PART I:

FUNDAMENTALS
RADIATION
TRANSMISSION THROUGH
GLAZING

1
 Güneş ışınımının güneş kolektörünün çeşitli kısımları tarafından
iletilmesi (transmision), yansıtılması (reflection) ve emilmesi
(absorption), kolektör performansının belirlenmesinde önemlidir.
 Geçirgenlik, yansıma ve soğurma (emilme), malzemenin gelen
ışınımının (incoming radiation), kalınlığının (thickness), kırılma
indisinin (refractive index) ve sönme katsayısının (extinction
coefficient) fonksiyonlarıdır.
 Bu bölümde başlangıçta tüm özelliklerin dalga boyundan
bağımsız olduğu varsayılacaktır.
 Güneş ışınımının kolektörler, kolektör-depolama duvarları ve
odalar tarafından saatlik ve aylık ortalama olarak emilmesi
incelenecektir.
 Güneş ışınımının iletimiyle ilgili önemli hususların gözden
geçirilmesi incelenecektir.

2
Radyasyonun Yansıması
(Reflection of Radiation)
 Pürüzsüz yüzeyler için, kırılma indeksi n1 olan ortam 1'den
kırılma indeksi n2 olan ortam 2'ye geçerken radyasyonun
yansıması için ifadeler türetmiştir:
Perpendicular
sin  2  1 
2 component of
r  radiation
sin2  2  1 
tan 2  2  1 
Parallel component
r  of radiation
tan 2  2  1 
I r r  r
r  Reflection of
Duffie, John A., and William A. Beckman. Solar Engineering of Thermal
Ii 2 radiation
Processes, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2013.

3
The angles θ1 and θ2 are related to the indices of refraction

n1 sin1  n 2 sin 2

If both θ1 and θ2 are zero, then

2
I  n  n2 
r 0  r   1 
I i  n1  n 2 

If one medium is air, then

 n 1 
2 Refractive
r 0   1  index is
 n1  1  nearly unity

4
Example:
Calculate the reflectance of one surface of glass at normal incidence
(one side is air) and at 60°. The average refraction index of glass is
1.526.
2 2
 n  1   1.526  1 
r 0   1      0.0434
 n1  1   1.526  1 

At an incidence angle of 60° the refraction angle θ2 is

n1 1
sin  2  sin 1  sin 60
n2 1.526
 sin 60 
 2  sin 1    34.58
 1.526 

5
The reflectance is

r  r
r
2

1  sin 2  25.42 tan 2  25.42 1

r 60      0.185  0.001  0.093
2  sin 94.58
2
tan 94.58  2
2

6
Similarly, the transmittance, τr (subscript r indicates that only reflection
losses are considered), can be calculated from the average transmittance of
the two components:

1  1  r 1  r 
r  

2 1  r 1  r 
 

For a glazing system of N covers of the same material, it can be proven that:

1  1 r 1  r 

 rN  
2  1  2 N  1r 1  2 N  1r 
 

7
Example:
Calculate the transmittance of two covers of nonabsorbing glass at
normal incidence (one side is air) and at 60°.

At normal incidence (perpendicular);

2
 1.526  1 
r 0     0.0434
 1.526  1 

The transmittance is (N=2 cover);

 1  0.0434 
 
 r 0     0.85
 1  3 0.0434 

8
At a 60° incidence angle,

r  0.185
r  0.001

The transmittance is;

1  1  0.185 1  0.001 
 r 60      0.76
2  1  30.185 1  30.001 

9
Absorption by Glazing

Kısmen şeffaf bir ortamda radyasyonun soğurulması;

I transmitted  KL 
a   exp  
Iincident  cos 2 

a indicates, that only absorption losses have been considered.

K: extinction coefficient (constant in the solar spectrum)
L: pathlength

10
Optical Properties of Cover
Systems
The transmittance, reflectance, and absorptance of a single cover, allowing for both
reflection and absorption losses, for the perpendicular component of polarization,
the transmittance τ⊥, reflectance ρ⊥, and absorptance α⊥ of the cover can be
determined
 a 1  r 2 1  r  1  r2 
     2
1  r a   
a
2
1  r 1  r 
 a 
 a2 1  r 2
   r  r  r 1   a  
1  r a 
2

 1  r 
   1   a  
 1  r a 
Similar results are found for the parallel component of polarization. For incident
unpolarized radiation, the optical properties are found by the average of the two
components.

11
Since, for practical collector covers, τa is seldom less than 0.9 and r is of
the order of 0.1, the transmittance of a single cover becomes:

   a r

The absorptance of a cover can be approximated by

  1  a

The reflectance of a single cover could be found (keeping in mind that ρ

= 1 – α – τ) as:

   a 1   r    a  

12
For a two-cover system of not necessarily same materials, the following
equation can be obtained

1   1 2    1 2   1
      
2  1  1 2    1  1 2   2

     


1   1
2 
   
 2  
  
   1  2 1    1  2 1 
2 

    
 2



subscript 1: Outer cover

subscript 2: Inner cover

13
Example:
Calculate the transmittance, reflectance, and absorptance of a single
glass cover 2.3 mm thick at an angle of 60°. The extinction
coefficient of the glass is 32 m-1.

KL 32  0.0023
  0.0894
cos 2 cos 34.58

34.58° is the refraction angle.

The transmittance;

 a  exp 0.0894  0.915

14
The transmittance is found by averaging the transmittances for the
parallel and perpendicular components of polarization,

0.915 1  0.185  1  0.1852 

  
 
2 
2 1  0.185  1  0.185 0.915 

1  0.001  1  0.0012 
    0.768
2 
1  0.001 1  0.001 0.915 
(equation in page 11)
From foregoing questions we found for a 60° incidence angle,

r  0.185
r  0.001

15
The reflectance is found for each component of polarization and
averaging:

 0.50.1851  0.915 0.625  0.0011  0.915 0.912  0.147

In a similar manner, the absorptance is found using


1  0.915  1  0.185

1  0.001 
   0.085
2  1  0.185 0.915 1  0.001 0.915 

16
Example:
Calculate the solar transmittance at incidence angle of zero for two glass
covers each 2.3 mm thick. The extinction coefficient of the glass is 16.1
m-1, and the refractive index is 1.526.

For one sheet at normal incidence,

KL  16.1 2.3 1000  0.0370

The transmittance τa is given as

 a 0  exp 20.0370  0.93

17
τr(0) was found as 0.85 (in page 8)

The total transmittance is found as

 0   r 0 a 0  0.850.93  0.79

18
Figures show curves of
transmittance as a
function of angle of
incidence for systems
of one to four identical
covers of three
different kinds of glass.

Duffie, John A., and William A. Beckman. Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, John Wiley
& Sons, Incorporated, 2013.

19
Transmittance-Absorptance Product
 Radiation passing through the cover system and incident on the plate,

some is reflected back to the cover system.

 However, all this radiation is not lost since some of it is, in turn,
reflected back to the plate.

The reflection from the absorber

plate is assumed to be diffuse

Duffie, John A., and William A. Beckman. Solar Engineering of

Thermal Processes, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2013.

20
 The quantity ρd refers to the reflectance of the cover system for
diffuse radiation incident from the bottom side as the difference
between τa and τ at an angle of 60°.

The multiple reflection of diffuse radiation continues so that the

fraction of the incident energy ultimately absorbed is

n


     1    d  
n 0 1  1    d

21
Example:
For a two-cover collector using glass with KL=0.0370 per plate and an
absorber plate with α=0.90 (independent of direction), find the
transmittance-absorptance product at an angle of 50°.

τ at 50° is 0.75 and τ at 60° (the

effective angle of incidence of
radiation reflected back to the cover)
is 0.69.

Effective angle of
incidence of radiation
reflected back to the
cover

Duffie, John A., and William A. Beckman. Solar Engineering of

Thermal Processes, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2013.

22
From the equation with θ2 = 34.58°

 KL 
 a  exp    0.91
 cos  2 

From the equation,

   a    0.91  0.69  0.22

0.75  0.90
    0.69
1  1  0.90 0.22

23
Absorbed Solar Radiation

 The prediction of collector performance requires information on

the solar energy absorbed by the collector absorber plate.
 Incident radiation has three different spatial distributions:

 beam radiation,
 diffuse radiation, Each must be
treated separately.
 ground-reflected radiation.

24
Using the isotropic diffuse concept on an hourly basis to calculate
the absorbed radiation S can be calculated by

 1  cos    1  cos  
S  I b R b  b  I d  d     g I g  
 2   2 

View factor from View factor from

the collector to the the collector to
sky the ground

25
Example:
For an hour 11 to 12 AM on a clear winter day, I = 1.79 MJ/m2, Ib =
1.38 MJ/m2, and Id = 0.41 MJ/m2. Ground reflectance is 0.6. For this
hour, θ for the beam radiation is 7° and Rb = 2.11. A collector with
one glass cover is sloped 60° to the south. The glass has KL=0.0370,
and the absorptance of the plate at normal incidence, αn, is 0.93.
Using the isotropic diffuse model, calculate the absorbed radiation
per unit area of absorber.

For the 60° slope, the

effective angle of incidence
of the diffuse radiation is
57° and that of the ground-
reflected radiation is 65°

26
For the beam radiation, at θ = 7°:


 0.99   0.88
n

 b  1.01 0.88  0.99  0.93  0.82

27
For the (isotropic) diffuse radiation, at θ = 57°:


 0.94   0.83
n

 d  1.01 0.83  0.94  0.93  0.73

28
For the ground-reflected radiation, at θ = 65°:


 0.88   0.76
n

 g  1.01 0.76  0.88  0.93  0.63

29
To calculate S:

 1  cos 60   1  cos 60 
S  1.38  2.11 0.82  0.41 0.73   1.79  0.6  0.63 
 2   2 
 2.39  0.22  0.17  2.78 MJ m 2

30
Monthly Average Absorbed Radiation
 Methods for the evaluation of long-term solar system
performance require that the average radiation absorbed by a
collector be evaluated for monthly periods.
 The solar transmittance and absorptance are both functions of
the angle at which solar radiation is incident on the collector.
 The monthly average transmittance-absorptance product can be
evaluated by

   HS 
S
HR
T

31
Using the isotropic diffuse assumption,

 
S  H b R b  b    1  cos  
 H d  d 
2
  H g 

 1  cos  
g
2

   

The diffuse and ground-reflected terms, are functions of the properties of

the cover and absorber and the collector slope, and so do not change with
time for collector mounted at fixed β. The hourly and monthly values are
thus the same, and they can be written with or without the overbars.

32
For the monthly average beam radiation, the monthly average (equivalent)
beam incident angle  b as a function of collector slope, month, latitude, and
azimuth angle.

Duffie, John A., and William A. Beckman. Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2013.

33
Duffie, John A., and William A. Beckman. Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2013.

34
Duffie, John A., and William A. Beckman. Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2013.

35
Example:
Estimate S for a south-facing vertical collector-storage wall at 40° N
latitude. The wall consists of double glazing with a black-finished
absorbing surface behind the glass with α at normal incidence of 0.90.
The monthly average daily radiation on a horizontal surface H, in MJ/m2,
is shown in the table. The ground reflectance is assumed to be 0.3 for all
months. The angular dependence of (τα) for the two-cover glazing is as
shown in the figure. The glass has KL = 0.0125. Calculate the monthly
radiation on the wall H T , the monthly absorbed radiation S , and the
monthly average ( ).

36
Duffie, John A., and William A. Beckman. Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2013.

37
For January,
0.83

38
Absorber normal-incidence absorptance of 0.90

 
n  1.01 0.83  0.90  0.754

For the vertical (90 degree) collector the effective incidence angle of
both the diffuse and the ground-reflected radiation is 59°.

59°

39
At 59°,

   0.83
 n

    
d g  0.83  0.754  0.626

These values apply to all months.

40
For January, at latitude 40° and 90° slope

 b  41

 
b
 0.96
 
n

 
b  0.96  0.754  0.724

41
For January,

H o  15.21MJ m 2

So,

K T  6.63 15.21  0.436

For the mean day of the month, δ = -20.9°. Thus

s  cos1  tan 20.9 tan 40  71.3

By usingthe equation below to calculate the diffuse fraction.

Hd 2 3 Hd
 1.391  3.560K T  4.189K T  2.137K T  0.458
H H

42
Then
H d  6.63  0.458  3.04 MJ m 2

And

R b  2.32 H b  3.59 MJ m 2

Based on the isotropic diffuse assumption we can now calculate;

 1  cos90   1  cos90 
H T  3.59  2.32  3.04   6.63  0.3 
 2   2 
 8.33  1.52  0.99  10.84 MJ m 2

43
Any questions???

44