultivation along river banks.
Challenges facing land policies.
Despites positive measures taken by the government to promote agricultural sector, a
number of problems have persist.
Challenges facing agricultural sector in Kenya.
 Nomadic pastoralists are yet to allow the individual lease or land tenure system
in their areas.
 Farmers produce is always destroyed by pests before and after harvest.
 Politically instigated ethnic clashes have discouraged farmers from carrying
out activities due to insecurity.
 Over-production of similar agricultural produce leads to wastage due to lack of
buyers.
 Shortage of agricultural extensions officers has made it difficult for farmers to
get advice on how to improve yields.
 Inadequate funds which has impeded the speed of land demarcation and
adjudication.
 Kenyan people have inefficient technology to operate modern farm machinery
which is also not available.
 Poor transport and communication network.
 Ever increasing population has led to fragmentation of land into small unviable
units.
 The rapidly spreading HIV and AIDS infection that deprive the agricultural
sector the much needed labour.
 The deterred cultural practices where girls are not allowed to own land denies
woman ownership right is a major challenge to agricultural improvement.
 High lost of agricultural inputs and low price of agricultural produce
discourage the farmers.
 The government has problems of resettling thousands of squatters who live in
either private or government land.
 Public land in Kenya is grabbed through fraudulent acquisition of title deeds
and illegal allotment letters.
 The spread of arid conditions and unreliable climatic conditions are a major
challenge to land use.
Industry.
At independence Kenya‟s industrial development was basically of primary nature
based on processing of agricultural raw materials and few mineral exploited in the
country.
Reasons why the government set up industries.
 To attain of rapid industrial output.
 To create of employment.
 To earn foreign exchange.
 For utilization of the locally available resources.
Steps taken by the government to improve development of industries.
i.Establishment of Kenya industrial estates.
The government formed the Kenya industrial Estate (K.I.E) which was to provide
technical advice and capital for the establishment of factories.
ii.Provision of credit facilities
The government provided enabling environment for local-based banks like Kenya
commercial Bank (KCB) and National Banks of Kenya (NBK)to provide loans and
credit to Africans to start industries.
iii.Establishment of processing industries.
The government started factories such as the Kisumu cotton mills (KICOMI) Kenya
Titexmills (KTM) in Thika and Nanyuki textiles,while it encouraged the
establishment of private textile industrial such as Raymonds and the Blankets factory
in Nakuru.
iv.Establishment of light engineering
The independence government encouraged the establishment of light engineering
industries. These were involved in the production of basic farm implements like
jembes, pangas, nails, iron sheets and barbed wires.
v.Establishment of motor vehicle assembly.
Kenya ventured into production of heavy motor vehicles by setting up motor vehicles
Assembly plant in Thika.
vi.Establishment of chemical industries.
There have also been ventures to start chemical industries following the
establishment of oil refineries at changamwe, Mombasa.
Kenya is able to pump oil from Mombasa to other parts of the country through the
establishment of Kenya oil pipeline.
vii.Establishment of paper industry

Kenya has proper manufacturing industry in Webuye.
viii.Agro-based food processing industries.
The agro – based factories to process tea, coffee and fruit were set up in the
agricultural areas.
There is also beverage and food processing, especially in Soft drinks and grain
milling (flour).
The developments in industries were boosted by the establishment of hydro-power at
Okaria Naivasha.
ix.Establishment of sugar factories.
The expansion of sugar processing industries were developed in the sugar cane
growing areas of Mumias, Chemilil and others.
x.Jua kali industries.
The government also encouraged the establishments of jua kali artisan industries
using scrap and the recycling of materials.
xi.Tourism.
The government has encouraged the growth of the tourism industry by supporting
organizations that support the industry.
xii.Mining.
The mining industry is not well developed.However,the exploitation of soda ash and
limestone for production of salt and cement has been done.
After independences government set up various statutory bodies which include:

 Kenya Ports Authority.
 Kenya Power and Lightening Company.
 Kenya Railways Corporation.
 Kenya Pipeline Corporation.
Reasons why government set statutory bodies.
 To generate revenue.
 To create employment.
 To provide loans to entrepreneurs and farmers.
 To assist the govern met to control major sectors of the economy.
 To provide the essential services to the people of Kenya.
Ways through which Kenya port authority promotes industrialization.

 It provides containers for handling cargo of all kinds.
 It handles the imports and exports of the country.
 It is a key foreign exchange earner for the state.
 Port of Mombasa creates employment for several Kenyans.
 It stimulated the local industries.
 It handles ware house.
Factors that facilitated industrial growth in Kenya since independence.
 Availability of raw materials such as soda ash, flouspar etc.
 Presence of water bodies that provide fish
 The presences of forests that produced the timber needed for the furniture
industry.
 The rich scenery e.ge Mt.Kenya, Mt.Elgon, the Aberdares, the rift valley and
the rich wildlife have promoted the tourism industry since the colonial period.
 Availability of water that generate electricity as well as for industrial use.
 Availability of skilled and unskilled labour from the large population provided
the work force required in industries.
 Availability of raw materials from the agricultural sectors and mineral
resources.
 Improved transport and communication infrastructure has created conducive
environment for establishment for industries.
 Availability of energy through establishment of hydro-electric power stations
such as the seven folks along the Tana River and geothermal power and Ol-
Karia in Naivasha.
 Government initiatives through establishment of a ministry of industry and
provision of credit facilities.
CHALLENGES FACING INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT.
 Inadequate trained and skilled personnel.
 There are low levels of local entrepreneurship. Many Kenyans shy away from
venturing into industrial investments.
 Insufficient funds. Setting up an industry require large sum of money
 Inadequate internal and external market. The internal market is crippled by
poverty and low income while the external market is faced with the problem of
competition.
 Importation of cheap products such as used clothes, shoes, motor vehicles, has
led to the collapse of some local industries.
 Corruption, nepotism and mismanagement have led to the collapse of industry
and scared away potential investors.
 Poor transport and communication infrastructure has hindered the distribution
of raw materials and finished goods.
 Inadequate supply of power.Hydo-electic power which is a major source of
industrial development is poorly developed. The little power available is not
equitably distributed thus slowing down industrial developments.
Effects of Kenya’s industrial development.

 It has created more employment opportunities.
 Industrialization has allowed for the diversification of the Kenyan economy.
 It has led to improvement in infrastructure.
 It has led to maximum utilization of resources.
 It has led to the growth and development of urban centres within the country.
 It has led to the development of cultural interaction.
 It has increases self-reliance‟s in products such as soft drinks.
Social developments and challenges education.
 At independence Education was seen as the only way to develop skilled man
power to replace expatriates in civil, service, commence and industry.
 The government therefore made deliberate tailor education to suit the
developmental needs of the new nation.
The major developments include:
i.Education commissions.
There were committee‟s setups to advice the government like
 The Kenya education commission also known as Ominde commission of 1964
-1965.
 Recommended extensive changes in the education curriculum to make
it relevant to Kenyans.
 The national committee on education objectives and policies also known as
Gachathi commission (1976)
 Presidential working party on establishment on the second university also
known as Mackay commission (1982).
 Recommended establishment of the 8-4-4 system of education in
Kenya.
 They proposed that subjects such as art and crafts,music,agriculture
and homescience be given more emphasis in the curriculum.
 Kariithi commission (1983),
 Kamunge commission (1983).
 Recommended cost-sharing in education and the sharing in education
and the reduction of subjects in the 8-4-4 curriculum.
 Davy Koech commission (2002).
 Recommended the introduction of totally integrated quality education
and training.(TIQET)
 Odhiambo commission of 2010.Odhiambo commission was to align the
education system to the new constitution of Kenya 2010.
 It recommended the introduction of 2-6-6-3 system to replace the 8-4-4
system.
Each of this commission made elaborate reports on the required educational reforms.
ii.Expansion in education.
 Since independence there has been a rapid expansion of education at all levels,
from nursery to university for example:
 In 1963 there was 6,058 primary schools while in 2017 there were 28000
primary schools
 In 1963, there were 151 secondary schools while in 2017 there were 7000
secondary schools.
 In 1970 the University of Nairobi was only university in Kenya.
 In 2017 there were over 30 public university and 18 private universities.
There were also many national polytechnics and middle level colleges.
iii.Establishment of education departments and institutions.
 A number of educational departments and institutions were established under
the Ministry of Education aimed at improving the system. They included:
 the inspectorate which was established to supervise teaching
 The Kenya Institute of Education (KIE) was established to develop
relevant curriculum teaching/learning materials for use by schools and
colleges.
 The Kenya National Examinations council was established to develop
administration and certify national examinations.
 Kenya literature Bureau was established to publish materials for use in
schools and colleges.
 The Department of Adult Education in the Ministry of culture and
social services was set up to develop and supervise the
implementation of adult educations programmes.
iv.The 8-4-4 system of education
 There was change in the educational system since independence; the 8-4-4 was
effected in 1985.
 The new curriculum emphasis practical and vocational – oriented subjects such
as crafts, art work, metal work, agriculture, carpentry and home science.
v.Free primary education
 In 1974, free primary education was introduced. However the government later
introduced cost-sharing.
 In 2003 when national rainbow coalition NARC came to power, they
introduced free primary education. This led to increase in enrolments in
primary schools.
 Introduction of free primary education in 2003 faced with a lot of challenges
which includes:
 Inadequate teachers.
 Shortage of classrooms.
 Inadequate learning materials.
vi.Free day secondary schools.
 In 2007, the governments introduced tuition free day secondary education by
paying fee all the learners.
vii.2-6-3-3 system of education.
 In 2018 the government introduced new system of education 2-6-3-3.The
system emphasised a competence-based curriculum as opposed to a
knowledge-based curriculum.
 Setting up of higher education loans board (HELB) to provide loans to
university students to enable them complete their studies.
viii.Introduction of parallel degrees in 1999.
 Government introduced parallel programmes, programmes which has led to
increase in the number student pursuing degree programmes.
Challenges facing education.
 High drops out rates of girls due to pregnancies or early marriages
 High rate of the spread of HIV and AIDS infection among learners in the
public university.
 Frequent industrial unrest among the tutors disrupts the education system.
 Poor performance in sciences and mathematics.
 High poverty level in the society has made education to be unaffordable to
some people.
 Frequent changes and revision of curriculum which involves huge financial
resources.
 Too many unemployed people with higher education and technical skills which
discourages the youth from pursuing higher education.
 Increases in the number of school going children as compared to existing
learning resources.
 Insecurity in some regions like Kapedo, Garissa, Mandera, among others
undermines government efforts to provide education.
Health.
At independence the governments acknowledge that there was need to eradicate
disease along with poorly and ignorance.
Major development in health sector
i.Expansion of health services.
The government has been committed in the provision and improvement of health
service to its people. This has lead to establishment of health centres, dispensaries
and hospitals throughout the county.
ii.Establishment of the ministry of health.
The government created the ministry of health to oversee all health issues. It
established the position of director of medical services as head of the medical
profession based in Nairobi.
iii.Establishment of referral hospitals.
The Ministry has established national referral hospitals to handle specialised cases
referred to them from other hospitals. The first one was Kenyatta national hospital
and later Moi teaching and referral hospital. More teaching and referral hospitals
were established e.g. Jaramogi Oginga Odinga in Kisumu.
iv.Provision of primary health care.
There has been successful national wide immunization against preventive diseases
and accessing of family planning services to the people.
A constituency AIDs fund has been legislated where funds are channelled
specifically to educate and control the spread of HIV/AIDS infection.
v.Private sector involvement.
The government allowed establishment of private hospitals by individual medical
practitioners, religious and non-governmental organizations. This has resulted in
expansion and extension of hospitals throughout the country major cities and towns.
vi.Formation of the national hospital insurance fund.
There is the formation of National hospital insurance fund (NHIF). The insurance
cover facilitates access to health services to workers and self employed persons.
vii.Promotion of research.
The government have set up complimentary institutions to operate which have
contributed to improvement in health
The African medical research foundation (AMREF) was formed to enhance the
provision of community health support, and Kenya Medical Research
viii.Introduction of cost sharing.
To make health and medical services accessible to a large population the government
provides highly subsidized cost sharing services in its hospitals, dispensaries and
clinics.
Challenges facing health
 High cost of the medical equipment and drugs.
 First growing population has put a strain on the available health facilities.
 The HIV and AIDS scourge which affects large segment of the society poses a
big challenge to the government.
 Corruption and other related vices that affects the procurement, distribution
and provision of drugs.
 There is an ineffective national hospital insurance programme.
 Disagreements between the national and county governments over policy
making.
 Retrogressive cultural practices have frustrated government efforts to provide
health care.
 Brain drain: Due to better emoluments offered in developed countries.
 Industrial unrest due to prolonged doctors and nurses strikes has affected
health care.
 High rate of accidents and injuries especially on roads have strained health care
facilities.
 Emergence of new strains of diseases which have become resistant to drugs.
 Increased environmental pollution has led to high incidence of ailments thus
undermining government efforts in providing health services
Culture and sports.
Culture is a people‟s way of life. Since independence, the government has made
effort to promote the unique Kenyan culture which is expressed through drama, art,
music, painting, sculptures and dance.
Major developments in culture include:
i.Establishment of a ministry of culture and sport.
The government created a ministry of culture to promote Kenyan cultural diversity.
ii.Inclusion of cultural studies and curriculum.
The government incorporated some aspects of cultural studies in the curriculum. For
example, music, drama, art and craft are taught in schools.
iii.Festivals.
The government promoted cultural festivals in the country. These include community
festivals such as Lamu cultural festivals,migwena festival and maralal camel derby.
Establishment of cultural heritage centres.
The government established special institutions which preserve cultural heritage of
different communities e.g. Bomas of Kenya and national museum of Kenya.
iv.Establishment of Kenya national theatre.
To promote theatrical performance, the government established the Kenya national
theatre in Nairobi to develop Africa oriented theatre.
v.Promotion of art.
The government set up a department of culture to assist artists to exhibit their works
in painting and sculpture.
vi.Establishment of the permanent presidential commission on music (PPCM).
The government created the PPCM to promote Kenya‟s rich folk music and dance.
Sports.
Kenya is a leading sports nation. The country takes part in all major sports like
athletics, football, rugby, cricket and motor sport.
Major developments.
i.Participation in international events.
The country has taken part in Olympics, commonwealth and world championships
where it has won several medals. In 2014 the country rugby team won the
international rugby seven series in Hong Kong.
ii.Improvement of sports facilities.
In the 1980,s the government constructed two new sports stadia i.e. Nyayo national
stadium and Moi international sports centre Kasarani.
iii.Promotion of traditional sports.
The government has encouraged communities to take part in traditional sports e.g.
bull fighting.
iv.Hosting of international games.
The country has hosted a number of international sport events e.g. all African games
in 1988 and junior athletics in 2017.
v.Formation of the Kenya national sports council.
In 1976, the government created a national sports council to regulate sporting
activities in the country.
vi.Creation of a department of sports.
In 1989,the government created nine departments of sports under the ministry of
culture and social services.
vii.Formation of a ministry of sports.
In 2003, the government formed a fully fledged sports ministry.
Challenges facing culture and sports.
 Inadequate facilities for games and sports
 Poor remunerations especially those who involve in music,drama,Theatre and
sports.
 Exploitation on royalty payments especially the music industry government
and drama.
 Inadequate funds to enhance cultural programmes.
 Piracy of local artists‟ works has denied them revenue
 Misappropriation of the funds for development of culture and sports activities
is a big problem for the government to solve.
CHAPTER 6
SOCIAL POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND
CHALLENGES IN AFRICA SINCE INDEPENDENT
Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)
 It was formerly known as Zaire under the late Mobutu Seseseko.
 At independence it was known as Congo Leopoldville (Congo Kinshasa)
 It was colonized by Belgium and gain independence in June 30th 1960.
Political Developments.
The following political developments have been experienced in the DRC since
independence.
 In 1960 Joseph Kasavubu the leader of the Bakongo Association became
president while Patrick Lumumba the leader of the Congolese National
movement (MNC) became Prime Minister.
 Formation of political parties which lacked national outlook hence caused
disunity in the country.
 At independence there were chaos and the whole country was plunged into
disorder in what came to be known as the “Congo Crisis”
 Mutiny in the army was another major crisis which faces DRC. It began when
Africans in the army mutinied against the Belgian officers. The new state did
not have enough Africans to head the army so they relied on the old white
officers. The Africans were opposed to this, a situation they regarded as a sell-
out by politicians.
 Katanga secession was another political development in DRC.M Tishamba
attempted to seccede Kitanga (Shaba) from DRC.with the help of Belgium
soldiers he attempt establish has own independent state. This prompted a
rebellion in Kasai provinces.
 Assassinations of Lumumba. Lumumba and Kasuvubu were political
antagonist. These internal squabbles led to assassination of Lumumba in
December 1960.Assination of Lumumba made his followers to pull out of
government and retreated to province of Orientale province. They stared
training guerrilla trainings camps to overthrow the Kasuvubu government.
 National coalition governments. There was so much confusion in the DRC, the
country was disintegrated into different regions with Katanga under Tshombe,
Kisangani under Lumumba supporters and Kasai under Kasuvubu.Each
regions had its own army and government. As a result a new coalition
government was formed to accommodate different regions under adoula cyrille
which temporarily brought peace in DRC.
 Drafting of a new constitution. A constitution was enacted in 1963 and DRC
become a federation and each state had it own assembly.
 Kisangani rebel. Appointment of Moisei Tshombe as prime minister disgusted
the Lumumba group as result stage rebellion against the government in the city
of Kisangani, where they formed People‟s Republic of Congo. War broke
between Tshombe‟s government and Kisangani rebels. To diffuse the tension
Kasavubu forced Tshombe to resign.
 Military Coup. In 1965, the government of Kasavubu was overthrown by the
army led by General Joseph Desire Mobutu in a bloodless coup. The army
hoped to restore Congo‟s lost glory.
 Mobutu‟s dictatorship.Mobutu established a dictatorial government.
When come to power Mobutu then embarked on the following reforms.
 He centralized power by becoming the head of state & government
 He banned all political parties before forming the MPR (Movement of
the popular de la revolution) in 1967 as the only party.
 He hoped to unite Congo with one –party
 He reformed the constitution & reduced the powers of parliament.
 He abolished federal system & local assemblies.
 He reduced the number of administrative regions to 8
 He renamed major town‟s e.g Leopoldville become Kinshasa while
Elizabethville become Lubumbashi.
 He changed the name of Congo to Zaire in order to differentiate it
from Congo Brazzaville.
Internationally
 Mobutu denounced Israel invasion of Arab countries.
 He attempted to nationalize industries but later reverse when he
realise he need foreigners for investment
 He kept close ties with the west.
 He encouraged the formation of black African league to counter Arab
league.
 Invasion by the Congolese national liberation front. Congolese national
liberation front attacked the DRC severally from their base in angola.As a
result Mobutu look for assistances from France and Belgium.
 Multipartyism.Following the external pressure, mobutu agreed to end the ban
on multi-party politics.
 Coalition governments.Mobutu forms a coalition government with opposition
leaders.
 Overthrowal of Mobutu.In 1997, rebels forces led by Laurent Kabila staged a
successful offensive in May 1997 forcing Mobutu to go to exile he died in
1997 and was buried in morocco.
 Civil war. Civil erupted in 1998.Rwanda and Uganda backed rebels against
Kabila government. Zimbabwe, Namibia and Angola sent troops on the side of
Kabila regime.
 Assassination of Laurent Kabila. Laurent Desire Kabila was assassinated in his
palace on 16th January 2001.He was succeeded by his 32 years old son Joseph
Kabila.
 Government of national unity. Following internal strife, government of
national unity was formed following a peace agreement brokered by South
Africa in 2002.
 Adoption of new constitution in 2003.
 DRC held a referendum in 2005.Its resolutions include holding of the first
post-independence elections.
 Elections were held in 2006 and Joseph Kabila was elected for a second term.
 Elections which were supposed to hold in 2016 were postponed to December
2018.
The economic developments
 Mining was expanded. Over 1000 different types of minerals and precious
metals were identified, this include copper, uranium and chrome. Mineral
wealth accounts for 80 percent of the country‟s foreign exchange earnings.
 The governments of Mobutu nationalised major industries. State took over
some private assets e.g. the union minier assets, a leading mining company.
 Government received revenue from mining and invest part it on agriculture
which led to increased food production.
 The government improved transport and communication through the
construction of ports, road and railways for example matadi port.
 Development of industries. Construction of the Inga hydro-electric dam was
important to industrial development. The government further expanded
investment to other industries, for example, textiles, light engineering, cement
production and petroleum-based industries.
 Fluctuation of copper prices in the world market led to low foreign earnings.
 In 1986, a five year plan was launched aimed at promoting industry, cutting the
budget deficit and stabilising the value of their national currency. However it
failed.
 Inflation. In 1993, there were army mutinities due to unpaid salaries.Mobutu
responded by printing new notes to pay the soldiers. These new currency notes
were, however, rejected by the opposition who urged traders to reject them.
 The entertainment ndustry, especially in music also contributes to the country‟s
economy.
 The country was plunged into heavy foreign debts and on many occasions it
defaulted on repayments.
 The high oil prices from 1973 affected the economy which registered low
growth.
The social development
 Mobutu introduced a programme of indigenous cultural revival called
authenticity programme. This involved change of foreign names to indigenous
ones. Countries name was renamed Zaire from congo.Some cities like
Leopoldville, Elizabethville and Stanleyville become Kinshasha, Lubumbashi
and Kisangani.Mobutu dropped his Christian name, Joseph, and became
Mobutu Sese Seko in 1971 and the country‟s name to Zaire.
 Education was developed under Mobutu primary, secondary and universities
expanded.
 Health services were improved as hospital and health centres were built with
national mineral insurance programme and a pension scheme for workers.
 The government supported social activities like sports through provision of
funds.
 Congolese culture, especially in music has greatly been refined.
Social, Economic and Political challenges in DRC since independence.
 Since independence, the DRC has faced many political, economic and social
challenges.
 Banning of opposition political parties by Mobutu Sese Seko to create a one
party state undermined the ideals of democracy in the country.
 Appointment of senior government officers on the basis of kinship created
disunity in the country.
 The replacement of the federal government with a centralised bureaucratic
system promoted dictatorship in the country.
 The muzzling of parliament which was made a mere rubber stamp of the
executive policies undermined good governance.
 A weak and disorganised opposition failed to check the government excess.
 The recurrences of civil war divided the country along tribal lines which
undermined national unity.
 Political assassination of key leaders such as Patrice Lumumba and Laurent
Kabila undermined national security.
 Ideological differences between leaders divide the country. For example,
Patrice Lumumba who was perceived to be communist differed with Joseph
kasavubu who was a capitalist.
 Secessionists‟ movements, for example Moise Tshombe Katanga secession and
Albert Kilonjis Kasai secession.
 Foreign interferences‟ which has undermined the country‟s development.
 Strained relations with her neighbours characterised by accusations and
counter accusations which has led to outbreak of civil wars.
Economic challenges.
 The profits from mineral are repatriated by foreign companies which have a
monopoly in the mining sector. This contributes to slow economic growth.
 The country has huge foreign debt due to over reliance‟s on loan. This leaves
little funds for development and recurrent expenditure.
 Illegal trading activities due to lack of proper trade policies denied the
government revenue.
 High level of corruption in government has denied the country money required
for development.
 Poor infrastructures such as roads and railways have undermined economic
growth.
 Political instability in the regions, for example, the war in Angola has
undermined DRC‟s international trade.
 Mobutu‟s financial policies of printing paper money resulted into high rate of
inflation.
 Mobutu‟s inconsistent national policies of nationalisation led to economic
decline.
 Recurrence of civil wars has created a hostile environment for investments and
scared away investors.
 Inadequate investment in education by colonial masters and subsequent
government has led to inadequate qualified personnel to oversee economic
development.
 Widespread poverty among the people as a result of high rate of
unemployment.
 Over-reliances on minerals and largely underdeveloped agricultural sector has
undermined economic development.
Social challenges.
DRC has experienced the following social challenges.
 High levels of illiteracy due to inadequate access to education.
 The country‟s health system is poorly developed. This has led to poor health
care.
 Poor standards of living among the people due to high levels of
unemployment.
 The country has a large number of refugees from neighbouring countries living
in camps. This posed a security risk.
 Prolonged civil wars have led to over 2 million internally displaced persons.
Tanzania
Tanzania is a union between the former Tanganyika and Zanzibar.
The following developments have taken place in the country since independence.
Political development.
 Tanganyika and Zanzibar formed a political union called Tanzania in
1964.Julius Nyerere become the president while Sheikh Abeid Karume
become vice-president.
 Formation of Chama Cha Mapinduzi.Tanganyika and Zanzibar merged their
two parties Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) and the Afro-Shiraze
party (CP) to form Chama cha Mapinduzi (CCM) in 1977.
 Signing of Arusha declaration in 1967 which laid down the principles for
development. These principles are:
 Self-reliance-they were to depend on their own human and material
resources for development.
 Socialism (ujamaa).-they were to build a socialist society where
everybody, including the youth would be involved in a responsible
activity. This was known as Ujamaa.
 Equality.Arusha declaration forbade all forms of discrimination
based on class, wealth, status, religion and sex.
 Nationalisation.through this policy, the government acquired
ownership of the principal resources and means of production
enabling the people of Tanzania to own their country‟s wealth.
 Assassination of the first vice-president Sheik.A.Karume in 1972.He was
succeeded by Aboud Jumbe as president of Zanzibar and vice-president of
Tanzania.
 Transfer of capital city from Dar-Es-Salaam to Dodoma in 1973.
 Tanzania becomes a member of East African community from 1967 to 1977.
 Tanzania went to war with Uganda in 1979 when Uganda invaded Tanzania in
1979.This led to downfall of dictator Idi Amin, who was then in power.
 Tanzania closed her border with Kenya in 1997.
 Tanzania support liberation movement in other part of africa.For example, it
provided material and financial support to Angola, Mozambique and
Zimbabwe to gain their independence. It also opposed apartheid regime in
South Africa.
 Nyerere retired in 1985 and was succeeded by Ali Hassan Mwinyi from
zanzibar.The vice-president was Joseph Warioba.
 Multi-partiysm.There was pressure from donors to adopt pluralism. As a result
the then president Ali Hassan Mwinyi appointed a commission headed by chief
justice Francis Nyalai to determine whether Tanzania should become multi
party democracy. Following the committee recommendations, in May 1992,
Tanzania national assembly passed 8th amendment act allowing multi-partyism.
A number of political party emerged which include:
 National convention for construction and reform.(NCCR-Mageuzi)
 Chama Cha Demokrasia na Maendeleo(CHADEMA),
 Civic United Front,Union of Multi-party Democracy.
 Benjamin Mkapa was elected to succeed Ali Hassan Mwinyi as the third
president of independent Tanzania.
 Jakaya Kikwete was elected in 2005 to succeeded Benjamin Mkapa as the
fourth president of Tanzania.
 Re-election of Jakaya Kikwete in 2010 for final term.
 Election of John P.Maghufuli in 2015 to succeeded Jakaya Kikwete as fifth
president of Tanzania.
Economic developments.
 Arusha declaration increased agricultural production through the Ujamaa
programme.
 Tanzania introduced economic reforms which include encouraging private
enterprise.
 Tanzania witness growth Industrial development. Many small scale industries
developed in rural areas. Textile, cement and steel mills and tyre factory was
opened.
 Income generating projects have been undertaken by the youth in Tanzania.
 The nationalization policy put most business under the state.
 Construction Tan-Zam railway line between 1970 and 1974 which link Dar-es-
Salaam and Kapiri Mposhi in land-locked Zambia.
 Transport and communication infrastructure was developed like Tanzan oil
pipeline and Tan-zam railway line.
 Village co-operative societies were abolished and replaced with centralised
agricultural marketing bodies under the national milling corporation and the
national coffee board. However the move was unpopular among farmers who
began selling their produce to informal market.
Measures taken by the Tanzania to revive its economy from 1980’s.
 It encouraged privatization of non-profit making parastatals.
 The government developed transport for example, roads and railways.
 Liberalisation of the economy was adopted to attract investors.
 The government encouraged farmers to produce more by deguralating
marketing of agricultural commodities.
 Development of small-scale industries such as textile, cement and steel mills
which boosted economic recovery.
 The government increased tariffs for the imported goods so that it could
promote her own local industries.
 Tanzania established good relations with other countries promoting trade and
economic growth.
 Improved education system provides the people of Tanzania with adequate
skills to compete in the job market.
Social developments.
 The government has expanded education by constructing more schools,
colleges and universities.
 It has introduced free universal primary education thus reducing illiteracy.
 The government has improved health services by establishing more health
facilities such as hospitals, dispensaries and clinics.
 Social cohesion has been promoted by the ujamaa ideology. By working
together in the ujamaa villages, the country achieved more cohesive society.
 Kiswahili was made national language which promoted interaction among the
people.
 The government established sporting facilities such as stadia and theatres. This
has promoted theatre and sports.
 The government promoted the role of women in society. It provided equal
education and employment opportunities. Women were given serious positions
both in government and ruling party.
 The country qurantees freedom of worship. Majority of Tanzania are
Christians with a significant presence of Muslims and other religions.
How the government Tanzania promoted education.
 The government has expanded education by constructing more schools,
colleges and universities.
 It has introduced free universal primary education thus reducing illiteracy.
How the government of Tanzania promoted unity.
 Social cohesion has been promoted by the ujamaa ideology. By working
together in the ujamaa villages, the country achieved more cohesive society.
 Kiswahili was made national language which promoted interaction among the
people
Social, economic and political challenges in Tanzania since independence.
 Army mutiny in 1964 over delayed promotion of africans.This threatened
political stability in the country
 Riots by university of Dar-es-Salaam students who opposed forceful services
in the national youth services. This painted a negative image of government
programmes.
 Assassination of Abeid Karume in 1972 caused tension in the country.
 Attack of Tanzania by dictator Idi Amin put the country into costly and
unnecessary war.
 The country had a large influx of refugees from war torn neighbouring
countries.
 Resignation of the first president Aboud Jumbe in 1984 strained the relations
between Zanzibar and mainland Tanzania.
 The re-introduction of multi-party democracy reignited ethnic differences and
regionalism as the major political parties were formed along regional lines.
 Failure of ujamaa policy weakened public confidence in the government.
 Personality difference between Nyerere,Amin and Jomo Kenyatta,undermined
regional co-operation.
 Under socialism, the country‟s resources were thinly spread out across the
country and no significant projects were achieved.
 The country found it hard to secure donor funding for the government
programmes due to its socialist policies.
 Inadequate compensation of public sector employees led to low morale which
in turn resulted to low productivity
 Strict government control of economy discouraged private and foreign
investment in the country.
 High rate of inflation eroded people savings leading to poverty.
 Corruption and inefficiency in running state co-operatives has led to low
production.
 Abolition of co-operatives resulted in smuggling of goods and reduction in
production.
 Poor transport and communication network hindered economic development.
 Nationalisation was misinterptereted and instead of working hard, people
developed a care free attitude. This led to a reduction in production.
Social challenges.
 Rapid population growth has led to a strain on education, health and water
resources.
 High rate of unemployment has led to poor living conditions.
 High levels of illiteracy despite the free education policy.
 Inadequate basic amenities such as health, edducation, housing and water
supply.
 High rate of rural-urban population due to scarcity of opportunities to create
income in the rural areas.
 High incidence of Hiv and Aids has further put a strain on health and reduce
life expectancy.
Social, Economic and Political Challenges in Africa since Independence
 Ethnicity. At independence, African leaders found it difficult to unite the
different ethnic groups within the country. This has led to ethnic clashes e.g.
Rwanda, Burundi, Sudan, Kenya and Uganda.
 Border disputes. Colonial powers created boundaries without any regard to
ethnic composition of the different states. In some cases, members of one
ethnic community were placed in two different countries, for example the
boundary between Kenya and Somalia placed one group of the Somali people
in Kenya and other in somalia.The Maasai are also in both Kenya and
Tanzania.
 Political instability. Many governments after independence experienced
attempted military coups. This was because of post-independent leaders who
are unable to democratise the political process and become dictators.
 Refugee problem. People flee from their unstable countries to settle in the
neighbouring countries. Many refugees are known to have destabilised their
countries by establishing a base in other countries to strategise. This has
created tensions between the states e.g. between Ethiopia and Sudan.
 Ideological and personal difference between African leaders stained
international relations, sometimes leading to border closure.
 Political assassinations were another problem facing African countries. A
number of African leaders was assassinated e.g. Thomas sankara of Burkina
Faso.
 Disagreements between leaders. African leaders disagree on several issues
such as they type of government to adopt; some favoured federal system of
government other favoured centralised system of government. For example in
DRC Patrice Lumumba unitary system while others like Kasuvubu advocated
for federal government.
 Rise of guerilla movements. Many dissatisfied group started forming
underground movements for example rebel movements rise in DRC, Angola,
Mozambique and Sierra Leone.
 In the 1990‟s there was a wind of change towards multi-partyism
 Lack of diversified economy. Agriculture was the backbone of the economy,
however little was done to develop industry. African countries have continued
to play the role of producers of primary products and exporters in return for
imported manufactured goods from the European countries.
 Lacked of enough capital and skills to invest in economic development.
 Poor infrastructure e.g. roads and communication network.
 Redistribution of resources. Upon independence government were faced with
the problem of how to redistribute land and resources formerly owned by
whites to deserving africans.this resulted unequal distribution of resources.
 Environmental degradation e.g. desertification, soil erosion and pollution. This
undermined economic growth.
 Rapid population growth has strained available resources. Many people have
no access to education, health, clean water and comfortable shelter.
 African countries have experienced a slow pace industrial growth. This is due
to shortage of industrial raw materials, inadequate capital and shortage of
skilled labour.
 Brain drain. This is the migration of skilled personnel such as doctors, teachers
and nurses to the developed countries due to better pay.
 Natural calamities such as drought and floods have caused loss of life and
destruction of property where they have occurred. A lot of resources are
always needed to mitigate them.
 Unwarranted military expenditure. Most African countries spend huge sums of
money on military hardware and recruitment. This has denied funding to the
economic development.
 Competition from imported goods. Most African people preferred imported
goods since those produced locally are of low quality. This has hindered
industrial development.
 Over dependences on foreign aids. Most African countries rely on foreign aid
to run their budgets. The aid comes with stringent conditions.
 Corruption and mismanagement. African countries experience corruption and
mismanagement of public resources due to lack of transparency and
accountability. This is witnessed in both the public and private sector.
Social challenges.
 Unemployment. Employment opportunities are scarce in many African
countries. This has led to poor living conditions.
 Poverty. There is high level of poverty in many African countries. This has led
to increased in crime and poverty.
 Lacked of adequate social facilities such as schools, hospitals, electricity and
water.
 Rural-urban migrations. Many people moved from rural areas to urban centres
to look for jobs. Those who are not able to get jobs engaged in social evils like
crime and prostitution.
 HIV and Aids has caused death of many people in africa.Africans governments
are spending huge sums of money to fight the scourge.
 Drug menace. Many particularly the youth have turned to drug trafficking and
also taking drugs.
 Low literacy level. In many countries of africa,the level of literacy is low.
There is still no access to basic education for all.
 High crime rates and insecurity are a big menace, and have scared away
investors.
 Terrorist acts such as the bombings in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and Libya
have threatened peace.
 Population explosion affects the provision of social services.
CHAPTER 7
DEVOLVED GOVERNMENT
 It‟s where a central government delegates certain powers and responsibility to
lower levels of government according to the constitution.
 In Kenya National government has delegate certain powers and responsibilities
to the county government.
Objectives of devolution
 To promote democratic and accountable exercise of power.
 To foster national unity by recognizing diversity.
 To give powers of self-governance to the people and enhance the participation
of the people in the exercise of the powers and in making decisions affecting
them.
 To recognize the rights of the communities to manage their own affairs and to
further their development.
 To promote the rights and interest of minorities and marginalized groups.
 To ensure equitable sharing of national and local resources throughout Kenya.
 To facilitate the decentralization of state organs, their functions and services
from the capital of Kenya.
 To enhance checks and balances and the separation of powers.
 To promote social and economic development and provision of easily
accessible services throughout Kenya.
Principles of devolved government
 It‟s based on democratic principles and separation of powers.
 Have reliable source of revenue to enable it govern and deliver services
effectively.
 Ensure gender balances, thus not more than two thirds of the members of
representative bodies are from the same gender.
Structure and functions of County Government.
 The constitution of Kenya provides for a devolved government in each of the
47 counties.
 Each of the 47 counties in the county has a county government which consists
of the county assembly and county executives committee.
County assembly
 This is the law-making body where member are elected after every five years
during the general election. It serves for term of five years.
Composition of the County Assembly
 Elected members voted in by registered voters of the wards.
 The number of special seat members to ensure no more than two-thirds of the
memberships of the assembly is of the same gender.
 Representatives of the youth and persons with disability.
 The speaker who is an ex-officio member.
Qualification for election to the County Assembly.
 He must be a registered voter.
 He must satisfy the education, moral and ethical requirements according to the
constitution or Act of parliament.
 He must be nominated by a registered political party, if she is not contesting as
an independent candidate who is supported by 500 registered voters in the
ward.
 He should be of sound mind.
 He should not have been declared bankrupt by court of law.
 He should not be serving an imprisonment sentence exceeding 6 months.
 He must have been a citizen of Kenya for at least 10 years preceding the date
of election.
 He should not have held office of IEBC within the last 5 years.
Function of the County Assembly
 It makes and amends laws of the county.
 It scrutinizes the working of the county executive committee and other county
executives‟ organs.
 Receives and approves plans and policies for management and exploitation of
the county‟s resources.
 Receives and approves plans and policies for the development and
management of the county‟s infrastructure and institutions.
 Summon any person to appear before it for the purpose of giving evidence or
providing information.
Process of Law Making in the County
 The laws are made by the county Assembly which is necessary for the county
to effective perform its functions.
 In making laws, county assemblies are guided by the constitution.
 They are required to abide to the following principles.
 The laws they make should not be in conflict with laws passed by the
national assembly. This is because national interests prevail over the
county interests.
 A county assembly shall conduct business in an open manner and hold
its sitting and those of its committee in public.
 A county assembly shall facilitate public participation and involvement
in its legislative and other business of the assembly and its committee.
 A county assembly should not exclude the public or media in any
sitting unless in special circumstances.
Outline of the legislative process in the county assembly.
 Preparation of an annual legislative programme.
 Issuing of drafting instructions.
 Preparation of bills and their circulation.
 Involvement of the peoples. (stakeholder consultations)
 Approval by the executive.
 Introduction to the county assembly.
 Approval of bills by relevant committee.
 Amendments before the assembly
 Debate and passage
 Gazettement and implementation.
Composition and functions of the executive committees
 Comprise of:
 County governor
 Deputy County
 Members appointed by governor with approval of assembly.
 This is the executive arm of the county whose main duty is to formulate and
implements the policies and programmes of the county.
 It‟s headed by the governor who is assisted by the Deputy Governor.
Powers and functions of the county governor
 Submits to the county assembly an annual report on the implementation status
of the county policies and plans.
 Appointments of the country Executive committee and approved by county
assembly
 Delivers an annual state of the county address.
 Acts as a link between the country and National government.
 Submit to the county assembly plans and policies for approval.
 Implements the policies of the National and county government in the county.
 Nominates candidates for election of Deputy county government.
 Is the chief of the county government.
 Considers, approves and assent to bills passed by the county assembly.
 Shall be a member of the county Assembly and executive committee.
 Represent the county in national and international fora and events.
Functions of the deputy county governor.
 He or she is the deputy chief executive of the county.
 Acts as the county Governor when the governor is absent
 Perform duties as a member of the county executive if appointed by the
governor.
 Take over the role of governor in the event governor is impeached, become
incapacitated or dying in office.
Functions of the executives committee.
 Implement county legislation.
 Implement national laws in the county.
 Manage and co-ordinate the functions of the county administration and its
department.
 Prepare bills for consideration by the county assembly.
 Provide full and regular reports to the county assembly on matters relating to
the county.
Functions of the county government
 Development of agriculture in the areas of crop production and animal
husbandry.
 Development of fisheries and fish farming
 Provision of health services.
 Promotion of public health and sanitation.
 Environmental management through control of air, water and noise pollution.
 Provision of recreational facilities such as sports stadia, county parks and
beaches, social halls, libraries and museum.
 Management and development of county transport through construction of
county roads, street lighting, traffic and parking, ferries and harbours.
 Provision and management of pre-primary vocational educational such as
village polytechnics, home craft centers and child care centers.
 Regulation and development of trading activities through provision of trade
licenses, markets and trade fairs.
 Regulation of cultural activities through licensing of betting casionos, cinemas,
video shows and theatre groups.
Relationship between the county and National government
 A function or power government at one level may be transferred to a
government at the other level by agreement between the governments.
 National and county government perform their functions and exercise their
powers with due respect to each other.
 The National and county government assist, support and consult as appropriate
and implement each other‟s legislation.
 The National and county government liaise to exchange information and co-
ordinate policies and administration to enhance capacity.
 Both government co-operate in performance of their functions and exercise of
powers and at times set up joint committees.
 Through national legislation, procedures for settling dispute between national
and county government are provided.
 Parliament an arm of the National government sets out legislatives to ensure
that county government has adequate support to enable them to perform their
functions.
 National government has powers to intervene in a county government if the
latter is unable to perform its functions.
 In case of a conflict, national legislation prevails over county regulation.
 The national government through the president may suspend the county
government.
Challenges facing the county government
 The high population growth stretches the available resources.
 Underdeveloped transport and communication network undermines services
delivery.
 Inadequate resources to provide them with a solid revenue base. This denied
them funds to run these activities.
 Interference in their working by the National government. This affects
planning.
 Rivalry and wrangling among leaders in the county.
 Inadequate skilled personnel to man key departments within the county.
 Embezzlement or misuse of devolved funds by the corrupt county officials
denies county residents key services.
 Delay in remittance of funds to the county by the national government.
 National calamities such as drought and floods calling for emergency relief
assistances.
 Ethnicity and nepotism in employment undermines efficiency.
 Duplication of roles with the National government.
 Conflict over common resources such as water, forest land between counties.
Possible solutions
 Diversify sources of revenue for the county government.
 Attracting investment by providing a conducive environment for investment.
 Strengthening the fight against corruption.
 Establishing disaster management committee and early warnings system to
mitigate against natural calamities.
 Harmonizing the relationship between county and National government
 Improving skills of personnel in the county government by the capacity
building through in-service and training.
CHAPTER 8
PUBLIC REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE IN KENYA
 Public revenue is the money which the government raises from various
sources.
 Public expenditure is the money which the government spends on it is
operations and development.
Principles guiding public revenue and expenditure.
 Openness and accountability including public participation.
 Sharing the burden of taxation fairly.
 Sharing the revenue equitability among national and county government.
 Promoting equitable development of the county.
 Sharing the burdens and the benefits of the use of resources and public
borrowing equitably between present and future generations.
 Using public money in a prudent and responsible way.
 Having a clear responsible method of financial management and clear way of
fiscal reporting.
The National Budget
 It‟s the estimate of government revenue and expensive for the ensuing fiscal
year.
The budget includes estimates on the following:
 The amount of revenue the government requires and hopes to raise sources for
government revenue.
 The various sources from which the government hopes to raise the revenue.
 The projects which the government intends to spend the revenue in that
particular fiscal year.
Budget making process.
 Two months before the end of each financial year, the cabinet secretary for
finance submits to the national assembly estimates of revenue and expenditure.
 The national assembly considers the estimates through the house budget
committee.
 In considering the estimates, the committee seeks views from the public.
 The committee makes its recommendation to the national assembly.
 The budget is then read in parliament by the cabinet secretary.
 During the financial year, the government may require more money. This is
done through supplementary budget.
Importance of government budget.
 Enables the government to explain to the public the tax structures.
 Enables government to source revenue it activities and programmes.
 Enables government to identify ways in which to spend revenue without any
wastage.
 It enables government prioritize development needs.
 Provides valuable information to people interested in investing in the country.
 Creates confidence among foreign countries like donors and IMF.
 Enable the government to assess its performance in the previous year and
improve where necessary.
 Enhances accountability and transparency on the side of the government in the
eyes of the public.
 Ensure balance in the country‟s revenue and expenditure hence avoiding
budget deficits.
 Enable the government to set aside some funds to use in case of emergencies in
the course of the financial year.
County budget.
 Each county is required by law to prepare and adopt its annual budget and
appropriation bill.
 It is done in the form and according to the procedure set by an act of
parliament.
 Controller of budget oversees the implementation of the county budgets.
Sources of public revenue.
a) Source National Government revenue.
 Charges for services like water, health and electricity
 Fine charged in court.
 Insurance of licenses like trade and driving licences.
 Imposition of direct taxes like income tax
 Profits from parastatals and government shares in companies
 Rent of the government buildings.
 Domestic borrowing which is done through sale of government bonds and
Treasury Bills.
 External borrowing from financial institutions such as the world banks, IMF,
ADB and donor countries.
 Grants from friendly countries.
 Imposition of indirect taxes, for example value added tax, excise duty and
custom duty.
b) Source of County government revenue.
 Allocations from the national government kitty
 Charges for services like parking fees.
 Revenue fund for each county government for all funds raised on behalf of the
county government.
 Property rates on the county property.
 Tax imposition, for example entertainment tax, domestic borrowing informs of
loans and grants
 Profit from county investment.
Expenditure.
They are two types of public expenditure
 Capital expenditure
 Recurrent expenditure.
Capital expenditure
This is money spent on new public projects during a particular financial year like.
It is incurred only one on each project.
Examples.
 Construction of roads, dams, railways
 Purchase of vehicles and machinery.
Recurrent expenditure
This is money spent on a regular basis through a given financial year .
Examples
 Payment of salaries
 Repair and maintenance of buildings roads and equipment
 Purchase of drugs and stationery.
(a)National government.
The National government spends money in the following
Capital Expenditure
 Construction of national infrastructure
 Financing national development, projects like electricity generation.
 Construction of higher education institutions.
 Construction of national referral health facilities.
Recurrent Expenditure
 Paying of salaries of state officer.
 Repairing and maintaining natural infrastructure.
 Establishment and maintenance of security organs
 Serving external and domestic debts.
 Maintenance of foreign embassies
 Remitting funds to international organization like U.N.
 Payment for social services like free maternal health care, free primary and
secondary education and cash transfer to the aged.
b) County Government.
The county government spends money on the following.
Capital Expenditure
 Construction of county infrastructure such as roads and bridges.
 Construction of public amenities such as stadia, market stalls, boda boda sheds
and health centres.
 Provision of early childhood education development (ECDE) services like
recruitment, building of classrooms and learning materials.
 Construction of county facilities such as county abattoirs, livestock sale yards
and markets.
 Purchase of motor vehicles and equipment.
Recurrent expenditure
 Maintenance and repair of county infrastructure such as roads, public amenities
and motor vehicles.
 Payment of salaries of county employees.
 Purchase of drugs, stationery, funds and lubricants
 Servicing of loans incurred by county government.
 Collection of refuse and solid waste disposal
Management of Public Finance.
The government has established systems at national and county levels that guarantee
efficient utilisation of revenue.
National Government
 A budget is made to show estimates of revenue and expenditure of the national
government.
 Parliament passes legislation prescribing the terms which the national may
borrow money.
 Cabinet secretary in charge of finance reports to the relevant committee on the
amount of debt, use, servicing and progress of repayment.
 Parliament passes legislation to ensure expenditure control and transparency.
 The Cabinet Secretary for finance has power to temporarily stop the transfer of
funds to a state organ in the event of mismanagement.
 The government has established a system of open tendering for procurement
and disposal of goods and services.
 The controller of budget supervises implementation of the budget of the natural
government.
 The auditor-general audits government ministries and departments and within
six months after the end of a financial year and submits a report to parliament.
 The principle secretaries are accountable to the national Assembly for financial
management within their ministries.
 The ethics and anti-corruption authority investigates and recommends for
prosecution of public officials who mismanage and embezzle funds.
County government
 There is a budget prepared every financial year.
 Money borrowed by a county government must be guaranteed by the National
government and approved by the county assembly.
 Parliament passes legislation to ensure expenditure control and transparency in
the county government.
 Money due to a county government can be stopped by Cabinet Secretary for
finance to prevent mismanagement.
 There is open tendering of procurement and disposal of public goods and
services.
 Implementation of the county budget is supervised by controller of budget.
 The revenue and expenditure of county government is audited by the Auditor
general.
 The governor is accountable to the county Assembly for financial management
within the county and reports pertaining to finance.
 The EACC investigate and recommends for prosecution of public offices who
misappropriate funds within the counties.
The commission on revenue allocation (CRA)
CRA has nine members.
 Chairperson appointed by the president and approved by the national assembly.
 Two person nominated by political parties representative in the national
assembly.
 Five persons nominated by political partners represented in the senate.
 Principal Secretary in the ministry of finance.
Functions of the Commission on Revenue Allocation.
 Make recommendations on equitable sharing of revenue raised by the national
government.
 Recommend revenue sharing between National and county government.
 Recommends sharing revenue among the county government.
 Makes recommendations on other matters concerning financing and financial
management by county government.
 Defines and enhance the revenue sources of the county and national
government.
 Encourage fiscal responsibility.
 Determine, publish and regularly review the criteria by which to identify the
marginalized area.
 Submit recommendations to the senate, the national assembly, the national
executive, county assembly and county executive.
THE ELECTORAL PROCESS AND FUNCTIONS OF GOVERNMENTS IN
OTHER PARTS OF THE WORLD.
In this unit, we are going to look how elections are conducted in the
 USA
 Britain
 India.
United States of America.
 The United States of America has a federal government made up of a union of
50 states
 It was formerly a British colony.
 The USA attained political independence on 4th July 1776 after American war
of independence.
 It is the only remaining world‟s super power.
 Its first president was George Washington.
 Electoral process is based on universal suffrage. This means all adults are
eligible to vote.
 In 1787 a convention of delegates from the several states met in Philadelphia
and drew up a constitution.
 The constitution was ratified in 1783 and George Washington took office as
the first president of the U.S.A in 1789.
General elections.
They are four levels of elections in the USA.
These are:
 Presidential elections.
 Election for governors.
 Election for the senate.
 Elections for the House of Representatives.
Presidential elections.
 Held on 2nd November after every four years.
 Americans both at home and abroad vote on or before that date.
Party nominations.
 To be able to vie for the presidency, one has to be nominated by a political
party.
 During election year parties carry out nomination for their candidate for the
president.
 Pre-election nominations are called primaries.
Major political parties in the USA.
 Democratic Party.
 Republican Party.
Party conventions.
 Are held before July to confirm the winner of the primary elections as party
candidate.
 In case the seating president is eligible to contest the election his party also
holds a convention to endorse him and map out campaign strategies.
 The presidential candidate picks a running mate whom if they win the election
he will become the vice-president.
Independent candidates.
 They are candidates who are not affiliated to any political party.
 They sponsor their own campaigns.
Qualifications for presidential candidate
 A U.S.A citizen by birth
 Must be 35 years and above.
 Must have lived in USA for at least 14years.
Voting.
 USA president is elected through an electoral college.
 This is the body with members chosen from all the states.
 Number of electorate votes given to a state is equal to the number of senators
and representatives from the state.
Campaigns.
 Candidates campaign across the country to sell their policies.
 They also participate in debates.
Voting day.
 During elections American go to vote, however popular votes does not
determined the winner.
 The election is determined by the Electoral College. To win one must receive
majority of the electoral votes.
 If no candidates receive majority, the House of Representatives chooses the
president and the senate chooses the vice president.
 Incase of a disputes Supreme Court is called upon to interpret the situation in
hand.
 The winner of the presidential poll takes office in January of the following
year.
 He or she formed the government by appointing senior civil servants,
ambassadors, cabinet but all must be confirmed by the senate
 The USA president operates from the white house in Washington DC.
Voter registration.
Conditions to be a voter in USA,
 One should be an American.
 One should be 18 years and above.
Congressional elections.
 Congress refers to the parliament of the USA.
 It is made up of two houses
 Senate
 House of Representatives.
The senate.
 It also referred to as upper house.
 Made up of hundred senators, two representing each state.
 Senators are elected to serve for a six-year term. However every two years one
third of the senators seek re-election. This ensures that senate is continuously
in operation.
Qualification for a senator
 Must be U.S.A citizen for at least 9 years
 Must be thirty years and above.
 Must be a resident of the state that one wished to represent.
House of Representatives.
 Also known as the lower house.
 Made up of four hundred and thirty seven members.
 Elections are held every two years.
 State elects members to the House of Representatives in accordance‟s with
their population.i.e states with more people have more members.
Qualification for a member of the House of Representatives
 Must be a U.S.A citizen for not less than seven years.
 Must be at least twenty five years old.
 Must be a resident of the state that one wished to represent
Election of the state governors.
 Every state is headed by a governor.
 Governors are elected after every four years.
 Governor is the chief executive of the state.
Function of the U.S.A government
USA has three arms of government.
 The legislature.
 Executives.
 Judiciary.
The Legislative.
 Consists of the two houses
 Senate
 The House of Representatives.
 Both houses are known as congress.
Functions of the congress.
 It makes laws by discussing bills before the president gives assent.
 They amend the constitution when it is necessary.
 It controls the federal government revenue and expenditure.
 It approves the appointment of senior government officials like ambassadors,
federal judges and cabinet secretaries before they take office.
 It appoints a commission of inquiry to investigate matters of national
importance.
 It monitor conduct of the president, vice-president and senior government
officials.Incase they are found to have committed serious crime such as crime
such as corruption or treason they can be brought to the senate for trial. If
found guilty they can dismissed through impeachment.
 Congress discusses important issues that affect the lives of the citizen.
 It establishes, maintains and controls the armed forces of the USA.It approves
declarations of the war by the president.
 It admits new states into the USA union.
 It may also establish new states from existing ones.
The Executive
Consists of:
 The president
 The vice president
 The cabinet
 The civil services.
The president.
The president of the USA performs many functions which is categorised as follows.
Legislative functions.
 President formulates policies which guide members of the congress in the
activities.
 President may exercise veto over bills passed by congress.
 President may propose new bills for the debate in congress.
 President assent bills passed by congress to make them law.
Executive functions.
 President is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces and may declare war
with the approval of the congress.
 He or she formulates and administers the federal budget.
 He or she may issue executive orders. These are rules, regulations and
instructions to specific state organs. These orders have a binding force of law.
 The president is the head of state and government.
 He or she presides over cabinet meetings.
 The president may grant clemency to a convicted person. This pardon does not
include cases of impeachment.
iii.foreign affairs.
 He/she guides and controls foreign affairs / Chief diplomat
 He/she receives ambassadors representing their countries in the USA and head
of state and government of other nation.
 He or she is responsible for the security of USA citizens and that of foreign
nationals living in the country.
 The president may negotiate executive agreements with other states.
How the President’s power / conduct is checked and controlled.
 The Congress checks the power of the president by approving all appointments
made by him.
 The Congress can refuse to approve use of government funds for a foreign
policy.
 The Congress can impeach the president.
 The Supreme Court can declare a president to have acted unconstitutionally.
 The constitution limits the president to 2 four-year terms in office.
 The mass media can check on the president‟s action and speech.
 Pressure groups also act on the president‟s action.
 The Public opinion reflects the wishes of the people and the president has to
respect it.
 The President‟s party is always careful not to lose its majority in congress.
The vice-president.
Qualifications for Vice President.
 35 years of age.
 American by birth.
 Be resident of the USA for 14 years.
Functions of the vice-president.
 He/she is the principal assistant of the president.
 He or she succeeds the president in the event of death, resignation or
impeachment.
 He or she chairs senate meetings and vote in the event of a tie over an issue
 Vice-president advices the president on matters of security.
 He or she reviews federal regulations affecting business activities.
Civil services.
Functions.
 It implements government policies and programmes.
 It interprets and explains government policies to the people.
 It maintains government records.
 It collects government revenue.
 It advises the government on matters of policy.
 It formulates development plans and government budget.
 It provides continuity in government service following a general election.
Judiciary
It‟s divided into two.
 Federal
 State courts.
Federal courts.
Have jurisdiction over the whole country.
Examples of federal courts.
 Supreme courts.
 Circuit courts
 Court of appeal
 District courts.
 Courts of claims.
 Court of customs.
Supreme court.
 Made up of 9 judges.
 Judges are appointed by the president with the approval of congress.
Functions
 Resettle disputes between the president and congress, federal government and
the states interpreting the constitution.
 Handling cases involving the U.S.A and other states.
 Act as constitutional court by interpreting the constitution when disputes arise.
 It hears cases involving disputes between diplomats and between states.
 It hears appeals relating to maritime activities and shipping.
 It listens to legal disputes going beyond state and national boundaries.
State courts.
 Are found in each state.
 Their jurisdiction is limited to the individual state constitutions.
 Judges are elected by the people of the state for short durations.
The doctrine of separation of powers
Separation of powers means that none of the three arms of the U.S.A government
interfere with the functioning of the other.
 There is designed system of checks and balances which ensure the three arms
of government i.e. the congress, the presidency and the judiciary work
separately from each other, for example, the president and his or her cabinet
are not members of congress.
 The president is not as powerful as it might appear. This is because elections to
the house are held after every two years, and a third of the senate is elected
after every two years. Consequently, the presidents‟ party can lose its majority
in both houses after only two years.
 The president can veto laws, congress can overturn this veto, if it manages to
raise a two-thirds majority in both houses. President cannot dissolve congress.
 The congress cannot remove a president unless it prove that a serious crime e.g
treason.
 Success of the president is determined by his skills in persuading congress to
approve his programmes.
 The Supreme Court keenly monitors both the president and congress. It can
declare a law unconstitutional. This means that such a law becomes illegal and
must be reversed.
Function of federal government.
 It deals with matters of foreign policy, for example, relationship with other
governments.
 It solves disputes between the states.
 It regulates trade between the nation and foreign countries.
 It is in charge of the national defence of the country against external
aggression.
 It establishes federal courts which administer justices across the country.
 It collects taxes in the federal states.
 It may declare war against a foreign government with approval of congress.
 It issues currency and regulates its value.
 It pays foreign debts owed to other nations and financial institutions.
 It enacts legislation which govern the federation.
 It admits new states into federations.
State governments.
 State governments of the USA are institutions which exercise power below that
of the federal government
 Each state has it legislature, executive and judicial authority over a
geographical location.
 Each state has bi-cameral legislature i.e. it is made up of two houses
 Senate
 House of Representatives
Functions of state governments.
 It maintains law and order using state police.
 It makes law using state legislature.
 It provides social amenities to its citizen, for example education, health and
public works.
 It generates revenue from a number of internal sources.
 It administers justice using the state law courts.
 It provides recreational facilities such as sports grounds.
 It provides administrative structure within the states such as counties,
municipalities and township.
Advantages of a Federal system of government
 The rights of smaller states are safeguarded against bigger states.
 When several states come together, they bring along a rich pool of resources
which are beneficial to the member states.
 It enables different states to live together while at the same time maintaining
their separate identities.
 Smaller states have the advantage of benefiting from a common defence force
hence enjoy greater security than when they left on their own.
 It enhances trade among the states by eliminating tarrifs and other barriers.
 It enhances the political influence of the states as they come together and speak
with one voice.
Disadvantages of a federal system of government
 Secessionist threats may threaten and weaken its stability of federal states.
 Diverse backgrounds and interests of the various states call for more tolerance
from the leaders.
 Inequitable utilization and allocating of resources may lead to disparities in
states development.
BRITAIN
 The Britain system of government can be described as a constitutional
monarchy. This means that the government must adhere to the rules of the
constitution, although the monarch is not elected. The office is hereditary and
is reserved for members of the royal family.
 It has unwritten constitution.
Sources of British constitution.
 Acts of parliament e.g. magna carta
 Legal publication by reputable authorities such as scholars, lawyers, political
thinkers and statesman.
 The Hansard which is the official verbatism reports of parliament.
 Decisions made by the British law courts from time to time.
 Royal prerogatives e.g. declaring war.
 Conventions and practices which have become respected are regarded as part
of British constitution.
The Electoral process in Britain
They are two types of election in britain.They are
 General elections
 By Election
General elections.
 The electoral process in Britain is conducted for the members of the House of
Commons.
 Elections are hold within five years
 Britain has three major political parties
 The liberal party, which draws its member from the rich.
 The labour party, which is a party of the middle class especially workers.
 The conservative party which is backed by nobles and the clergy.
 Anyone above 18years can vote.
 Elections are secret ballot.
 Candidates are sponsored by political parties.
 The party with the majority of seats forms the government upon invitational by
king or queen.
 The leader of the party majority of seats in parliament becomes prime minister.
 The prime minister forms the government by making appointments to the
cabinet senior civil service and foreign affairs.
By-elections.
 It is conducted to fill vacancies which may occur before next general elections.
Voter registration
 It is organized by the local authorities
 Postal vote is possible for those outside during voting time / period.
 There are 650 constituencies.
Categories of people qualify to register as voters in Britain.
 British citizens over the age of 18 years.
 Commonwealth citizens who have resided in Britain for a period provided for
by the law.
 Republic of Ireland citizens who have resided in Britain for a period provided
for by the law.
Nomination of parliamentary candidates.
 Date for the general elections is announced by the prime minister.
 Constituencies organise meetings to plan for the elections.
 Parties nominate their candidates.
Qualifications for one to contest for a parliamentary seat in Britain.
 He/she should be a British citizen or a commonwealth subject or a citizen of
the republic of Ireland.
 He/she should aged 21 years and above.
 He/she should be nominated by a political party or be an independent
candidate.
Categories of citizen not eligible to contest for constituency seat in Britain.
 Clergy men of churches of England, Scotland, Ireland and Roman Catholic
Church.
 Holders of certain offices e.g. judges.
 Aliens.
 Members of House of Lords.
Campaign.
 Campaigning by the candidates is conducted for two weeks after nominations.
 Campaigns may be carried out in public rallies using posters and through
advertisement in the newspaper, radio and television.
 Political party handbooks and manifestos are distributed to the constituencies
for the candidates to refer to them on party policies and pledges during
campaigns.
Polling.
On polling day the following procedure is observed.
 Polling stations open 7:00 am and close at 10:00 pm.
 The presiding officer confirms the name of a voter in the elections register.
 The voter is issued with a ballot paper and selects a preferred candidate.
 Visually impaired, incapacitated and elderly voters are assisted to vote.
 Voting may also be done by proxy or through post.
 Counting of the votes is done by the returning officer from a central counting
hall.
 The returning officer then declares the winner.
Functions of government in Britain
The government of Britain is divided into four institutions
 The monarchy
 The legislative
 The executive.
 The judiciary.
THE MONARCH
 Its Head By queen or king.
 The king or queen‟s official residence is the Buckingham palace.
 The monarch is the head of the state, the symbol of the national unity, a focus
of loyalty and embodiment of accepted social standards.
 Monarch is above party politics.
Functions of the Monarch
 The monarch appoints the Archbishop of the Church of England.
 The Monarch is the symbolic head of commonwealth.
 The Monarch is the commander in –chief of the armed forces.
 The monarch represents Britain in international fora.
 He or she bestows honours to deserving persons.
 Monarch assents to bills passed by parliament on the advice of prime minister.
 Monarch gives audiences to ministers when her majesty may be consulted or
give warnings.
 He or she summons new parliament
 The monarch opens, closes each session of parliament.
 He or she approves all appointments to important state offices, for
example,cabinet,ministers,judges,senior members of the armed forces and civil
services.
 He or she creates peers. These refer to the choosing of the new members to the
House of Lords.
 He or she pardons convicted offenders.
The legislature.
British is made up of two houses
 House of Lords.
 House of Commons.
House of Lords
It is also referred to as upper house or the house of peers.
It is made up of the following
 Dukes
 Balons
 prince
 Lords
 Leaders of the Church of England.
 Have 1200 members.
Ways to become a member of House of Lords.
 Appointed by the Monarch
 Through inheritance
 Appointment to certain offices like judges and Archbishop
Functions of the House of Lords
 Sits as a court of appeal to listen to criminal cases.
 Assists the house of common in legislations of laws.
 Debate non-controversial bills.
 Holds bills from the house of comers for certain paid to seek publication.
 Scrutinizes activities of the government in various ministries
 Debates general issues of national importance.
The House of Commons.
 It is referred to lower house.
 Made up of 650 elected members and the speaker.
 It meets in the palace of Westminster.
 It‟s a legislative arm of government
Qualification for Candidates
 Must be a citizen of Britain
 Must be twenty one years and above.
 Be nominated by a political party or independent candidate
Functions of the House of Commons
 It‟s a major legislative arm of government as they discuss makes and amends
laws.
 It approves government revenue and expenditure.
 Has power to pass a vote no confidence in the executive, thus it checks the
powers of the executive to ensure that the rule of law is maintained.
 Debates in matters of national interest.
 It directs government policy and keeps development programmes on track.
The Executive
It is made up of
 Prime minister.
 Civil services.
The Prime Minister
 He/she is nominated directly by electorate, through parties
 Its servers for 5 years
 After election leader of the party with the highest number of members of the
parliament becomes the prime minister and thus forms the government.
Functions of the prime Minister
 Appoints and dismisses cabinet ministries with the consent of the monarch
 Chairs cabinet meetings.
 Is the leader of the House of Commons
 Is the chief executive of the British government
 Initiates both domestic and foreign policies.
 Represents Britain in international fora.
 Recommends to the sovereign the appointment of senior civil servants like and
high commissioners.
The Cabinet
 They are appointed by the Prime Minster from the legislative which has to be
approved by sovereign.
 They are appointed from the party with a majority in the House of Commons.
Functions of the cabinet.
 It initiates, controls and implements political policy of the government
 It is the highest decision making body in the county.
 It initiates government legislation.
 It coordinates implementation of government programmes.
Judiciary
 It is independent of the government.
Independent in Britain is guaranteed through the following:
 Salaries are not discussed by parliament.
 Judges are not political appointees.
 Judges are appointed on good behaviour.
 A judge can only be sacked by a resolution from both houses.
 Judges retires at the age of 75 years.
Hierarchy of the court system in Britain.
The supreme court
The supreme court

Criminal division civil division
High court
Crown court County court
Magistrates court tribunals

Supreme Court
 This is the final court of appeal for all civil and criminal cases.
Court of appeal
 It is an appellate court.
 It has civil division which hears appeals from the crown court and a civil
division which listens to appeals from the high court, tribunals and county
courts.
High court.
Has three divisions
 The Queen ‟s Bench
 Family division
 Chancery division.
Crown court
 Listen to more serious criminal offences such as murder, rape and threatening
life and appeals from magistrate‟s courts.
County courts.
 Listen mainly to civil cases.
Magistrate courts
 Conduct trials of less serious criminal offences, committals to the crown court,
family proceedings courts and youth courts
Tribunals
 These are special courts appointed by relevant ministers to settle disputes
between a citizen and relevant departments.
 They hear appeals from decisions on immigration, social security, child
support, pension, tax and land.
Doctrine of Parliamentary supremacy
 This means that parliament is the supreme and highest authority.
 Its powers override those of the head of state and other organs.
Parliamentary supremacy is upheld in the following ways:
 Parliament is the only organ allowed to make and amend laws.
 All other organs of government operate under laws enacted by the parliament.
 Parliament is empowered to pass a vote of no confidence in the executive
 Parliament must approve all government recon and expenditure.
Limitations of the parliamentary supremacy
 Decision can be nullified by any court of law.
 Parliament is a representative institution complied of people‟s representative
 Local authorities make and pass by laws without consulting parliament
 Legislation made by parliament may be altered by a future parliament.
 As parliament makes laws it takes into consideration the moral values of the
society.
 The actions of parliament are heavily influenced by public opinion.
 Before the legislation is made in parliament, the interests of the affected
institutions are taken into account.
INDIA
 India attained independence from Britain in 1947.
 Before independence, both India and Pakistan were ruled as one unit.
 Split between India and Pakistan was because of their difference in religion.
Pakistan was predominantly Muslim while India was Hindu.
 India become independent under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi of the
Indian congress party who become the first prime minister of India
 India constitution provided for federal system of government.
 India occupies Indian sub-continent in south Asia.
 Indian is the largest democracy in the present world because it has its large
population
Electoral process.
They are two types of elections in India.
They are:
 General elections
 By – elections.
 During the general elections, presidential, parliamentary and regional
governments‟ elections are held.
 Elections are held after every five years.
Elections for the legislative.
 The parliament of the union is a bicameral house
 It consists of two houses namely:
 Council of state (rajya sabha)
 The house of the people (lok sabha).
Council of state.
 This is the upper house.
 Its members are limited to 250 members.
 By 2017 it had 245 members,233 elected by the state assembly members and
12 nominated by the president.
Qualification for election to the council of states.
 Must be Indian citizen
 Must be above the age of 30 years.
 Must be registered as a voter.
 Must be a resident of the state in which one is contesting.
House of the people.
 This is the lower house.
 It has a membership of 545.
 Members are elected directly through universal suffrage.
 They serve a term of five years.
Qualifications for the House of the People.
 Must be a citizen of India.
 Must be above 25 years of age.
 Must be registered as a voter.
Political parties.
Some popular parties include:
 The congress party. This party that led the country to independence.
 The Bharatiya Janata party.(BJP)
 The communist parties of India.
Election of prime minister.
 The leader of the party with the majority of seats in parliament becomes the
prime minister. If the party leader declines, he or she may appoint any leading
member of the winning party to form government
 Prime minister-elect, swears and takes the oath of office in the presidential
palace.
 After swearing prime minister appoints a cabinet from the party or parties that
form government.
Elections for the Presidency
 It is elected to save for at term of five years.
 The election is held in accordance with the system with vote and by secret
ballot.
For one to be elected president following conditions must be fulfilled.
 He/she must be a citizen of India
 He/she must be above the age of 3years.
 He/she must be a nullified for election as a member of house of the people
 He/she should not had any office of profit under the government of India
Function of Government of India
 It has federal system of government.
 Power is shared between the union governments and the state governments.
 The state government is headed by governors
 It has total control over the state government.
Function of union governments.
 Supervises the working of state governments.
 Has a powers to declare war, raise and maintain the armed forces.
 Conducts diplomacy and authorises treaties with foreign countries.
 Regulate trade and trade affairs with foreign countries.
 Takes charge of matters pertaining to national security.
State governments are responsible for
 Enacting laws for the state.
 Construction and maintenance of transport and communication.
 Maintenance of security or law and order within the states.
 Supervision of education within the state.
 Regulation of commerce in the state.
Function of the different arms of government in India.
The Indian government is divided into three arms namely:
 The executive.
 The legislature.
 The judiciary.
The legislature.
 Indian legislature is bicameral.
Function of legislature.
 Legislating or making laws for the country.
 To impeach the president and to remove judges of Supreme Court and high
court, judges, Chief election commissioner and controller and auditor General.
 It declares and sanctions the establishment of national highways and
waterways.
 It is in charge of security, law and order for the Union.
 It can initiate constitutional amendments.
The executive.
The executive in India consists of;
 The president.
 The prime minister.
 The cabinet.
 The civil services.
The president
Functions of the president.
 Has a power to make regulations for certain union territories
 Appoints the chief minister and lieutenant governor of the National capital
territory of Delhi and the governors of this states or union territories.
 Establishes special councils to arbitrate on inter-state disputes.
 Nominates the twelve members of the council of states.
 Member of the legislative.
 Calls upon the leaders of the winning party after elections to form government.
 Assents bills before they become law.
 Dissolves the lower house of parliament.
 Is the commander in chief of the armed forces.
 Declares a state of emergency when national security is threatened.
 Pardons convicted criminals.
 Is a symbol of national unity.
The prime minister.
The functions of the Prime Minister
 Heads the council of ministers and government.
 Advises the president in the exercise of his/her functions.
 Represents India international functions.
 Communicates to the president all decisions of the council of ministers,
relating to administration of the affairs of the union and proposal for
legislation.
The cabinet.
 This is also called the council of ministers.
 It is headed by the prime minister.
Functions of the Cabinet
 It approves all proposals for legislature enactment of government policy.
 It recommends all major appointments.
 It settles interdepartmental discords.
 It coordinates activities of government.
 It defends government decisions and policies.
 It presents bills to the Lower House of the LegCo.
 It approves the budget.
The civil services.
 The civil service is under the prime minister who assigns a minister to head it.
Function of the civil services.
 It implements government policies.
 During elections, it provides continuity in government.
 It provides essential services to the people.
 It maintains law and order.
Judiciary.
 Independent judiciary which is appointed by the president.
Independent of judiciary is guaranteed by the following.
 The judges‟ salaries and allowances cannot be reduced. They are also not
subjects to discussion by the legislature.
 A judge can only be removed from office through a resolution by the
legislature.
structure of court.
Supreme Court
↑
High court
↑
District court
↑
Special courts.
Supreme Court.
 Is highest court of appeal
 Consists of chief justices and 30 judges.
 All are appointed by the president.
 They served upto the age of 65 years.
Function.
 They resolve disputes between the union governments and state government
 Listen to appeals in any case.
High court.
 This is found in each state.
Functions.
 Has original jurisdiction.
 Listens to appeals from lower courts.
 Leads cases of serious crimes.
District court.
 This is the lowest of the ordinary courts.
 Operates at county or district level.
Special courts.
 These handle matters concerning welfare,taxation,commerce and industry.
Function of the judiciary.
 Arbitrates in disputes between the federal government and the states.
 Administers justice by listening to parties in dispute.
 Interprets the constitution and in the process makes new laws.
 Advises the executive and legislature on constitutional issues if sought for.
 Protects the fundamental rights of the citizens which are guaranteed by the
constitution.

History f4 Notes Champ Final

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

History f4 Notes Champ Final

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

History f4 Notes Champ Final

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

FORM FOUR

CHAMPIONS COMPREHENSIVE HISTORY NOTES

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 1

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 2

i.First Moroccan crisis

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 3

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 4

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 6

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 7

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 8

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 9

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 10

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 11

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 12

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 13

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 14

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 15

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 16

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 17

Reasons why allied powers defeat axis powers.

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 18

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 19

REVISION QUESTIONS ON WORLD WAR

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 20

10. Give two reasons why von Schlieffen plan failed.

15. State the results of treaty of Versailles.

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 21

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 22

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 23

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 24

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 25

The United Nation Organization (UNO).

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 26

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 27

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 28

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 29

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 30

The International Labour Organization (ILO).

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 31

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 33

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 35

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 36

i.Head of State Summit.

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 37

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 38

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 39

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 40

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 42

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 43

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 44

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 45

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 46

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 47

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 48

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 49

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 50

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 51

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 52

26.State three agencies of the UN.

CHAMPIONS FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES_ MR GER CHARLES_0725 733 640 Page 54