Unit-1

Electrical Wiring system

Electrical Wiring system:

A network of wires connecting various accessories for distribution of electrical energy
from the supplier meter board to the numerous electrical energy consuming devices such as lamps,
fans and other domestic appliances through controlling and safety devices is known as a wiring
system. A typical house wiring circuit is shown in the figure

Systems of distribution of electrical energy: Since as per recommendation of Indian Standards

the maximum number of points of lights, fans and 5A socket outlet that can be connected in one
circuit is 10 and the maximum load that can be connected in such a circuit is 800 W, in case
more load or points are required to be connected to the supply, then it is to be done by having
more than one circuit.
 Distribution Board System:

In distribution board system, which is most commonly adopted for distribution of

electrical in a building, the fuses of various circuits are grouped together on a distribution board,
sometimes simply known as fuse board. Connections necessary for connecting two or more than
two circuits, each consisting of 10 or less number of lamps is shown in fig.-2.
The two copper strips known as bus bars fixed in a distribution board of hardwood or metal
case are connected to the supply mains through a double pole iron clad (D.P.I.C) switch so that
the installation can be switched off. A fuse is inserted in the positive or phase pole of each circuit
so that each circuit is connected up through its own particular fuse. The number of circuits and
sub-circuits is decided as per number of points to be wired and load to be connected to the
supply.

Types of wires: Solid and Stranded Wires

1. Solid – A solid wire has a single conductor and is either insulated or bare and it is usually
protected by a coloured sheath. This wire offers a lower resistance and is best to use in higher
frequencies. If bent or flexed repeatedly, it may break. It is typically used in applications not
subject to repeated stresses, such as house wiring. Unit: Electrical wiring 9

2. Standard – A standard wire contains many thin wire strands that are twisted together. These
wires are used where the flexibility is required, standard wire can be used over a long period of
time. Comparatively, the standard wire has larger cross-sectional area than the solid wire. It is
typically used in applications like telephone and extension cords, and in speaker wire.
Methods of Wiring:
There are two methods of wiring known as joint box system (or Tee system) and loop in system.

(i) Joint Box or Tee System:

In joint box system the connections to the lamps are made through joints made in joint box
by means of suitable connectors or joint cutouts. In this method though there is a saving in
the quantity of wire or cable required but the same is offset by the extra cost of joint boxes.
The other disadvantage is the number of ‘T’ connection made in wiring system results in
weakness if not properly made. Now a days the use of this system is limited to temporary
installations only as its cost is low.

(ii) Loop-in System:

This system is universally used for connections of various lamps or other appliances in
parallel. In this system when a connection is required at a light or switch, the feed conductor
is looped in by bringing it direct to the terminal and then carrying it forward again to the
next point to be fed as shown in fig.-4. The switch and light feeds are carried round the
circuit in a series of loops from one point to another until the last point on the circuit is
reached.
The phase or line conductors are looped either in switch board or box and neutrals are looped either
in switch board or from light or fan. Line or phase should never be looped from light or fan.

Selection or choice of wiring system:

(i) Safety
(ii) Durability
(iii) Appearance
(iv) Mechanical protection
(v) Accessibility
(vi) Low initial cost
(vii) Low maintenance cost
Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)
A MCB is used in new constructions instead of the older types of fuses. Circuit breakers are small
devices used to control and protect the electrical panel and the other devices from overflowing of
electrical power (Fig. 3.17).
Uses of MCB
Home electrical panels
As with all breakers, the MCB is designed to protect the house from circuit overload. An MCB is
much saferthan the typical fuse, because it can be reset manually
and can handle larger amounts of power. The breaker
can manage the flow of energy, distributing the voltage
even when many devices run off the same power circuit.
Lights
MCBs are used in the lighting system of the house,
because they can deal with the amount of power needed
to lightening a house, especially if specific types of lamps,
such as fluorescent lights are used. MCBs overcome the
need of additional power required when switching on
the lights, especially when lights are used extensively in
the entire house.
Industrial applications
There are many small scale industrial buildings where
MCBs are used instead of the old fuses. Miniature circuit
breakers are largely used in restaurants, bakeries and
commercial food stores.

Heaters
When heaters are used at home or in the office, the MCB can be beneficial. It is known in general
that heaters can be problematic sometimes, especially with distribution of electrical power. The
MCB prevents possible problems, cutting off electricity in the case of overload or fault.
In this case, though, you need to choose a miniature circuit breaker of the proper capacity, enabling
it to handle the load of power when needed.

Types of Electrical wiring systems:

(1) Cleat wiring system

(2) TRS wiring system
(3) Lead sheathed wiring system
(4) Wooden batten wiring system
(5) Plastic Casing-capping system
(6) Conduit wiring system
(i) Conduit surface wiring
(ii) Concealed conduit wiring
1. Cleat wiring system: In this system of internal wiring the cables used are either vulcanized
Indian Rubber (VIR) of Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) type. The cables are held by porcelain cleats
about 6 mm above the walls or ceiling. The cleats are made in two halves, one base and the other
cap. The base is grooved to accommodate the cables and the cap is put over it and the whole of it is
then screwed on the wooden plugs (gut ties) previously cemented into the wall and ceiling. The
cleats used are of different sizes and different types in order to accommodate cables of various sizes
and different number of cables respectively. The cleats are of three types; one groove, two grooves
and three grooves to accommodate one, two and three cables resp4ectively.

Advantages:
(i) It is the cheapest system of internal wiring.
(ii) Its installation and dismantlement is easy and quick.
(iii) Material is recoverable after the dismantlement.
(iv) Inspection, alterations and additions can be easily made.
(v) Skilled labour required is little.
Disadvantages:
(i) It is not good looking.
(ii) The wires are exposed to mechanical injury.
(iii)Oil and smoke are injurious to VIR insulation.

2. Casing-Capping wiring system:

This is one of the simplest form of electrical wiring system. This is little bit old/conventional wiring
system. Now a days, we often use this wiring system. PVC insulated cables are placed in plastic
casing and covered with cap. The casing is of rectangular cross section.
The colour of casing channel and cap are normally white or grey. The casing channel and
cap are normally made of plastic. The casing channels and caps are available in market in standard
sizes.
Advantages:
(i) It is the cheapest wiring system as compared to concealed wiring system.
(ii) It is strong and long lasting wiring system.
(iii) Replacement and alteration of defective wire is easy.
(iv) It provides protection against mechanical damage.
(v) It is safe from oil, steam, smoke and rain.
(vi) No risk of electric shock due to covered wires and cables in casing and capping.
Disadvantages:
(i) Since it requires better workmanship, the labour cost is high.
(ii) This type of wiring can be used only on surface and cannot be concealed in plaster.
(iii) Internal condensation of moisture may cause damage to the insulation.
3 Batten Wiring (CTS or TRS)
Single core or double core or three core TRS cables with a circular oval shape cables are used in
this kind of wiring. Mostly, single core cables are preferred. TRS cables are chemical proof, water
proof, steam proof, but are slightly affected by lubricating oil. The TRS cables are run on well
seasoned and straight teak wood batten with at least a thickness of 10mm.
The cables are held on the wooden batten by means of tinned brass link clips (buckle clip) already
fixed on the batten with brass pins and spaced at an interval of 10cm for horizontal runs and 15cm
for vertical runs.

Advantages of Batten Wiring

1. Wiring installation is simple and easy
2. cheap as compared to other electrical wiring systems
3. Paraphrase is good and beautiful
4. Repairing is easy
5. strong and long-lasting
6. Customization can be easily done in this wiring system.
7. less chance of leakage current in batten wiring system
Disadvantages of Batten Wiring
1. Can’t be install in the humidity, Chemical effects, open and outdoor areas.
2. High risk of firs
 4Lead Sheathed Wiring
The type of wiring employs conductors that are insulated with VIR and covered with an
outer sheath of lead aluminum alloy containing about 95% of lead. The metal sheath given
protection to cables from mechanical damage, moisture and atmospheric corrosion.
The whole lead covering is made electrically continuous and is connected to earth at the
point of entry to protect against electrolytic action due to leaking current and to provide
safety in case the sheath becomes alive.
The cables are run on wooden batten and fixed by means of link clips just as in TRS
wiring.
5 Conduit Wiring
There are two additional types of conduit wiring according to pipe installation
(i) Surface Conduit Wiring
(ii) Concealed Conduit Wiring

Surface Conduit Wiring

If conduits installed on roof or wall, It is known as surface conduit wiring. in this wiring
method, they make holes on the surface of wall on equal distances and conduit is installed then with
the help of rawal plugs.

Concealed Conduit wiring

If the conduits is hidden inside the wall slots with the help of plastering, it is called concealed
conduit wiring. In other words, the electrical wiring system inside wall, roof or floor with the help
of plastic or metallic piping is called concealed conduit wiring. obliviously, It is the most popular,
beautiful, stronger and common electrical wiring system nowadays.

Conductor materials used in cables: The function of conductor usually known as core in cable is
to carry electrical current. Copper and aluminum are the materials used as conductors in power and
lighting cables.
  Copper: Though silver is the best conductor of heat and electricity but due to its high cost
it is rarely used. The next bets conductor is copper. It is cheaper as compared to silver. The
electrical conductivity of copper is comparatively high. The resistivity of pure copper is
1.786 × 10−8 Ω . It is mechanically strong, hard, extremely tough, durable and ductile. It
is highly resistive to corrosion, oxidation etc. it can be easily soldered and welded. The
specific weight of copper is 8900 kg. Its melting point is 1083 oC.

 Aluminum: Aluminum is frequently used in place of copper for electric cables used for
long distance power distribution. The electrical conductivity of aluminum is about 60% of
copper (resistivity being 2.87× 10−8 Ω at 20 oC) so for same resistance for a given length,
the aluminum required will be 1.61 times that of copper in volume and 1,26 times that of
copper in diameter. The only application of aluminum cables for wiring in the buildings is
for the ‘continuous bus bar’ system of distribution.

Standards
When it comes to cable manufacturing, the term "IE standards" is not a widely recognized standard
in the industry. However, there are several important standards and guidelines that manufacturers
typically follow to ensure quality, safety, and performance. These standards are often developed
by various international and regional organizations.

Some key standards relevant to cable manufacturing include:

1. IEC Standards (International Electrotechnical Commission):

o IEC 60227: This standard covers PVC insulated cables, including types such as
those for general purposes and specific applications.
o IEC 60245: It specifies rubber insulated cables.
o IEC 60502: This standard pertains to power cables with extruded insulation for
voltages up to 1 kV and 35 kV.
o IEC 60840: This standard deals with high-voltage cables for use in power systems
with voltages exceeding 30 kV.
2. UL Standards (Underwriters Laboratories):
o UL 83: Covers thermoplastic-insulated cables.
o UL 44: Addresses rubber-insulated cables.
o UL 1277: Pertains to multi-conductor cables with thermoplastic insulation and
jacket.
3. ISO Standards (International Organization for Standardization):
o ISO 9001: This standard focuses on quality management systems, which can be
relevant to cable manufacturers in ensuring consistent quality.
o ISO/IEC 17025: Relates to the general requirements for the competence of testing
and calibration laboratories, which can be critical for cable testing and certification.
4. NEC (National Electrical Code): In the United States, NEC guidelines can influence
cable design and usage, particularly in terms of safety and compliance.
 5. RoHS (Restriction of Hazardous Substances): This directive impacts the types of
materials used in cable manufacturing, particularly with respect to hazardous substances.

Each of these standards covers different aspects of cable manufacturing, from the materials used
to the testing and performance criteria. Adhering to these standards helps ensure that cables meet
safety requirements, perform reliably, and are suitable for their intended applications.

INDIAN ELECTRICITY RULES

Indian Electricity Rules are framed to –

i) Ensure safety of operator or user

ii) Satisfactory operation of equipment

iii) To avoid risk of fire.

Certain regulation and code of practice have been laid down in our country which is known as
Indian Electricity Rules.
These rules made by central electricity board in 1910 called Indian Electricity Rules in 1956

Indian Electricity Rules for Wiring.

 Voltage: Voltage means difference of electric potential measured in volt between two
conductors or between one conductor and earth.

 Low Voltage: Voltage should not exceed 250v under normal condition.

 Medium Voltage: Voltage does not exceed 650v under normal condition.

 High Voltage :Voltage does not exceed 33 KV

 Extra High Voltage : Voltage exceed 33 KV.

 Colour of PVC insulated Cable:

For 3 phase AC Supply –
R- Phase-Red colour
Y- Phase –Yellow colour
B- Phase –Blue colour
Neutral- Black Colour

 For Single Phase AC Supply Phase –

 Red colour
Neutral – Black colour
Earth – Green colour
 For D.C Supply
+ve = Red
-ve = Black
1. Weather proof Cable should be selected for service connection to a building.
2. Energy meter should be protected from rain, Sun and mechanical damage.
3. The wire used for wiring connection to main switch and distribution board should be of rating
based on load requirements of the building.
4. PVC insulated wires used for conduit wiring
5. Every Sub-circuit should commence from distribution board and switch board.
6. Every phase wire should be protected by a fuse or MCB
7. Height of the Main Switch, distribution board and switch board = 1.5m from ground
8. Socket outlet should be installed in switch board. Socket outlet should be controlled by
individual switches.
9. Sufficient number of socket outlets is provided at different places in all rooms to avoid long
length of flexible wire.
10. Each sub circuit should not have more than 10 points. The load on each sub circuit should be
restricted to 800 watt (light, fan, tube light) socket should be 5A, 230V.
11. In power sub circuit (AC, Geyser, Induction cooker, Oven, Electric iron) total number of points
limited to 2. The load on each Power sub circuit should be within 3000 watt or 3 KW. Socket
should be 15A, 230V .
12. Only 3 pin 5A socket outlet are used in light and fan sub circuit.
13. Also 3 pin 15A, socket outlet are to be used in all power sub circuits.
14. The earth terminals are socket (Bigger hole) permanently connected to earth wire.
15. SWG – G.I wire is used as continuous earth wire in wiring and 8 S.W.G G.I or 10 S.W.G copper
wire is used to connect earth electrode.
16. Fuse and switch are not provided in earth conductor or earth wire.
17. The metal part of electrical apparatus metal part of switch board, and all metal covering should
be properly earthed in order to avoid danger of electric shock due to leakage or failure of
insulation.
18. Height of the building 3.5 m
19. Height of Switch board =1.5 m from the ground Height of bulb point = 3 m from the ground
Height of ceiling from 2.75m from the ground. Height of Horizontal run= 3 m from the ground.

Distribution System
That part of power system which distributes electric power for local use is known as distribution
system.In general, the distribution system is the electrical system between the sub-station fed by
the transmission system and the consumers meters. It generally consists of feeders, distributors and
the service mains. Fig. 12.1 shows the single line diagram of a typical low tension distribution
system.

(i) Feeders:
A feeder is a conductor which connects the sub-station (or localised generating station) to
the area where power is to be distributed. Generally, no tappings are taken from the feeder
so that current in it remains the same throughout. The main consideration in the design of
a feeder is the current carrying capacity.
(ii) Distributor:
A distributor is a conductor from which tappings are taken for supply to the consumers. In
Fig. 12.1, AB, BC, CD and DA are the distributors. The current through a distributor is not
constant because tappings are taken at various places along its length. While designing a
distributor, voltage drop along its length is the main consideration since the statutory limit
of voltage variations is ± 6% of rated value at the consumers’ terminals.

(iii) Service mains:

A service mains is generally a small cable which connects the distributor to the consumers’
terminals
.A.C. Distribution
Now-a-days electrical energy is generated, transmitted and distributed in the form
of alternating current. One important reason for the widespread use of alternating current
in preference to direct current is the fact that alternating voltage can be conveniently
changed in magnitude by means of a transformer. Transformer has made it possible to
transmit a.c. power at high voltage and utilise it at a safe potential. High transmission and
distribution voltages have greatly reduced the current in the conductors and the resulting
line losses.
There is no definite line between transmission and distribution according to voltage or bulk
capacity. However, in general, the a.c. distribution system is the electrical system between
the stepdown substation fed by the transmission system and the consumers’ meters. The
a.c. distribution system is classified into (i) primary distribution system and (ii) secondary
distribution system.

(i) Primary distribution system. It is that part of a.c. distribution system which
operates at voltages somewhat higher than general utilisation and handles large
blocks of electrical energy than the average low-voltage consumer uses. The voltage
used for primary distribution depends upon the amount of power to be conveyed and
the distance of the substation required to be fed. The most commonly used primary
distribution voltages are 11 kV, 6·6 kV and 3·3 kV. Due to economic considerations,
primary distribution is carried out by 3phase, 3-wire system.

Fig. 12.2 shows a typical primary distribution system. Electric power from the
generating station is transmitted at high voltage to the substation located in or near
the city. At this substation, voltage is stepped down to 11 kV with the help of step-
down transformer. Power is supplied to various substations for distribution or to big
consumers at this voltage. This forms the high voltage distribution or primary
distribution.
 (ii) Secondary distribution system.
It is that part of a.c. distribution system which includes the range of voltages at which
the ultimate consumer utilises the electrical energy delivered to him. The secondary
distribution employs 400/230 V, 3-phase, 4-wire system.
Fig. 12.3 shows a typical secondary distribution system. The primary distribution
circuit delivers power to various substations, called distribution substations. The
substations are situated near the consumers’ localities and contain stepdown
transformers. At each distribution substation, the voltage is stepped down to 400 V
and power is delivered by 3-phase,4-wire a.c. system. The voltage between any two
phases is 400 V and between any phase and neutral is 230 V. The single phase
domestic loads are connected between any one phase and the neutral, whereas 3-
phase 400 V motor loads are connected across 3phase lines directly.

Connection Schemes of Distribution

System All distribution of electrical energy is done by constant voltage system. In practice, the
following distribution circuits are generally used :

(i) Radial System.

In this system, separate feeders radiate from a single substation and feed the distributors
at one end only. Fig. (i) shows a single line diagram of a radial system for d.c. distribution
where a feeder OC supplies a distributor AB at point A. Obviously, the distributor is fed
at one end only i.e., point A is this case. Fig (ii) shows a single line diagram of radial
system for a.c. distribution. The radial system is employed only when power is generated
at low voltage and the substation is located at the centre of the load.
 This is the simplest distribution circuit and has the lowest initial cost. However, it
suffers from the following drawbacks :
(a) The end of the distributor nearest to the feeding point will be heavily loaded.
(b) The consumers are dependent on a single feeder and single distributor.
Therefore, any fault on the feeder or distributor cuts off supply to the consumers
who are on the side of the fault away from the substation.
(c) The consumers at the distant end of the distributor would be subjected to serious
voltage fluctuations when the load on the distributor changes.

Due to these limitations, this system is used for short distances only.

(ii) Ring main system

In this system, the primaries of distribution transformers form a loop. The loop circuit
starts from the substation bus-bars, makes a loop through the area to be served, and
returns to the substation. Fig. shows the single line diagram of ring main system for a.c.
distribution where substation supplies to the closed feeder LMNOPQRS. The distributors
are tapped from different points M, O and Q of the feeder through distribution
transformers.

The ring main system has the following advantages :

a) There are less voltage fluctuations at consumer’s terminals.

b) The system is very reliable as each distributor is fed via *two feeders. In the event
of fault on any section of the feeder, the continuity of supply is maintained. For
example, suppose that fault occurs at any point F of section SLM of the feeder. Then
section SLM of the feeder can be isolated for repairs and at the same time continuity
of supply is maintained to all the consumers via the feeder SRQPONM.
(iii) Interconnected system.
When the feeder ring is energised by two or more than two generating stations or
substations, it is called inter-connected system. Fig. shows the single line diagram of
interconnected system where the closed feeder ring ABCD is supplied by two substations
S1 and S2 at points D and C respectively. Distributors are connected to

points O, P, Q and R of the feeder ring through distribution transformers.

 The interconnected system has the following advantages :
(a) It increases the service reliability.
(b) Any area fed from one generating station during peak load hours can be fed from the
other generating station. This reduces reserve power capacity and increases efficiency
of the system.

Underground
Cables An underground cable essentially consists of one or more conductors covered with suitable
insulation and surrounded by a protecting cover. Although several types of cables are available,
the type of cable to be used will depend upon the working voltage and service requirements. In
general, a cable must fulfil the following necessary requirements :
(i) The conductor used in cables should be tinned stranded copper or aluminium of high
conductivity. Stranding is done so that conductor may become flexible and carry more
current.
(ii) (ii) The conductor size should be such that the cable carries the desired load current
without overheating and causes voltage drop within permissible limits.
(iii) (iii) The cable must have proper thickness of insulation in order to give high degree of
safety and reliability at the voltage for which it is designed.
(iv) (iv) The cable must be provided with suitable mechanical protection so that it may
withstand the rough use in laying it.
(v) (v) The materials used in the manufacture of cables should be such that there is
complete chemical and physical stability throughout.
Construction of Cables Fig. shows the general construction of a 3-conductor cable.
The various parts are :
(i) Cores or Conductors.
A cable may have one or more than one core (conductor) depending upon the type
of service for which it is intended. For instance, the 3-conductor cable shown in Fig. is
used for 3-phase service. The conductors are made of tinned copper or aluminium and
are usually stranded in order to provide flexibility to the cable.
(ii) Insulatian:
Each core or conductor is provided with a suitable thickness of insulation, the
thickness of layer depending upon the voltage to be withstood by the cable. The
commonly used materials for insulation are impregnated paper, varnished cambric or
rubber mineral compound.
(iii) Metallic sheath.
In order to protect the cable from moisture, gases or other damaging liquids
(acids or alkalies) in the soil and atmosphere, a metallic sheath of lead or aluminium is
provided over the insulation as shown in Fig.
(iv) Bedding.
Over the metallic sheath is applied a layer of bedding which consists of a fibrous
material like jute or hessian tape. The purpose of bedding is to protect the metallic
sheath against corrosion and from mechanical injury due to armouring.
(v) Armouring:
Over the bedding, armouring is provided which consists of one or two layers of
galvanised steel wire or steel tape. Its purpose is to protect the cable from mechanical
injury while laying it and during the course of handling. Armouring may not be done
in the case of some cables.
(vi) Serving:
In order to protect armouring from atmospheric conditions, a layer of material (like
jute) similar to bedding is provided over the armouring. This is known as serving. It
may not be out of place to mention here that bedding, armouring and serving are only
applied to the cables for the protection of conductor insulation and to protect the
metallic sheath from mechanical injury.

Insulating Materials for Cables :

The satisfactory operation of a cable depends to a great extent upon the characteristics of
insulation used. Therefore, the proper choice of insulating material for cables is of
considerable importance.
In general, the insulating materials used in cables should have the following properties :
 High insulation resistance to avoid leakage current.
 High dielectric strength to avoid electrical breakdown of the cable.
  High mechanical strength to withstand the mechanical handling of cables.
 Non-hygroscopic i.e., it should not absorb moisture from air or soil. The moisture tends
to decrease the insulation resistance and hastens the breakdown of the cable. In case
the insulating material is hygroscopic, it must be enclosed in a waterproof covering like
lead sheath.
 Non-inflammable.
 Low cost so as to make the underground system a viable proposition.
 Unaffected by acids and alkalies to avoid any chemical action.
Classification of cables: The cables employed for internal wiring of building my be divided into
different groups.
According to:
(i) Conductor used
(ii) Number of cores
(iii) Voltage grading
(iv) Types of insulation used.

(i) According to conductor:

(a) Copper conductor cable
(b) Aluminum conductor cable

(ii) According to number of cores:

(a) Single core cable
(b) Two core cable
(c) Three core cable

(iii) According to voltage Grading:

(a) 250/440 V cable
(b) 650/100 v cable

(iv) According to type of insulation:

(a) Vulcanized Indian rubber (VIR) cable
(b) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) cable
(c) Lead sheathed cable
(d) Weather proof cable
(e) Flexible cable
(f) Cross linked polyethylene (XLPE) cable
(g) Tough rubber sheathed (TRS) cable

Insulating Materials: the conductor is covered with insulating material so that it may
prevent leakage of current from the conductor i.e. the insulating material should be
extremely high resistive to the flow of electric current through it. The insulating materials
used in electric cables should possess the following properties:
(i) High insulation resistance to avoid the leakage current.
(ii) High dielectric strength to avoid electrical breakdown of the cable.
(iii) High mechanical strength to withstand the mechanical handling of cables.

Types of insulating Materials:

Rubber: Rubber may be obtained from milky sap of tropical trees or it may be produced
from oil products. It has relative permittivity varying between 2 and 3, dielectric strength
is about 30 kV/mm and resistivity of insulation is 1017 Ω . Although pure rubber has
reasonably high insulating properties, it suffers from some major drawbacks viz., readily
absorbs moisture, maximum safe temperature is low (about 38ºC), soft and liable to
damage due to rough handling and ages when exposed to light. Therefore, pure rubber
cannot be used as an insulating material.

Vulcanized India Rubber (V.I.R.). It is prepared by mixing pure rubber with mineral
matter such as zinc oxide, red lead etc., and 3 to 5% of sulphur. The compound so formed
is rolled into thin sheets and cut into strips. The rubber compound is then applied to the
conductor and is heated to a temperature of about 150ºC. The whole process is called
vulcanization and the product obtained is known as vulcanized India rubber.
Vulcanized India rubber has greater mechanical strength, durability and wear resistant
property than pure rubber. Its main drawback is that sulphur reacts very quickly with copper
and for this reason, cables using VIR insulation have tinned copper conductor. The VIR
insulation is generally used for low and moderate voltage cables.
Impregnated paper. It consists of chemically pulped paper made from wood chippings
and impregnated with some compound such as paraffinic or naphthenic material. This type
of insulation has almost superseded the rubber insulation. It is because it has the advantages
of low cost, low capacitance, high dielectric strength and high insulation resistance. The
only disadvantage is that paper is hygroscopic and even if it is impregnated with suitable
compound, it absorbs moisture and thus lowers the insulation resistance of the cable. For
this reason, paper insulated cables are always provided with some protective covering and
are never left unsealed. If it is required to be left unused on the site during laying, its ends
are temporarily covered with wax or tar.
Since the paper insulated cables have the tendency to absorb moisture, they are used where
the cable route has a
few joints. For instance, they can be profitably used for distribution at low voltages in
congested areas where the joints are generally provided only at the terminal apparatus.
However, for smaller installations, where the lenghts are small and joints are required at a
number of places, VIR cables will be cheaper and durable than paper insulated cables.

Varnished cambric. It is a cotton cloth impregnated and coated with varnish. This type of
insulation is also known as empire tape. The cambric is lapped on to the conductor in the
form of a tape and its surfaces are coated with petroleum jelly compound to allow for the
sliding of one turn over another as the cable is bent. As the varnished cambric is
hygroscopic, therefore, such cables are always provided with metallic sheath. Its dielectric
strength is about 4 kV/mm and permittivity is 2.5 to 3.8.

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC). This insulating material is a synthetic compound. It is obtained

from the polymerization of acetylene and is in the form of white powder. For obtaining this
material as a cable insulation, it is compounded with certain materials known as plasticizers
which are liquids with high boiling point. The plasticizer forms a gell and renders the
material plastic over the desired range of temperature.
Polyvinyl chloride has high insulation resistance, good dielectric strength and mechanical
toughness over a wide range of temperatures. It is inert to oxygen and almost inert to many
alkalis and acids. Therefore, this type of insulation is preferred over VIR in extreme
environmental conditions such as in cement factory or chemical factory. As the mechanical
properties (i.e., elasticity etc.) of PVC are not so good as those of rubber, therefore, PVC
insulated cables are generally used for low and medium domestic lights and power
installations.