Limit: A function f (x) has said to be limit l at x  a if for every   there exists a number

  0 such that f ( x )  l   whenever x  a   .

Explanation: For explanation consider a function f ( x)  x 2

x2

x 1.8 1.99 1.999 1.99999 2.00001 2.0001 2.001 2.1

f (x) 3.24 3.9601 3.99601 3.99996 4.00004 4.0004 4.004 4.41

l4

When 1.99999  2  0.00001  0.0001 then 3.99996  4  0.00004  0.0005

When 2.00001  2  0.00001  0.0001 then 4.00004  4  0.00004  0.0005
lim lim
We can write L.H .L  
f ( x)  4 and R.H .L  f ( x)  4
x2 x  2

lim x 2 sin(1 / x ) lim  1 1 

Problem 1: Evaluate i ) ii )   
x  0 sin x x  0  sin x tan x 
lim x 2 sin(1 / x) lim x lim x lim
Solution: i )  x sin(1 / x)  x sin(1 / x)
x  0 sin x x  0 sin x x  0 sin x x  0
lim
 1. x sin(1 / x)  0 since sin(1 / x )  1 x sin(1 / x )  x  0 as x  0
x0

lim  1 1  lim  1 cos x  lim 1  cos x lim 2 sin 2 ( x / 2)

ii )       
x  0  sin x tan x  x  0  sin x sin x  x  0 sin x x  0 2 sin( x / 2) cos( x / 2)
lim sin( x / 2) lim
=  tan( x / 2)  0
x  0 cos( x / 2) x  0

Problem 2: A function f (x) is defined as follows

 x2 when x  1
 lim
f ( x )   2. 5 when x  1 Does f ( x) exists?
 x 2  2 when x  1 x 1

Solution: Given the function
 x2 when x  1

f ( x )   2. 5 when x  1
 x 2  2 when x  1

lim lim 2 lim lim 2
Now 
f ( x)  x  12  1 and 
f ( x)  x  2  12  2  3
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1
lim lim lim
Since 
f ( x)  
f ( x) So f ( x) does not exists.
x 1 x 1 x 1
Continuity: A function f (x) has said to be continuous at x  a if for every   there exists a
number   0 such that f ( x )  f ( a )   whenever x  a   .

Problem 3: A function f (x) is defined as follows

1 1
 2  x when 0  x  2
 1 1 1
f ( x)   when x Show that f (x) is discontinuous at x 
 2 2 2
3
  x when x 1
 2
Solution: Given the function
1 1
 2  x when 0  x  2
 1 1
f ( x)   when x
 2 2
3
  x when x 1
 2
lim lim 1 lim lim 3
 1 1  3 1
Now 1 f ( x)  1  x    0 and 1 f ( x)  1  x   1
x x 2 2 2 x  x  2 2 2
2 2 2 2
1 1
and f ( ) 
2 2
lim lim
  1 1
Since 1 f ( x)  1 f ( x)  f ( ) Hence f (x) is discontinuousat x  .
x x 2 2
2 2
Problem 4: A function f (x) is defined as follows
 3
 x when 0  x  1
f ( x)   x when 1  x  2 Show that f (x) is continuous at x  1 and x  2
1
 x 3 when
 4 2 x

Solution: Given the function

 3
 x when 0  x  1
f ( x)   x when 1  x  2
 1 x 3 when 2  x  3
 4
When x  1 f ( x )  x  f (1)  1
lim lim 3 lim lim
Now 
f ( x)  x  1 and 
f ( x)  x 1
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1
lim lim
Since 
f ( x)  f ( x )   f (1)
x 1 x  1
Hence f (x) is continuous at x  1
x3
When x  2 f ( x )   f (2)  2
4
 lim lim x 3 lim lim x 3
Now f ( x )   2 and f ( x )  2
x  2 x2 4 x  2 x2 4
lim lim
Since 
f ( x)  f ( x)  f (2)
x2 x  2
Hence f (x) is continuous at x  2
Problem 5: A function f (x) is defined as follows
 x2 when x  1

f ( x )   2. 5 when x  1 Is f (x) continuous at x  1 ?
 x 2  2 when x  1

Solution: Given the function
 x2 when x  1

f ( x )   2. 5 when x  1
 x 2  2 when x  1

lim lim 2 lim lim 2
Now 
f ( x)  x  12  1 and 
f ( x)  x  2  12  2  3
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1
and f (1)  2.5
lim lim
Since 
f ( x)  f ( x)  f (1) So f (x) is notcontinuous at x  1 .
x 1 x  1

Derivative: A function f (x) is said to be differentiable at x  a if for every   there exists a

f ( a  h)  f ( a )
number   0 such that  f ( a )   whenever x  a   . Where f (a) is
h
called derivative of f (x) at x  a.

Differentiation is the instant rate of change of f (x) w.r.to x

d lim f ( x  h)  f ( x)
f ( x)  f ( x) 
dx x0 h
  5 x  4 when 0  x  1

Problem 6: f ( x)  4 x 2  3 x when 1  x  2
 3 x  4 when x2

Discuss the continuity of f (x) for x  1 and x  2 and the existence of f (x) for these
values.
Solution: Given the function
 5 x  4 when 0  x  1

f ( x)  4 x 2  3 x when 1  x  2
 3 x  4 when x2

For x  1
lim lim lim lim

f ( x)  5 x  4  1 and 
f ( x)  4 x 2  3x  1
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1
and f (1)  5.1  4  1
lim lim
Since 
f ( x) = f ( x)  f (1) So f (x) iscontinuous at x  1 .
x 1 x  1
For x  2
lim lim lim lim

f ( x)  4 x 2  3 x  10 and 
f ( x)  3x  4  10
x2 x2 x2 x2
and f (2)  3.2  4  10
lim lim
Since 
f ( x) = 
f ( x)  f (2) So f (x) iscontinuous at x  2 .
x2 x2
For x  1
lim f (1  h)  f (1) lim 5(1  h)  4  1 lim   5h 
Lf (1)     5
h0 h h0 h h  0  h 
lim f (1  h)  f (1) lim 4(1  h) 2  3(1  h)  1 lim  4h 2  5h 
Rf (1)       5
h0 h h0 h h  0  h 
lim
 4h  5  5
h0
Hence f (1) exists and = 5
For x  2
lim f (2  h)  f (2) lim 4(2  h) 2  3(2  h)  10 lim
Lf (2)     4h  13  13
h0 h h0 h h0
lim f (2  h)  f (2) lim 3(2  h)  4  10 lim  3h 
Rf (2)     3
h0 h h0 h h  0 h 
Since Lf (2)  Rf (2) hence f (2) does not exists.

Problem 7:Differentiate sin x with respect to x 2

Solution: Let y  sin x, s  x 2
dy dy dx dy ds cos x
   / 
ds dx ds dx dx 2x
Problem 8: Differentiate tan 1 x with respect to x 2
Solution: Let y  tan 1 x, s  x 2
dy dy dx dy ds 1
   / 
ds dx ds dx dx 2 x(1  x 2 )
Problem 9: A ladder AB of 25 ft. long leans against a vertical wall. If the lower end A , which
is at a distance of 7 ft. from the bottom of the wall is being moved away on the ground from
the wall at the rate of 2 ft. per second, find how fast is the top B descending on the wall.

Solution: Let the distance of A and B from O, the bottom of the wall, at time t be x and y .
dx dy dx
Then the velocities of A and B are and but here given 2
dt dt dt
dx dy
Now x 2  y 2  252 Differentiating w.r.to t we get 2 x  2 y 0
dt dt
dy
 
dt
x dx
y dt
7 7

  .2   ft. per sec.=-7 inches per sec.  x  7, y  252  7 2  24
24 12

 The end B is moving at the rate of 7 inches per second towards O i.e. B is descending at
that rate.

Successive differentiation:
i ) y  x n ; y1  nx n1 ; y 2  n(n  1) x n 2 ; y3  n(n  1)(n  2) x n3 and proceeding in a similar
manner, y r  n(n  1)(n  2)...(n  r  1) x n r (r  n)
y n  n(n  1)(n  2)...(n  r  1)...3.2.1  n! and y n1  0 .

ii ) y  sin ax; y1  a cos ax  a sin(  ax)
2
   2
y 2  a 2 cos(  ax)  a 2 sin(   ax)  a 2 sin(  ax)
2 2 2 2
2  2 3
y3  a 3 cos(  ax)  a 3 sin(   ax)  a 3 sin(  ax)
2 2 2 2
And proceeding in a similar manner we can write
n
y n  D n (sin ax)  a n sin(  ax)
2
n
Similarly D n (cos ax)  a n cos(  ax)
2
1 1 x2
Problem 10: Find y n for i ) y  ii ) y  iii ) y 
x2  a2 x 2  16 ( x  a)( x  b)

Solution: i ) y 
1
x a
2 2

1

1  1
 
1  1
 
( x  a )( x  a ) 2a  ( x  a) ( x  a )  2a

( x  a ) 1  ( x  a ) 1 
y1 
1
2a

(1)1 .1.( x  a ) 2  (1)1 .1.( x  a )  2 
y2 
1
2a

(1) 2 .1.2.( x  a ) 3  (1) 2 .1.2.( x  a ) 3 
y3 
1
2a

(1) 3 .1.2.3.( x  a )  4  (1) 3 .1.2.3.( x  a )  4 
Proceeding in a similar manner we can write

yn 
1
2a

(1) n .n!.( x  a ) ( n1)  (1) n .n!.( x  a ) ( n1) 
ii ) y  2
1

1
x  16 ( x  4i )( x  4i) 8i
1

 ( x  4i) 1  ( x  4i) 1 
Similar calculation as i)

yn 
1
8i

(1) n .n!.( x  4i ) ( n1)  (1) 3 .n!.( x  4i ) ( n1) 
x2 a2 b2
iii ) y  1 
( x  a )( x  b) (a  b)( x  a ) (a  b)( x  b)

y1 
1
a b

(1)1 .1.a 2 ( x  a )  2  (1)1 .1.b 2 ( x  b)  2 
y2 
1
ab

(1) 2 .1.2.a 2 ( x  a ) 3  (1) 2 .1.2.b 2 ( x  b) 3 
y3 
1
a b

(1) 3 .1.2.3.a 2 ( x  a )  4  (1) 3 .1.2.3.b 2 ( x  b)  4 
Proceeding in a similar manner we can write

yn 
1
a b

(1) n .n!.a 2 ( x  a ) ( n1)  (1) n .n!.b 2 ( x  b) ( n1) 
1  a2 b2 
 (1) .n!.
n
n 1
 ( 1) n
.n!. n 1 
a b  ( x  a) ( x  b) 

Leibnitz’s Theorem: If u and v are two functions of x then the nth derivative of their
products, i.e., (uv) n  u n v  n c1u n1v1  n c 2 u n  2 v2  ...... n c r u n r vr  .....  uvn
Where the suffixes in u and v denote the order of differentiations of u and v w.r.to x
Proof: Let y  uv
Differentiating successively w.r.to x we get
y1  u1v  uv1
y 2  u 2 v  u1v1  u1v1  uv2  u 2 v  2u1v1  uv2  u 2 v  2 c1u1v1  uv2
y3  u 3 v  u 2 v1  2u 2 v1  2u1v2  u1v 2  uv3  u 3 v  3u 2 v1  3u1v 2  uv3
 u 3 v  3c1u 2 v1  3 c2 u1v 2  uv3
Proceeding in a similar manner we can write
y n  (uv ) n  u n v  n c1u n1v1  n c2 u n 2 v2  ...... n c r u n r vr  .....  uv n

1
Problem 11: If y  e a sin x
then show that (1  x 2 ) y n 2  (2n  1) xyn1  (n 2  a 2 ) y n  0
Find also the value of  y n 0
1
Solution: Given that y  e a sin x
…….. (1)
a sin 1 x a 2 a sin 1 x 2 a2
Differentiating w.r.to x we get y1  e  y1  (e )
(1  x 2 ) (1  x 2 )
2
 y1 (1  x 2 )  a 2 y 2
Again Differentiating w.r.to x we get
2
 (1  x 2 ).2 y1 y 2  2 xy1  2a 2 yy1
 (1  x 2 ). y 2  xy1  a 2 y ……………………. (2)
Differentiating equation (2) n times by applying Leibnitz’s theorem we get
 (1  x 2 ). y n 2  n c1 (2 x) y n 1  n c2 (2) y n  [ xyn 1  n c1 .1. y n ]  a 2 y n
n(n  1)
 (1  x 2 ). y n 2  2nxy n1  2 y n  [ xy n1  ny n ]  a 2 y n
2
 (1  x ). y n 2  2nxy n1  (n  n) y n  xy n1  ny n  a 2 y n
2 2

 (1  x 2 ). y n 2  (2n  1) xy n1  (n 2  a 2 ) y n  0 …………… (3) ( showed)

Putting x  0 in equation (3) we get
 ( y n 2 ) 0  (n 2  a 2 )( y n ) 0
Replacing n by n-2 we get
 ( y n ) 0  {( n  2) 2  a 2 )}( y n 2 ) 0  {(n  2) 2  a 2 )}{( n  4) 2  a 2 )}( y n  4 ) 0  etc.
Also from (1) and (2) ( y1 ) 0  a, ( y 2 ) 0  a 2
Thus ( y n ) 0  {(n  2) 2  a 2 )}{( n  4) 2  a 2 )}( y n 4 ) 0 ......(4 2  a 2 )(2 2  a 2 )a 2 if n is even
And ( y n ) 0  {(n  2) 2  a 2 )}{( n  4) 2  a 2 )}( y n 4 ) 0 ......(3 2  a 2 )(12  a 2 )a if n is odd.

Problem 12: If log y  tan 1 x then show that i )(1  x 2 ). y 2  (2 x  1) y1  0

ii )(1  x 2 ) y n  2  (2nx  2 x  1) y n 1  n(n  1) y n  0
1
Solution: Given that log y  tan 1 x  y  e tan x

1 1
Differentiating w.r.to x we get y1  e tan x
 (1  x 2 ) y1  y
(1  x 2 )
Again Differentiating w.r.to x we get
 (1  x 2 ). y 2  2 xy1  y1
 (1  x 2 ). y 2  (2 x  1) y1  0
Differentiating n times by applying Leibnitz’s theorem we get
 (1  x 2 ). y n  2  n c1 ( 2 x) y n 1  n c2 ( 2) y n  ( 2 x  1) y n 1  n c1 ( 2) y n  0
n(n  1)
 (1  x 2 ). y n 2  2nxyn1  .2 y n  (2 x  1) y n1  2ny n  0
2
 (1  x 2 ). y n 2  2nxy n1  ( n 2  n). y n  ( 2 x  1) y n1  2ny n  0
 (1  x 2 ). y n 2  ( 2nx  2 x  1) y n1  n( n  1) y n  0 ( showed)

Problem 13: If y  a cos(log x)  b sin(log x) then show that

x 2 y n 2  ( 2n  1) xy n 1  ( n 2  1) y n  0
Solution: Given that y  a cos(log x)  b sin(log x)
Differentiating w.r.to x we get
a sin(log x) b cos(log x)
y1     xy1  a sin(log x)  b cos(log x)
x x
Again Differentiating w.r.to x we get
a cos(log x) b sin(log x) y
 xy2  y1  [  ]
x x x
 x 2 y 2  xy1  y  0
Differentiatingn times by applying Leibnitz’s theorem we get
 x 2 y n 2  n c1 2 xy n1  n c 2 2 y n  [ xy n1  n c11 y n ]  y n  0
n(n  1)
 x 2 y n 2  2nxyn 1  2 y n  [ xyn1  ny n ]  y n  0
2
 x 2 y n2  2nxy n 1  (n 2  n) y n  xy n1  ny n  y n  0
 x 2 y n  2  (2n  1) xy n1  (n 2  1) y n  0 ( showed)

Problem 14: If y  sin(m sin 1 x) then show that i )(1  x 2 ). y 2  xy1  m 2 y  0

ii )(1  x 2 ) y n  2  ( 2n  1) xy n1  ( m 2  n 2 ) y n  0
Solution: Given that y  sin(m sin 1 x)
m 2 m2
Differentiating w.r.to x we get y1  cos( m sin 1 x)  y1  cos 2 (m sin 1 x)
(1  x 2 ) (1  x 2 )
2
 y1 (1  x 2 )  m 2 {1  sin 2 (m sin 1 x)}  m 2 (1  y 2 )
2
 y1 (1  x 2 )  m 2  m 2 y 2 )  0
Again Differentiating w.r.to x we get
2
 (1  x 2 ).2 y1 y 2  2 xy1  2m 2 yy1  0
 (1  x 2 ). y 2  xy1  m 2 y  0
Differentiating n times by applying Leibnitz’s theorem we get
 (1  x 2 ). y n  2  n c1 (2 x ) y n1  n c2 (2) y n  [ xy n1  n c1 .1. y n ]  m 2 y n  0
n(n  1)
 (1  x 2 ). y n 2  2nxy n1  2 y n  [ xyn1  ny n ]  m 2 y n  0
2
 (1  x 2 ). y n 2  2nxy n1  ( n 2  n) y n  xy n1  ny n  m 2 y n  0
 (1  x 2 ). y n 2  (2n  1) xyn1  (m 2  n 2 ) y n  0 ( showed)
(n  1)!
Problem 15: If y  x n 1 log x then show that y n 
x
Solution: y n  D n [ x n1 log x]
1
 D n 1 D[ x n1 log x]  D n1[ x n1  (n  1) x n 2 log x]  D n1[ x n 2  (n  1) x n 2 log x]
x
 Dn1[(n 1)x n2 logx]  Dn2[(n 1)xn3  (n 1)(n  2)xn3 logx]  Dn2 [(n 1)(n  2)xn3 logx]
After differentiating n-1 times we get
 D[(n  1)(n  2).....3.2.1log x]
(n 1)(n  2).....3.2.1 (n 1)!
 
x x
Rolle’s theorem: If a function f (x) is
continuous in [a, b], f (x) exists in (a, b) and
f (a)  f (b) then their exists at least one
value of x say c between a and b i.e. a<c<b
such that f (c)  0.
Proof: Since f (x) is continuous in [a, b] so
f (x) is bounded and then their exists a
supremum M and an infimum m in [a, b]. Let
f (c )  M and f (d )  m then there are two
cases : Either M=m or M  m
Case i: M=m then f (c)  f (d )  f (a)  f (b)  k  f ( x)  cons tan t
 f ( x)  0  f (c)  0 , c  (a, b)
Case ii: M  m then at least one of them say f (c )  M is different from f (a)  f (b)
Implies that c lies between a and b
Since f (c )  M is the supremumof f (x) , so
f (c  h)  f (c)  0 either h is positive or negative
f (c  h )  f (c ) lim f (c  h)  f (c)
If h is positive 0  0
h h0 h
 Rf (c)  0 ………. (1)
f (c  h )  f (c ) lim f (c  h)  f (c)
If h is negative 0 0
h h0 h
 Lf (c)  0 ……… (2)
Since f (c ) exists so we must have f (c)  0.
Similarly if we consider f (d )  m we get the same result. Hence proved.

Mean value theorem: If a function f (x) is continuous in [a, b] and f (x) exists in (a, b) then
their exists at least one value of x say c between a and b i.e. a<c<b such that
f (b)  f (a )
 f (c) .
ba
Proof: Let us consider a function  ( x )  f ( x)  Ax such that  (a)   (b) where A is a
constant to be determined. Obviously  (x) is continuous in [a, b]and  (x) exists in (a, b).
We have  (a)  f (a)  Aa and  (b)  f (b)  Ab
Then  (a )   (b)
 f (a)  Aa  f (b)  Ab
 A(a  b)  f (b)  f (a)
f (b)  f (a )
 A
ba
Since  (x) is continuous in [a, b],  (x) exists in (a, b) and  (a)   (b) then their exists at
least one value of x say c between a and b i.e. a<c<b such that  (c )  0.
 f (c)  A  0
 f (b)  f (a )
 f (c)  0
ba
f (b)  f (a )
  f (c) (Proved)
ba

Problem 16: Verify Rolle’s Theorem of the function f ( x)  1  ( x  1) 2 / 3 in the interval [0, 2].
Solution: Given f ( x)  1  ( x  1) 2 / 3
2 2
 f ( x)   ( x  1) 1 / 3  
3 3( x  1)1 / 3
f (1)   where 1 (0,2)
Hence Rolle’s theorem is not valid for the given function in [0, 2].

Problem 16: Verify Mean value theorem of the function f ( x)  x ( x  1)( x  2) in the interval
[0, 1] and [2, 3].
Solution: Given f ( x)  x( x  1)( x  2) = x 3  3 x 2  2 x
 f ( x)  3x 2  6 x  2
Now f (0)  0(0  1)(0  2)  0 and f (1)  1(1  1)(1  2)  0
Here f (x) is continuous in [0, 1]and f (x) is differentiable in (0,1) then by Mean value
theorem there exists a point c, 0<c<1 such that
f (1)  f (0) 00
 f (c)   3c 2  6c  2
1 0 1 0
 3c  6c  2  0
2

6  (6) 2  4.3.2 6  12 3  3
c   
2.3 6 3
=1.57, 0.43
The point 0.43 lies in (0, 1) hence Mean value theorem is valid in [0, 1] for the given
function.
Again f (3)  3(3  1)(3  2)  6
f (2)  2(2  1)(2  2)  0
Here f (x) is continuous in [1, 3] and f (x) is differentiable in (1,3) then by Mean value
theorem there exists a point c, 0<c<1 such that
f (3)  f (2) 60
 f (c)   3c 2  6c  2
32 1
 3c  6c  2  6  3c  6c  4  0
2 2

6  (6) 2  4.3.4 6  84
c    2.52, -0.527
2.3 6
The point 2.52 lies in (2, 3) hence Mean value theorem is valid in [2, 3] for the given
function.
Problem 17: In the Mean value theorem f (a  h)  f (a)  hf (a  h) if a  1, h  3
and f ( x)  x find  .
Solution: Given f (a  h)  f (a)  hf (a  h) ……………… (1)
f ( x )  x  f ( a  h)  a  h
1 1
f ( x)   f (a  h) 
2 x 2 a  h
1
From (1) a  h  a  h
2 a  h
1
 1 3  1  3
2 1  3
3 3
 2 1 1
2 1  3 2 1  3
3 9 5
2 4  
1  3 1  3 12

h2
Problem 18: If f (h)  f (0)  hf (0)  f (h),0    1
2!
1
Find  when h  7 and f ( x)  .
(1  x)
h2
Solution: Given f (h)  f (0)  hf (0)  f (h) …………………… (1)
2!
1 1 1
And f ( x)   f ( h)  and  f (0)  1
(1  x) (1  h) (1  0)
1 1
f ( x)    f (0)    1
(1  x) 2
(1  0) 2
2 2
f ( x)   f (h) 
(1  x) 3
(1  h) 3
Then from (1) we get for h  7
1 49 2
 1  7(1)  .
1 7 2 (1  7 ) 3
1 49 49 49
  6   
8 (1  7 h) 3
8 (1  7 ) 3
1
 (1  7 ) 3  8  1  7  2   
7
Local Maxima: A function f (x) is said to have maximum values for x  c provided we can
get a positive quantity  such that for all values of x in the interval c    x  c   ,
f (c)  f ( x), x  c i.e., f (c  h)  f (c)  0 for h sufficiently small.

Local Minima: A function f (x) is said to have minimum values for x  d provided we can
get a positive quantity  such that for all values of x in the interval d    x  d   ,
f (d )  f ( x), x  d i.e., f (d  h)  f (d )  0 for h sufficiently small.

Problem 19: Find a necessary condition for maxima or minima of a function f (x) . Why for
maxima f ( x )  0 and for minima f ( x )  0
Solution: According to the definition of maxima we get
f (c  h)  f (c)  0 ……………………. (1) Either h is positive or negative
f (c  h )  f (c ) lim f (c  h)  f (c)
If h is positive 0  0
h h0 h
 Rf (c)  0 ………. (2)
f (c  h )  f (c ) lim f (c  h)  f (c)
If h is negative 0 0
h h0 h
 Lf (c)  0 ……… (3)
Now if f (c) exists the above two limits must be equal, so we must have f (c)  0.
Similarly for minima we also written as f (c)  0.
Again by mean value theorem
f (c  h)  f (c)  hf (c  h),0    1
 hf (c  h)  f (c  h)  f (c)
f (c  h)  f (c)
 h 2  f (c  h )  f (c )
h
lim f (c  h)  f (c) lim f (c  h)  f (c)
 
h0 h h0 h 2
 lim f (c  h)  f (c)
 f (c)  Either h is positive or negative
h0 h 2
 f (c)  0 Using (1) and since h 2 is positive
Similarly for minimum value  f (c)  0

Rule: Let f (c)  f (c)  f (c)  ........  f n 1 (c)  0 and f n (c)  0

Then i) If n be even f (c) is a maximum or minimum according as f n (c) is negative or
positive and ii) If n be odd f (c) is neither a minimum nor a maximum.

Problem 20: Investigate for what values of x , f ( x)  5 x 6  18x 5  15x 4  10 is a maximum or

minimum.
Solution: Given the function f ( x)  5 x 6  18x 5  15x 4  10
f ( x)  30x 5  90x 4  60x 3
For maxima or minima 30x 5  90x 4  60x 3  0  30x 3 ( x 2  3x  2)  0
 x 3 ( x  1)( x  2)  0  x  0,1,2
Now f ( x)  30(5 x 4  12x 3  6 x 2 )
When x  1 , f (x) is negative and hence f (x) is a maximum for x  1 .
When x  2 , f (x) is positive and hence f (x) is a minimum for x  2 .
When x  0 f ( x)  0
Now f ( x)  120(5x 3  9 x 2  3x) =0 at x  0
f iv ( x)  120(15x 2  18x  3) =360 >0 at x  0
hence f (x) is a minimum for x  0 .
4 36
Problem 21: Find the maximum and minimum values of u where u   and x  y  2
x y
4 36 4 36
Solution: Given that u   u 
x y x 2 x
du 4 36 16(2 x 2  x  1)
  2  
dx x (2  x) 2 x 2 (2  x) 2
du 16(2 x 2  x  1)
For maxima or minima    0  2x 2  x  1  0
dx x (2  x)
2 2

1
 x  ,1
2
d 2u 8 72
Also   3
dx 2
x (2  x ) 3
1 d 2u 8 72
When x  , 2   0
2 dx 1 3 1 3
( ) (2  )
2 2
For x  1 / 2 , u is a minimum.
 4 36
Therefore the minimum value of u    32
1 1
2
2 2
d 2u 8 72
When x  1 ,   0
dx 2
(1) 3
(2  1) 3
For x  1 , u is a maximum.
4 36
Therefore the maximum value of u   8
1 2  1
Problem 22: A conical tent of given capacity has to be constructed. Find the ratio of the
height to the radius of the base for the minimum amount of canvas required for the tent.

Solution: Let r be the radius of the base h be the height v the volume and s the surface area
of the conical tent.
1
Then v  r 2 h ………………. (1) and s  r r 2  h 2 ………………. (2)
3
Here v is given as constant
9v 2 9v 2
 s 2   2 r 2 (r 2  h 2 )   2 r 2 (r 2  )   2 4
r 
 2r 4 r2
d 2 18v 2
( s )  4 2 r 3  3
dr r
1/ 3
18v 2 9v 2  3v 
For maxima or minima 4 r  3  0  r 6 
2 3
r  
r 2 2
 2 
1/ 3
d2 2 54v 2  3v 
Now ( s )  12 2 2
r   0 for r   
 2 
2 4
dr r
1
1/ 3 9  2r 4h2
 3v  9 v 2
For minimum amount of canvas r     r6   9 2
 2  2 2 2
r 4h2 h2 r2 1 r 1
 r6   r2   2     r : h  1: 2
2 2 h 2 h 2
Problem 23: The total cost function of a firm is
1
c( x )  x 3  5 x 2  28 x  10 where c is total cost and x is output unit. A tax at the rate of
3
2 Tk. per unit ofoutput is imposed and the producer adds it to his cost. If the market
demands function is given by p  2530  5 x where p is the price per unit of output, find the
profit maximizing output and price.
Solution: Total revenue function, TR( x)  (2530  5x) x  2530x  5x 2
1
After imposing tax total cost function TC ( x)  x 3  5 x 2  28 x  10  2 x
3
Profit P ( x)  TR ( x)  TC ( x)
1
 2530 x  5 x 2  ( x 3  5 x 2  28 x  10  2 x)
3
dP
  2530  10 x  ( x 2  10 x  28  2)
dx
For maximization 2530  10x  ( x 2  10x  30)  0 x 2  2500  x  50
But product units cannot be negative.
d 2P
  2 x  0 for x  50
dx 2
Profit maximizing output unit is 50 units and price P  2530  5  50  2280 Tk.

Partial Derivatives: Let u  f ( x, y ) The partial derivatives of u w. r. to x is denoted by one

u f
of the symbols , , f x ( x, y ), f x , u x
x x
f lim f ( x  x, y )  f ( x, y ) lim f ( x  x, y  y )  f ( x, y  y )
Analytically  or 
x x  0 x x  0 x
The partial derivatives of u w. r. to y is denoted by one of the symbols
u f
, , f y ( x, y ), f y , u y
y y
f lim f ( x, y  y )  f ( x, y ) lim f ( x  x, y )  f ( x  x, y  y )
Analytically  or 
y y  0 y y  0 y

Problem 24: If u  log(x 3  y 3  z 3  3xyz) then show that

u u u 3
i)   
x y z x  y  z
 2u  2u  2u 3
ii)  2  2 
x 2
y z ( x  y  z) 2
Solution: Given that u  log(x 3  y 3  z 3  3xyz)
u 3x 2  3 yz
 3
x ( x  y 3  z 3  3xyz )
u 3 y 2  3xz
 3
y ( x  y 3  z 3  3xyz )
u 3 z 2  3 xy
 3
z ( x  y 3  z 3  3 xyz )
u u u 3x 2  3 yz 3 y 2  3xz 3z 2  3xy
Now    3  
x y z ( x  y 3  z 3  3xyz) ( x 3  y 3  z 3  3xyz) ( x 3  y 3  z 3  3xyz)
3( x 2  y 2  z 2  yz  zx  xy)

( x 3  y 3  z 3  3xyz)
3( x 2  y 2  z 2  yz  zx  xy) 3
 
( x  y  z )( x  y  z  yz  zx  xy) x  y  z
2 2 2

 2 u ( x 2  y 2  z 2  3 xyz)6 x  (3 x 2  3 yz )(3x 2  3 yz )
Again 
x 2 ( x 3  y 3  z 3  3 xyz) 2
  3( x 4  2 xy 3  2 xz 3  3 y 2 z 2 )

( x 3  y 3  z 3  3xyz) 2
Similarly
 2 u  3( y 4  2 yz 3  2 yx 3  3z 2 x 2 )

y 2 ( x 3  y 3  z 3  3xyz ) 2
 2 u  3( z 4  2 zx 3  2 zy 3  3 y 2 x 2 )

z 2 ( x 3  y 3  z 3  3xyz) 2
On adding we get
 2 u  2 u  2 u  3( x 2  y 2  z 2  yz  xy  zx) 2
  
x 2 y 2 z 2 ( x 3  y 3  z 3  3xyz) 2
 3( x 2  y 2  z 2  yz  xy  zx) 2

( x  y  z ) 2 ( x 2  y 2  z 2  yz  xy  zx) 2
3

( x  y  z) 2

Homogeneous Functions:
A function f ( x, y ) is said to be homogeneous of degree n in the variables x and y if it can
 y x
be expressed in the form x n  , or in the form y n  
x  y
Euler’s theorem on homogeneous function: If f ( x, y ) be a homogeneous function of x and
f f
y of degree n then x y  nf ( x, y ) .
x y
Proof: Since f ( x, y ) is a homogeneous function of degree n ,
 y y
Let f ( x, y )  x n    x n (v), where v 
 x x
f  v 
  nx n1 v   x n (v) 
x  x 
 y 
 nx n 1 v   x n (v )  2 
 x 
f  v 
 x n (v) 
y  y 
1
 x n (v ) 
x
f f   y    1 
x y  x nx n1 v   x n (v)  2   y  x n (v) 
x y   x    x 
  
 nx n v   yx n1 (v)  yx n1 (v) 
 y
 nx n (v)  nx n  
x
f f
Therefore x  y  nf ( x, y ) (proved).
x y
Total differential coefficient: Let u  f ( x, y ), where x   (t ), y   (t )
du u dx u dy
Then total differential coefficient is   .
dt x dt y dt
u u
Exact differential: du  dx  dy .
x y

Partial derivative of a function of two functions:

Let z  f (u, v), where u   ( x, y ), v   ( x, y ) then
z z u z v z z u z v
  and  
x u x v x y u y v y

x3  y 3 u u
Problem 25: If u  tan 1 then show that x  y  sin 2u
x y x y
x3  y 3
Solution: Given that u  tan 1
x y
x 3  y 3 x 3{1  ( y / x) 3 }  y
 tan u    x 2  
x y x{1  ( y / x)} x
Hence tan u is a homogeneous function of degree 2 then by Euler’s theorem we get
 
x tan u  y tan u  2 tan u
x y
u u
x sec 2 u  y sec 2 u  2 tan u
x y
sin u
u u tan u
x y 2  2 cos u  2 sin u cos u  sin 2u (showed).
x y 2
sec u 1
cos 2 u
x2  y2
Problem 26: : If v  sin 1 then show that xv x  yv y  tan v
x y
x2  y2
Solution: Given that v  sin 1
x y
x 2  y 2 x 2 {1  ( y / x) 2 }  y
 sin v    x  
x y x{1  ( y / x)} x
Hence sin v is a homogeneous function of degree 1 then by Euler’s theorem we get
 
x sin v  y sin v  1.sin v
x y
v v
x cos v  y cos v  sin v
x y
sin v
xv x  yv y   tan v (showed).
cos v
Problem 27: If u  x ( y / x)   ( y / x) then show that
u u
i) x y  x ( y / x)
x y
ii) x 2 u xx  2 xyu xy  y 2 u yy  0
Solution: Given u  x ( y / x)   ( y / x) …………………. (1)
Let W  x ( y / x) and F   ( y / x)
Then W  x ( y / x) is a homogeneous function of degree 1 and F   ( y / x) is a
homogeneous function of degree 0. According to the Euler’s theorem we get
W W
x y  1.W  W ……………………. (2) and
x y
F F
x y  0.F  0 ……………….. (3)
x y
Now from (1) u  W  F
u W F
   …………….. (4) and
x x x
u W F
  ………………… (5)
y y y
Multiplying (4) by x and (5) by y and then adding we get
u u  W F   W F 
x y  x    y  
x y  x x   y y 
W W F F
x y x y W  0 W
x y x y
u u
x y  W  x ( y / x) ………….. (6) ( proved i)
x y
Differentiating (6) w. r. to x we get
 2 u u  2 u W
x   y  …………………. (7)
x 2 x xy x
Again Differentiating (6) w. r. to y we get
 2u  2 u u W
x y 2   …………………. (8)
yx y y y
Multiplying (7) by x and (8) by y and then adding we get
 2u u  2u  2u 2  u
2
u W W
x 2
 x  xy  xy y y x y
x 2
x xy yx y 2
y x y
 2u  2u 2  u
2
u u W W
 x2  2 xy  y x y x y
x 2
xy y 2
x y x y
 2u  2u 2  u
2
 x2  2 xy  y W  W
x 2 xy y 2
 2u  2u 2  u
2
 x2  2 xy  y  0 (Proved ii)
x 2 xy y 2
Problem 28: If u be a homogeneous function of x and y of degree n proved that
2
   
 x  y  u  n(n  1)u
 x y 
2
     2u  2u  2u
where  x  y  u  x 2 2  2 xy  y2 2
 x y  x xy y
Solution: Since u is a homogeneous function of degree n then by Euler’s theorem we get
u u
x y  nu ……………….. (1)
x y
Differentiating (6) w. r. to x we get
 2 u u  2u u
x   y  n …………………. (2)
x 2
x xy x
Again Differentiating (6) w. r. to y we get
 2u  2 u u u
x y 2   n …………………. (3)
yx y y y
Multiplying (2) by x and (3) by y and then adding we get
 2u u  2u  2u 2  u
2
u  u u 
x2  x  xy  xy  y y  n x  y 
x 2
x xy yx y 2
y  x y 
 2u  2u 2  u
2
u u
 x2  2 xy  y x y  n.nu
x 2
xy y 2
x y
 2u  2u 2  u
2
 x2  2 xy  y  nu  n.nu
x 2 xy y 2
 2u  2u 2  u
2
 x2  2 xy  y  n(n  1)u
x 2 xy y 2
2
   
  x  y    n(n  1)u (proved)
 x y 

Equation of tangent: The equation of tangent to the curve y  f (x) at point ( x1 , y1 ) is

dy
y  y1  ( x  x1 )
dx
dy f
When the equation of the curve is f ( x, y )  0 then  x
dx fy
Then the equation of tangent is ( ( x  x1 ) f x  ( y  y1 ) f y  0
Equation of normal: The equation of normal to the curve y  f (x) at point ( x1 , y1 ) is
1 dy
y  y1   ( x  x1 )  ( y  y1 )  ( x  x1 )  0
dy dx
dx
dy f
When the equation of the curve is f ( x, y )  0 then  x
dx fy
Then the equation of normal is ( ( x  x1 ) f y  ( y  y1 ) f x  0
 xm ym
Problem 29: If x cos  y sin   p touch the curve   1 then show that
am bm
m m m
( a cos  ) m 1
 (b sin  ) m 1
p m 1

Solution:Given that x cos  y sin   p …………………. (1)

xm ym
  1 …………………. (2)
am bm
Let the equation (1) touch the curve (2) at ( x1 , y1 ) then we get
x1 cos  y1 sin   p …………………………. (3) and
x1m y1m
  1 ………………………… (4)
am bm

xm ym
Let f ( x, y )  m  m  1  0
a b
m 1 m 1
mx mx
f x  m  1m at ( x1 , y1 )
a a
my m1 my1m1
fy   m at ( x1 , y1 )
bm b
The equation of tangent to the curve (2) at ( x1 , y1 ) is
mx1m1 my1m1
( x  x1 )  ( y  y1 ) 0
am bm
xx1m 1 yy1m1 x1m y1m
 m  m  m  m  1 ……………………. (5) [using (4)]
a b a b
Since equation (1) touch the curve (2) at ( x1 , y1 ) so (1) and (5) must be identical.
x1m1 y1m1
m m 1
Hence a  b 
cos sin  p
x1m 1 y1m1
m 1 m 1 1 x m1 a cos  y1m 1 b sin 
 a  b   1m 1  , m 1 
a cos  b sin  p a p b p
1 1
x  a cos   m1 y1  b sin   m1
 1    ,   
a  p  b  p 
m m
m m
x   a cos   m1  y1   b sin   m 1
  1     ,     
a  p  b  p 
Then from (4) we get
m m
 a cos   m 1  b sin   m1
     1
 p   p 
m m m

 (a cos  ) m 1  (b sin  ) m1  p m1 (Proved)

Problem 30: If lx  ny  1 touch the curve (ax) m  (by) m  1 then show that
m m

(l / a ) m1  (n / b) m1  1
Solution: Given that lx  ny  1 …………………. (1)
(ax) m  (by) m  1 …………………. (2)
Let the equation (1) touch the curve (2) at ( x1 , y1 ) then we get
lx1  ny1  1 …………………………. (3) and
(ax1 ) m  (by1 ) m  1 ………………………… (4)
Let f ( x, y )  (ax) m  (by) m  1  0
f x  ma m x m1  ma m x1m1 at ( x1 , y1 )
f y  mb m y m1  mb m y1m1 at ( x1 , y1 )
The equation of tangent to the curve (2) at ( x1 , y1 ) is
( x  x1 )ma m x1m1  ( y  y1 )mbm y1m1  0
 xa m x1m1  yb m y1m1  a m x1m  b m y1m  1 ……………………. (5) [using (4)]
Since equation (1) touch the curve (2) at ( x1 , y1 ) so (1) and (5) must be identical.
a m x1m1 b m y1m 1
Hence  1
l n
a m1 x1m1 b m1 y1m 1
   1  a m1 x1m1  l / a, b m1 y1m1  n / b
l/a n/b
1 1
 l  m1  n  m1
 ax1    , by1   
a b
m m1
 l  m1  n  m1
 (ax1 )    , (by1 ) m   
m

a b
Then from (4) we get
m m
 l  m1  n  m1
      1 (Proved)
a b

Problem 31: If lx  my  1 is normal to the parabola y 2  4ax then show that

al 3  2alm 2  m 2
Solution: Given that lx  my  1 …………………. (1)
y 2  4ax …………………. (2)
Let the equation (1) touch the curve (2) at ( x1 , y1 ) then we get
lx1  ny1  1 …………………………. (3) and
y12  4ax1 ………………………… (4)
Let f ( x, y )  y 2  4ax  0
f x  4a at ( x1 , y1 )
f y  2 y  2 y1 at ( x1 , y1 )
The equation of normal to the curve (2) at ( x1 , y1 ) is
( x  x1 )2 y1  ( y  y1 )4a  0
2 y1 x  4ay  2 x1 y1  4ay1  0
y1 x  2ay  x1 y1  2ay1  0 ……………………. (5) [using (4)]
Since equation (1) touch the curve (2) at ( x1 , y1 ) so (1) and (5) must be identical.
y1 2a x1 y1  2ay1
Hence  
l m 1
2al 1 y y ( x  2a ) 2al 1 x1  2a
 y1  ,  1 1  y1  , 
m l 1 m l 1
2al 1  2al
 y1  , x1 
m l

Then from (4) we get

4a 2 l 2  1  2al 
2
 4 a 
m  l 
al 2  1  2al 
 
m2  l 
al 3  m 2  2alm 2  al 3  2alm 2  m 2 (Proved)

Curvature: The curvature is the rate of change of direction of the curve with respect to the
arc or the curvature is the rate at which the curve curves.
The reciprocal of the curvature at any point is called the radius of curvature at that point.

lim  d
Mathematically curvature   
s  0 s ds
ds
And radius of curvature  
d

Formulae for radius of curvature: i) for the Cartesian equation y  f (x) .

dy
We know  tan
dx
Differentiating w. r. to x we get
d2y d d ds d  dx 
2
 sec 2   sec 2   sec3   ds  cos 
dx dx ds dx ds  
 ds d2y
   sec 3  / 2
d dx
1
Since sec 2   1  tan 2   sec  (1  tan 2  ) 2
3
  dy  2  2
 
3 3
 sec 3   (1  tan 2  )  1      1  y1
2 2 2
dx
   
3
  dy  2  2
1    
 
3
  dx   2
1  y1 2
  
d2y y2
2
dx
ii) for the Cartesian equation x  f ( y ) .
3
  dx  2  2
1    
 
3
  dy   1  x1
2 2
 
d 2x x2
2
dy

iii) for the parametric equation

x 
3
 y 2 2
2

xy   y x
iv) for the implicit equation f ( x, y )  0

f 
3
2 2 2
 fy
 x

f xx f  2 f xy f x f y  f yy f x2
y
2

v) for the polar equation r  f ( )

r 
3
2 2
2
 r1
 2
r  2r1  rr2
2

Problem 32: Find the radius of curvature at any point for the following curve
y
2
i) y 2  4ax ii) e a  sec( x / a ) iii) y  e  x at (0, 1)
y2
Solution: i) Given y 2  4ax  x 
4a
2y y 1
x1   and x2 
4a 2 a 2a
3
 y2 2
1  2 
1  x 
3
   4a 
3 3
2 2
4a  4a 2  y 2 2
 y2

2 2
  1

x2 1 1 4a 2
8a 3
2a 2a
 3
4a   4a(a  x)
3 3 3 3
2
 4ax 2 2 8a 2 ( a  x)2 2( a  x)2
  
4a 2 4a 2 4a 2 a
y y
1 dy 1
ii) Given e a  sec( x / a )  e a  sec( x / a ) tan( x / a ).
a dx a
dy
 sec( x / a )  sec( x / a ) tan( x / a )
dx
dy
  tan( x / a )
dx
d2y 1
 2
 sec 2 ( x / a)
dx a
3
  dy  2  2
1    
1  tan   
3 3
  dx   2
( x / a) 2 a sec 2 ( x / a ) 2
     a sec( x / a )
d2y 1 sec 2 ( x / a )
sec 2 ( x / a )
dx 2 a
2 2
iii) Given y  e  x  y1  2 xe  x  2 xy
 y 2  2 xy1  2 y  4 x 2 y  2 y
3
1  4 x y 
3
2
(1  0) 2
2 2
1 1
     
4x y  2 y
2
02 2 2
Problem 33: Find the radius of curvature at any point for the following curve
i) x  a(cos t  t sin t ), y  a(sin t  t cos t ) ii) x  a(  sin  ), y  a(1  cos ) at   0
Solution: i) Given x  a(cos t  t sin t ), y  a(sin t  t cos t )
x   a(  sin t  t cos t  sin t )  a(t cos t )
x   a(t sin t  cos t )
y   a(cos t  t sin t  cos t )  a(t sin t )
y   a(t cos t  sin t )
3
x 
3
 y2 2
2
[a 2 t 2 (cos 2 t  sin 2 t )] 2
  2 2
x y   y x  a [t cos 2 t  t sin t cos t  t 2 sin 2 t  t sin t cos t ]
a 3t 3
   2 2  at
a t
ii) Given x  a(  sin  ), y  a(1  cos )
x  a(1  cos )  2a at   0
x  a sin   0 at   0
y   a sin   0 at   0
y   a cos  a at   0
3
x 
3
2
 y  2 2 [ 4 a 2  0] 2
    4a
xy   y x  2a 2  0
Problem 34: Find the radius of curvature at any point for the following curve r 2  a 2 cos 2
Solution: Given r 2  a 2 cos 2
2rr1  2a 2 sin 2
a 2 sin 2
 r1  
a 2 cos 2
2 a 4
sin 2 2
 r1  2
a cos 2
a 2 cos 2 (4a 4 sin 2 cos 2 )  a 4 sin 2 2 (2a 2 sin 2 )
 2r1r2 
a 4 cos2 2
a 2 sin 2 (2 cos2 2  sin 2 2 )
 r1r2 
cos 2 2
a 2 sin 2 (2 cos 2 2  sin 2 2 ) a 2 cos 2
 r2  (  )
cos2 2 a 2 sin 2
a 2 cos 2 (2 cos 2 2  sin 2 2 )

cos 2 2
a 2 sin 2 2 a2
Now r 2  r1  a 2 cos 2 
2

cos 2 cos 2
2a 2 sin 2 2 a 2 cos 2 (2 cos 2 2  sin 2 2 )
And r 2  2r1  rr2  a 2 cos 2   a 2 cos 2 .
2

cos 2 cos 2 2
2a 2 sin 2 2 a 2 (2 cos 2 2  sin 2 2 )
 a cos 2 
2

cos 2 cos 2
a 2 cos 2 2  2a 2 sin 2 2  a 2 (2 cos 2 2  sin 2 2 )

cos 2
3a 2 sin 2 2  3a 2 cos 2 2 3a 2
 
cos 2 cos 2
3
 a2 2
 
 
3
2
r 2  r1 2  cos 2  a3
 2 2
 2
 3
r  2r1  rr2 3a 3a 2
cos 2 2
cos 2 cos 2
a2 a2 a2
 1
 
3 a 2 cos 2 3r
3a cos 2 2