(08182424350)

CONTENTS

CHAPTER Pages

1. Electric Charge and Electric Field

2. Gauss’s Law

3. Electric Potential

4. Capacitance and Dielectrics

5. Electric Current

6. DC Circuits and Instruments

7. Magnetism

8. Sources of Magnetic Fields

9. Electromagnetic Induction

10. Alternating Current Circuits

Key Study – Problems

 CHAPTER ONE

ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC FIELD

Conductors: Are substances which allow electric current to pass through then
e.g. metals and electrolytes.
Insulators (Non Conductors): Are substances which do not conduct
electricity e.g nori metals such as glass and rubber.
Semiconductors: Are substances which conduct electricity at increased
temperatures but are insulators at lower temperatures e.g silicon and
germanium.

The basic laws of electrostatics are:

1. Like charges repel unlike charges attract.
2. The net amount of charge produced in any process is zero (law of
conservation of charge).

Note: That the charge Q on substance is quantized i.e is an integral multiple

of the charge on an electron e. Q = Ne…………………………………….…… (1)
where N is an integer (represents number of electrons); e = - 1.60 x 10-19 C.
Coulomb’s Law: The force of attraction or repulsion exerted by one point
charge on another is directly proportional to the product of the charges and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Q1Q2 QQ
i.e. F 2
 F = k 12 2
r r
1 Q1Q2
 F= ………………………………………………(2)
4E0 r2
(mathematical statement of coulomb’s law)
1
Where k = = a x10aNm2/C2 ( a constant);
4E0
F is electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between the two charges Q1
and Q2 separated a distance r in a vacuum; E0 is permittivity of a vacuum
( = 8.85 x 10-12 C2/Nm2).
The vector form of coulomb’s law is
1 Q1Q2
F= ………………………………………………………… (3)
4E0 r2

Where is the unit vector in the direction of

Problems
1) A plastic rod is rubbed against a wool shirt, thereby acquiring a charge
of -0.8  C . How many electrons are transferred from the wool shirt to
the plastics?

Solution
Q = 0.8  C = - 0.8 x 10-6C ; e = - 1.6 x 10-19C
From Q = Ne
Q  o.8 x10 6 C
 N=  = 5 x 1012
e  1.6 x10 19 C

2) A small copper plate has a mass of 3g. The atomic number of copper is
Z = 29 and the atomic mass is 63.5g/mol. What is the total charge of all
the electrons in the copper plate?

Solution
No. of electrons in 1 cu atom = Z = 29
63.5g = 6.02 x 1023 atoms
39 x 6.02 x10 23 atoms
 total no. of atoms in Cu plate =
63.5 g
= 2.84 x 1022 atoms
Charge in 1 atom = 29e
 total charge in 2.84 x 1022 atoms = Q = 2.84 x 1022 x 29e
= 2.84 x 1022 x 29 x (-1.6 x 10-19) = - 1.32 x 105 C.
3) Compute the ratio of electric to gravitational force between two
protons.

Solution

Charge of protons Q1 = Q2 = Q = 1.6 x 10-19 C

Mass of protons m1 = m2 = m = 1.67 x 10-27kg.
k Q1Q2 k Q. Q k Q2
Electric force FE = = =
r2 r2 r2
Gm1m2 Gm.m
Gravitational force Fa = =
r 2
r2
FE k Q2 k Q2 r2 kQ 2
ratio =  = x 
FG r2 r2 Gm 2 Gm 2
Gm 2
r2
9 x10 9 x (1.6 x10  19) 2
  1.24 x10 36
6.67 x10 11

x 1.67 x10 
 27 2

4. Consider the arrangement of four charges on the corners of a square as

shown below, where q = 1 x 10-7 C and a = 5cm. Find the resultant force
on Q3.

Solution
5
Q1 = + q = 1 x 10-7C = - 4 x10-7 C ; a = 5cm = m = 0.05m ;
100
 Q3 Q1 r

F 1 Q3 Q1 1 r
Force on Q3 by Q1 is =   . 3 1
3 4E 0 r32 r 3 4E 0 r32
1r3 1
9 x10 9 x 2 x10 7 x 1 x 10 7 0  aj  0.00018
 .   j    0.072 j N
a2 a 0.052

F 1 Q3 Q 2 1 Q3Q2  
Force on Q3 by Q2 is =   . r3 r2

3 4E 0 r32 r 32 4E 0 r32 2 r3  2

9 x10 9 x 2 x10 7 x 1x10 7 . 0  a i  ai  0.00018  a i  a i 

= = .
a 2  2
a 2 2a 2 a 2


 0.00018

 i  i  = - 0.025 (-i – i) = 0.025 i + 0.025 i N
20.05 
2
2

F 1 Q3Q4
Force on Q3 by Q4 is = 
34 4E 0 r32 4 r 3 4

1 Q3Q4  
r3 r4 9 x10 9 x 2 x10 7 x 4 x10 7  0  ai 
= . = .
4E 0 r32 4 r3  2 a2 a
 0.00072
=  i  = - 0.288 (-i) = 0.288 i N
0.052
   
Resultant force on Q3 is F 3 = F  1 + F  2 + F  4
= - 0.072i + 0.025i + 0.025 i + 0.288i N
= 0.313i – 0.047i N

Electric dipole: Is an arrangement of two charges of equal magnitude but

opposite sign, each separated by an eg distance from the origin. The electric
dipole moment is P = 2aQ
where a is the equal distance of each
charge from the origin.
Electric field: Is a region set up by a charge, in which it extracts an electrical
force on any other charge.
Field point P: Is the point at which the electric field is being determined.
Test charge q 0 : Is a small positive charge placed at electric field point and
used to determine or measure the electric field at the field point.
The electric field of a point charge Q at the field point is

 F
………………………………..…. (1)
E q0
1 Q
 =  ………………….(2)
E 4E 0 r 2 r
where r is the distance of P from Q.

Problems
1. Find the electric field at a point 20cm from a charge of 20 C. What force
will the field exert on a charge of 5 C. placed at that point ?

Solution
20
r = 20cm = m = 0.2m ; Q1 = 20 C = 20 x 10-6 C ‘
100
Q2 = 5 C = 5 x 10-6 C
1 Q1 9 x10 9 x 20 x10 6
E= =  4.5 x10 6 NIC
4E 0 r 2
0.2 2

F
From E =  F = Q2 E = 5 x 10-6 x 4.5 x 106 = 22.5N.
Q2
2. Two equal q1 = q2 = 6 C are on the y – axis at y1 = 3cm and y2 = - 3cm
respectively.
(i) What is the magnitude and direction of the electric field on the x
– axis at x = 4cm.
ii) If a test charge q0 = 2 C is placed at x = 4cm find the force the
test charge experiences.
Solution
 
1 q1 9 x10 9 x6 x10  C 4i  3i 
i) E1 = 4E 0

r12 r1
=
0.052 5
= 2.16x107 (0.8i – 0.6i)

= 1.728 x 107 i – 1.296 x 107 j NIC.


1 q 1 q 1 q
E3 =  = j = j
4E 0 r32 r3
4E 0 2d  2
4E 0 4d 2
   

net field E =0  E1 + E2 + E3 = 0

1 Q1 1 Q2 1 q
 (2dj – di) + (2dj + di) + j=0
4E 0 5d  4E 0 5d  4E 0 4d 2
3 3
2 2 2 2

Since Q1 = Q2 = Q
1 Q 1 Q 1 q
 (2dj – di) + (2dj + di) + j=0
4E 0 5d  2
3
2 4E 0 5d  2
3
2 4E 0 4d 2

1 Q 1 q
(2dj – di + 2dj + di) + j=0
4E 0 5d 2
3
2 4E 0 4d 2

1 Q 1 q
(4dj) + j=
4E 0 5d 2
3
2 4E 0 4d 2

1 q 1 Q q  4Qd
j=- (4dj)  =
4E 0 4d 2
4E 0 5d  2
3
2 4d 2
 
3
5d 2 2
 16 Q d 3  16 x8 x10  6 x(0.5) 3
q= 3
= 3
= - 11.4 x 10-6 C = - 11.4 C
2 2
(5d ) 2
(5 x(0.5) ) 2

4. Find the electric field due to electric dipole at field point P, a distance r
along the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the charges.

Solution
 
1 ri  aj  Q ri  aj 
E1 = =
4E 0 r 2
 a2  1
2 4E 0 r 2
 a2 
3
2


1  Q  ri  aj   Q  ri  aj  Q  ri  aj 
E2 =
r  r
=
r  r
=
4E 0 2
a 2
2
 a2  1
2
2
a 2
2
 a2 
3
2 4E 0 r 2
 a2 
3
2

  
Net electric field at p is E = E1 + E2
Q ri  aj  +
Q ri  aj  =
Q ri  aj  ri  aj 
4E 0 r  4E 0 r  4E 0 r 
3 3 3
2
 a2 2 2
 a2 2 2
 a2 2

Q  2aj  aj   2aQj
= =
4E 0 r 2  a 2  2
3
4E 0 r 2  a 2  2
3

Note: To calculate electric field E due to continuous charge distribution, the

total charge Q is divided into infinitesimal charge elements dQ.

The electric field element at p due to dQ is

1 dQ
dE =  ………………………………………(1)
4E 0 r 2 r


Total field at P due to all the dQs is E = d E

 E xi + E yj =  d E xi +  d E yj

where Ex =  d E x ; Ey = d E y

The relevant constant charge densities are

total ch arg e Q
i) Linear charge density  = ………………..(2)
total length L
total ch arg e Q
ii) Surface charge density  = ……………. (3)
total area A
total ch arg e Q
iii) Volume charge density  = ……………….. (4)
total volume V
Problems
1. A total charge Q is distributed uniformly along a line segment bent into
a semi circle of radius R. Calculate the electric field at the centre of the
semi circle.

Q dQ
  Q = L    dQ =  dL
L dL

1 dQ 1 dL 1 Rd 1 d
dE =  =  =  = 
4E 0 R 2 r 4E 0 R 2 r 4E 0 R 2 r 4E 0 R r

1 d
 dE =
4E 0 R
dEx = - d Ecos  ; dEy = - dE sin 

1 d 
Ex =  dE x =   dE cos =  
4E 0 R
cos  =
4E0 R  cosd
0


= sin  0 =   sin   sin    0
4E0 R 4E0 R

 1 d 
Ey =  dE y   dE sin   
4E 0 R
sin  =
4E0 R  sin d
0


=  cos 0 =    cos    cos   = 
4E0 R 4E0 R 2E0 R

Total field at 0 is E = Ex I + E y j
 Q Q
= (0) i - j = = j
4E0 R R 2 2 E0 R 2
j
2E0 R
2. A uniform ring of radius r holds a total charge Q distributed uniformly
around it. Determine the electric field at the field point p.
 Q dQ
From  =  Q = L  =  dQ =  dL
L dL

1 dQ 1 dL 1 dL
dE =  =   dE =
4E 0 2
r r 4E 0 r 2 r 4E 0 r 2
dEx = dEcos  ; dEy = - dEsin 
1 dL 1 dL x
Ex =  dE x =  dE cos  =  cos  =  4E x  x
.
4E 0 r 2 0
2
R 2
2
 R2  1
2

2 R
1 x x x
=  dl =  dL = L02R
4E 0 x 2
 R2 3
2

4E 0 x 2  R 2  3
2 0 
4E 0 x 2  R 2  3
2

x Rx
= . (2  R) =
   
3 3
4E 0 x 2  R 2 2
2 E0 x 2  R 2 2

From symmetry considerations, the sum of the y- components of the filed

elements equals zero.
i.e  dE y = Ey = 0


 Total electric field at P is E = Exi + Eyi

Q
Rx
Rx Rx 2R Qx
= i  0 i  i i i
       
3 3 3 3
2 E0 x 2  R 2 2
2 E0 x 2  R 2 2
2 E0 x 2  R 2 2
4E 0 x 2  R 2 2

3. A rod of length L with uniform charge per unit length  is placed a

distance d from the origin along the x – axis. A similar rod with same
charge is placed along the y – axis. Determine the net electric field at
the origin.
 
1 dQ 1 dL 1 dL
dE =  =   dE =
4E 0 2
r r 4E 0 r 2 r 4E 0 r 2
1 dx 1 dy
dEx = ; dEy =
4E 0 x 2 4E 0 y 2
1 dx  dx    1 L  d
Ex =  dE x =  4E 0 x 2
=
4E 0 x 2
=
4E 0  x 
 d
1  1  1   1 1   Ld d 
=  4E 0
 L  d    d   4E  d  L  d   4E
   0   0
 
 d L  d  
L
=
4E0 d L  d 
Ld
1 dy dy 
  1
Ey =  dE y =  =  =  
4E 0 y 2
4E 0 y 2
4E 0  y  d
  1  1   1 1   Ld d 
=         =  
4E 0  L  d  d  4E 0  d L  d  4E 0  d L  d  
L
=
4E 0 d LTd 


Net electric field is E = Exi + Eyi

L L L
= i + j = (i + j)
4E 0 d LTd  4E 0 d LTd  4E 0 d LTd 

Note: For a charged particle q of mass m placed in an electric field E the

   
particle moves due to a resultant electric force F =q E  ma = q E

qE
a = ………………………………………………………………. (1)
m
 
where a is the acceleration of the particle.

For an electric dipole placed in a uniform electric field E, the net force on
dipole is zero.

The magnitude of net torque on the dipole is  = P E Sin  ……………… (2)

Where P is electric dipole moment ( = 2aQ) ;  is angle of inclination of
dipole with the field.
  
From (2)   P x E …………………………………(3) cross product
If the field changes dipole is angle of inclination from  1 to 
W = P E (cos  1 - cos  )………………………………………………………. (4)
1. A proton of mass m and charge q is placed at rest inside a uniform
electric field E and released. Describe its motion.

Solution
qE qEt
Final velocity of proton is v = v0 + at = 0 + t distance traveled by
m m
1 1 qE 2 qEt 2
proton is S = v0 t +  t2 = (0) t + . t =
2 2 m 2m
2qEs
Using v2 = v 02 + 2  s = (0)2 + 2  s = 2  s =
m
1 1 2qEs
Final kinetic energy of proton is Ek = mv2 = m.  qEs
2 2 m
2. A uniform electric field E = 2000 NIC acts along negative y –axis. An
electron is projected into this field with a velocity v0 = 1 x 106 m s-1
perpendicular to the field i.e along x –axis.
a) By how much has the electron been deflected after it has traveled
1cm in the x direction?
 b) How far does the electron travel before it is brought
momentarily to rest?
Solution

E = 2000 NIC ; v0 = 1 x 106 ms-1 ; electron charge q = 1.6 x 10-19 C ; electron

mass m = 9.11 x 10-31 kg ; v = 0 (electron is brought to rest) Horizontal position
1
x = 1cm = m = 0.01m
100
x 0.01
a) Using x = v0 t  t= = 6
= 1 x 10-8 s
v0 1 x 10
1
vertical position or deflection is y = v0y t +  y t2
2

= (0)t +
1 qE 2
t 
qE 2
t 
1.6 x10 19 x 2000 x 1x10 8  2

2 m 2m 2 x 9.11x 10 31
= 0.0176m = 1.76cm
b) Since electron is negatively charged, its acceleration is opposite in
direction to the field.
qE
a= 
m
2qEx
Using v2 = v02 + 2  s  (0)2 = v02 -
m
2qEx 2qEx
0 = v02 -  = v02
m m
mv02 9.11x10  31x(1x 10 6 ) 2
x= =  0.0057 m  0.57cm.
2qE 2 x 1.6 x 10 19 x 2000
3. The HCI molecule has a dipole moment of about 3.4 x 10-30 Cm. The
two atoms are separated by about 1.0 x 10-10 m. What maximum torque
would this dipole experience in a 2.5 x 104 NIC electric field and how
 much energy would be required to rotate the molecule 450 from its
equilibrium position of minimum potential energy?

Solution
P = 3.4 x 10-30 Cm ; E = 2.5 x 104 NIC
From  = PE Sin  , torque is maximum when sin  = 1
i.e for  =  max , sin  = 1
  max = P E (1) = P E = 3.4 x 10-30 x 2.5 x 104 = 8.5 x 10-26 Nm.
In equilibrium position of minimum potential energy,  1 = 00 ;
Final position  = 450
Energy required = work done by field = W = P E (cos  1 - cos  ) = 3.4 x 10-30 x
2.5 x 104 (cos 00 – cos450) = 8.5 x 10-26 (1-0.7071) = 2.5 x 10-26 J.
 CHAPTER TWO

GAUSS’S LAW

Electric flux: Is the electric field through an area of surface of conductor. The
electric flux through an open or flat surface of area A over which a uniform

electric field E passes is  = EA cos  ……………………………………..(1)

Where  is the angle between the field vector and unit vector n
(perpendicular to the area of surface).
The electric flux through a closed or curved surface over which a non uniform
 
field passes is  =  ( E . n ) ds…………………………………………….(2)
Where ds is an element of area through which the flux passes.

Problems
1. At each point on the flat rectangular surface shown below, the electric

field has a magnitude of 350 NIC and makes an angle of 500 with n .
Calculate the electric flux for this surface.

Solution
E = 350 NIC ;  = 500
A = length x breadth = 20cm x 15cm = 300cm2 = 300 x 10-4 m2 = 0.03m2
 = EA cos  = 350 x 0.03 x cos 500 = 6.75 Nm2 /C.
2. The diagram below shows a square box od side b in a uniform electric
field E. What is the flux for this enclosed box?
Solution
A = b x b = b2
For surface (1),  = 1800
1 = EA cos  = Eb2 cos 1800 = - Eb2
For surface (2),  = 00
1 = EA cos  = Eb2 cos 00 = Eb2
Total flux  = 1 +  2 = - Eb2 + Eb2 = 0
3. Determine the magnitude of the flux of a uniform electric field E = 840
NIC for an open hemispherical bowl (R= 0.41m) when (i) E is parallel to
the axis of the bowl (ii) E makes an angle of 630 with the axis of the
bowl.

Solution
1
A= x 4  R2 = 2  R2 = 2 x 3.142 x (0.41)2 = 1.056m2 ; E = 840NlC.
2
i)  = 00
 = EA cos  = EA cos00 = EA = 840 x 1.056 = 887.2Nm2/C.
ii)  = 630
 = EA cos  = 840 x 1.056 x cos 630 = 402.8 Nm2/C.

Gauss’s Law: The electric flux for any enclosed surface is proportional to the
charge enclosed by the surface.
Q
Mathematically,  = ………………………………………………… (1)
E0

  Q
   E . n  ds = ………………………………………………………… (2)
  E0
(mathematical statement)
Where Q is charge enclosed by surface ; ds is elemental area of surface ; E 0 is
permittivity of a vacuum.
Note: If there is more than one charge enclosed by the (Gaussian) surface,
  Q
   E . n  ds = net ……………………………………………..(3)
  E0
where Qnet is the net charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface.

Problems
1. Show how Gauss’s law can be used to obtain Coulomb’s law.

Solution

Taking a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r through point p and applying

Q
Gauss’s law gives   E . n  ds = 1
 

  E0
Q1 Q1
  (Encos 00) ds =   (E (1) (1)) ds =
E0 E0
Q1 Q1 Q1
  Eds =  E  ds =  E (4  r2) =
E0 E0 E0

(where  ds is surface area of the spherical Gaussian surface = 4  r 2 )

Q1
E=
4 E 0 r 2
Q2 Q1
Electric force on Q2 is F = Q2 E =
4 E 0 r 2
1 Q1 Q2
= (coulomb’s law).
4E 0 r2
2. Find the expression for the electric field at a distance R above an
infinite line of charge with a constant charge density  .
Solution
Choosing a cylindrical Gaussian surface of length L, radius R and applying
Q L
Gauss’s law gives   E . n  ds = net =
 

  E0 E0

    ds +       L
   E . n 
cap1  curved
 E.n +
    E . n 
cap 2 
=
E0
surface ( C . S )

L
  En cos90 ds   En cos 0 ds   En cos90 ds  E
0 0 0

L L
 (0) +  Eds +
C .S
(0) =
E0
  Eds 
C .S
E0
L
  Eds 
C .S
E0
L
 E 2RL   (where  ds is curved surface area of Gaussian cylinder
E0 C .S

= 2  RL).

E=
2RE0
3. A very long cylinder of radius R is uniformly charged with a volume
density  . Find the field at points A (r<R) and B (r>R).
Solution

i) Taking a cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius r, length L through

Q
point A (where r < R) and applying Gauss’s law gives   E . n  ds = net
 

  E0

r 2 L   r 2 L
= =
E0 E0

       r 2 L
   E . n  ds +   E . n  ds +
C .S 
  E . n  ds =
cap 1  cap 2   E0

 r 2 L  r 2 L
(0) +  Eds + (0) =  E  ds
C .S
E0 C .S
E0
  r 2 L er
 E 2 rL  =  E=
E0 2 E0
ii) Taking the Gaussing cylinder through point B (where r > R) and
applying Gauss’s law gives
 
 Q net R 2 L   R 2 L
  E . n  ds = = = =
  E0 E0 E0
(where Q is charge on solid cylinder ; R is radius of solid cylinder)
 R 2 L  R 2 L
 E  ds =  E 2 rL  =
C .S
E0 E0

R 2
 E=
2E0 r
4. A spherical shell of inner radius R1 and outer radius R2 has a uniform
volume charge density  . Find the electric field at every point of the
spherical shell.

Solution

Inside the spherical shell: Taking a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r

passing through point A (r < R1) and applying Gauss’s law gives
 
 Q net 0
  E . n  ds = = =0 (no net charge enclosed; Qnet = 0)
  E0 E0

 E  ds = 0  E (4  r2) = 0
0
 E= =0
4r 2
Outside the spherical shell: Taking a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r
passing through point B (r > R2) and applying Gauss’s law gives
 
 Q net Q
  E . n  ds = = (where Q is charge on spherical shell).
  E0 E0
 Q Q
 E  ds =  E (4  r2) =
E0 E0
Q 1 Q
E= =
4E0 r 2
4E 0 r 2
4

 R23  R13 
4 4
 
But Q =  x  R23  R13 =  R23  R13   =
1
4E 0
. 3
3 3 r2
R22  R13 
=
3E 0 r 2
5. A charged conductor of surface area 1.5 x 102 m2 has a charge density
of 3  C/m2. Taking E0 = 8.8 x 10-12 C2 /Nm2 calculate the electric field
intensity on the surface of the conductor.
Solution
A = 1.5 x 102 m2 ;  = 3  C/m2 = 3 x 10-6 C/m2 ; E0 = 8.8 x 10-12 C2 /Nm2
Q Q A
Using Gauss’s law  =  E  ds =  EA =
E0 E0 E0

Note: The electric field outside a charged infinite plane is E = .
2E 0
 CHAPTER THREE

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

Electric potential difference: This is defined as the work done per unit charge
in carrying a test charge from one point to another in an electric field
i.e the electric potential difference between points A and E is VB – VA =
W A  B W A  B
(where W is work done in carrying test charge q0 from A
q0 q0
to B)

Electric potential difference is also defined as the change in electric potential

energy per unit charge of a charged particle between two points in an electric
field. i.e electric potential difference between points A and B is
0U U U A
VB – VA = = B ………………………………………………………(2)
q0 q0

Where U is electric potential energy ; UA , UB is electric potential energy at A,

B respectively.
B  
Also: VB – VA = -  E. dL …………………………………………(3)
A

The electric potential at a point, a distance r from a single point charge Q is

Q 1 Q
V= = ………………………………………………………(4)
4E 0 r 4E 0 r
Q
 electric potential at A is VA = ……………. (5)
4 E 0 rA
Q
 electric potential at B is VB =
4 E 0 rB

 electric potential difference between A and B is

Q Q
VB – VA = -
4 E 0 rB 4 E 0 rA
1. If the potential difference between two points is 42 volts find the work
done by external agent in carrying charge q0 = 5.0 x 10-5 C between the
points at constant speed.
Solution
VB – VA = 42 V ; q0 = 5 x 10-5 C
W ( A  B)
From VB – VA =
q0

 W (A  B) = q0 (VB  VA) = 5 x 10-5 x 42 = 21 x 10-4 J.

2. The electric potential difference between two discharged points during

a thunder storm in Choba is 1.2 x 109 V. What is the electric potential
energy change of an electron that moves between the two discharged
points?

Solution
q = 1.6 x 10-19C ; VB – VA = 1.2 x 109 V
U
From VB -VA =
q
 U = q V B  V A   1.6 x 10-19 x 1.2 x 109 = 1.92 x 10-10 J.
3. What value of potential difference will be required to give a helium
nucleus (Q = 3.2 x 10-19 C) a kinetic energy of 48 x 103 eV ?

Solution
Q = 3.2 x 10-19 C
U
U = Ek = 48 x 103 eV = 48 x 103 x 1.6 x 10-19 J = 7.68 x 10-15 J VB - VA =
Q
7.68 x10 15
= = 2.4 x 104 V
3.2 x10 19
4. A charge Q (-4.5 x 10-2C) is at the origin of the cartestian coordinate.
Calculate the potential difference between the points (0,60)cm and
(85,0)cm due to the charge.

Solution
 1 Q 1 Q 1 1 1
VB - VA = - = .Q   
4E 0 rB 4E 0 rA 4E 0  rB rA 
 1 1 
= 9 x 109 x (-4.5 x 10-2).    = 1.98 x 108 V.
 0.85 0.6 
5. Four point charges Q1, Q2 , Q3, Q4 each of magnitude 2.1 C are placed
at the four corners of a square 3cm on a side. Find the electric potential
at the centre of the square.
Solution

L = 3cm = 0.03m
Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = Q4 = Q = 2.1  C = 2.1 x 10-6 C

length of diagonal = d = L2  L2 = 2L2 = L

2 = 3
2 cm
d 3 2
r1 = r2 = r3 = r4 = r = = cm = 2.1cm = 0.021m
2 2
Electric potential at centre P is
1  Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4  1 Q Q Q Q 1
V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 =    3       
4E 0  r1 r2 r r4  4E 0  r r r r  4E 0

4Q 9 x10 9 x 4.x 2.1x10 6

= = 3.6 x 106 V.
r 0.021
6. Two point charges - 4 C are separated by a distance of 3mm. Where
along the line through the charges is the electric potential zero?
Solution
Q1 = - 4 C
= - 4 x 10-6 C
Q2 = 6 C = 6 x 10-6 C
Let the point be P, a distance x from Q1 charge.
Electric potential at P is V = 0  V1 + V2 = 0
1 Q1 1 Q2
 + 0
4E 0 x 4E 0 3  x 
 
9 x10 9 x  4 x10 6  +
9 x10 9 x 6 x 10 6
0
x 3 x
9 x10 9 x 6 x 10 6 9 x10 9 x 4 x 10 6 6 4
=  =
3 x x 3 x x
 6x =4 (3-x) = 12-4x  6x + 4x = 12
12
10 x = 12  x= = 1.2mm
10
i.e point P is 1.2mm from Q1 (-4 C ) charge.
Note: To determine the electric potential at a point due to a continuous charge
distribution, it is divided into infinitesimal charge elements dQ
1` dQ
The electric potential element at point P is dV = . ………………..(1)
4E 0 r

Where r is the distance of P from dQ.

The total electric potential at p due to all the dQ is
1` dQ
V =  dV =
4E 0  r
………………………………………………. (2)

Problems
1) Charge of uniform sirface density  covers a flat circular disc of radius R.
point P is on the line that is perpendicular to, and through the centre of the
disc. The distance from the centre of the disc to point P is y. Find the
electric potential at P.

Solution

Taking a circular ring element of charge dQ, radius r, and thickness dr, total
electric potential at P is
1 dQ 1` dA 1  2rdr 
V=  =  = 
4E 0 r2  y2 4E 0 r2  y2 4E 0 r 2
 y2  1
2
 2
R
rdr
= 
4E 0 0 r 2
 y2  1
2

 R
rdr
V=  …………………………………………………. (1)
2E 0 0 r 2
 y2  1
2

du du
Let u = r2 + y2 ; = 2r  dr =
dr 2r
Substituting in (i) gives
   
1
r du du 
2u 12 
V=
2E 0  1
.
2r
=
2E 0  1
=
4E 0  u 2 du = 4E 0  
u 2
2u 2

  12    2
r  y2  2  =
  2
   
R
= u =
1
R  y 2 2
1
 0  y 2
2
1
2 

2E 0   
2E 0  
0 
2E 0  

   2
=
2E 0 

 R2  y2  1
2
 y 
 2E 0 
y  R2   1
2
 y


2. A circular ring of radius R with charge  per unit length is shown below.
Find the electric potential at a point P on the axis of the ring a distance of y
from its centre.

Solution
The electric potential at P is
2 R
1 dQ 1 dL 
V=
4E 0  r = 4E0  R2  y2
=
4E0 R 2  y 2
 dL
0

  R
= L02R = 2 R  =
4E0 R  y 2 2
4E0 R  y 2 2
2 E0 R 2  y 2

Note: Given that the electric potential function at a point is V = f (x,y,z), the
electric field at the point is E = Exi + Eyi + Ezk
V
Where Ex = i.e negative derivative of V wrt x, keeping y, z constant
x
V
Ey = - i.e negative derivative of V wrt y, keeping x,z constant
y
 V
Ez = - i.e negative derivative of V wrt z, keeping x,y constant
z
1. Determine the electric field at a point P on the axis of a uniformly charged
disc.
Solution
  
.  y 2  R 2 2  y 
1
Electric potential at P is V=
2E 0  
V
Ex = - 0 (since x is not a variable in V)
x
V    2     2 
   
1 1
Ey = -  - .  y  R 2 2
 y  = .  y  R 2 2
 y
x y 2E 0   2E 0 y  

 1 2    
 
1
y
=- 2 y  R 2 2
.2 y   1     1
2E 0   2 E0 
 y 2  R 2  1
2 

  y 

1
2E 0  y2  R2 
 
V
Ez = - 0 (since z is not a variable in V)
z
   y
E = Exi + Eyj + Ezk = (0)i + 1   j  0 k
2E 0  2 
y R 
2


  y 
j
= 1
2E 0  2 
y R 
2

2. The electric potential function at a point is V = 2 x y + 3yz + x2y2z
Find the electric field at the point.
Solution
V = 2 x y + 3yz + x2y2z
V 
Ex = - =- (2xy + 3yz + x2y2z) = - (2y + 2xy2z)
x x
V 
Ey = - =- (2xy + 3yz + x2y2z) = - (2x + 3z + 2x2yz)
y y
 V 
Ez = - =- (2xy + 3yz + x2y2z) = - (3y + x2y2)
z z

E = Exi + Eyj + Ezk = - (2y + 2xy2z)i – (2x+3z+2x2yz)j – (3y+x2y2)k
Q
3. The potential due to a point charge is V(r) =
4E 0 r

Where r = x 2
 y2  z2 . 
Q r
Calculate Ex , Ey and Ez . Then show that E = .
4E 0 r3
Solution

r= 
x2  y2  z 2 = x2  y2  z2  1
2

. x 2  y 2  z 2  2
Q Q Q 1
V= = =
4E 0 x 2  y 2  z 2  2
1
4E 0 r 4E 0 r

v  
Ex = -
x
 .
Q
x 4E 0 r
x2  y2  z2  2 = -
1 Q
x2  y2  z2  2
1

4 E 0 r x

=-
Q  1
.   x 2
 y2  z2 
3
2
. (2x) =
Qx
4 E 0 r  2  
4E 0 x 2  y 2  z 2 3
2

Qx Qx
= =
4E0 r 3
 
3
4E 0  x 2  y 2  z 2 
1
2
 
v  
Ey = -
y
 .
Q
y 4E 0 r
x2  y2  z2  2 = -
1 Q
. x2  y2  z2  2
1

4 E 0 r y

=-
Q  1
.   x 2
 y2  z2 
3
2
. (2y) =
Qy
4 E 0 r  2  
4E 0 x 2  y 2  z 2  3
2

Qx Qx
= =
4E0 r 3
 
3
4E 0  x 2  y 2  z 2 
1
2
 
v  
Ez = -
z
 .
Q
z 4E 0 r
x2  y2  z2  2 = -
1 Q
. x 2  y 2  z 2  2
1

4 E 0 r z

=-
Q  1
.   x 2
 y2  z2 
3
2
. (2z) =
Qz
4E 0  2  
4E 0 x 2  y 2  z 2 3
2
 Qz Qz
= =
4E0 r 3
 
3
4E 0  x 2  y 2  z 2 
1
2
 
 Qx Qy Qz
E = Exi + Eyj + Ezk = 3
i + 3
j + k
4E0 r 4E0 r 4E 0 r 3
2 2 2
 Qx   Qy   Qz 
E  E E E       
 4E r 3    4E r 3    4E r 3 
2 2 2
x y z
 0   0   0 
2 2 2 2
 Q  2  Q  2  Q  2  Q 
=      
 4E r 3  x   4E r 3  y   4E r 3  z =
  
 4E r 3  . x  y  z
2 2 2

 0   0   0   0 
2
 Q  Q Q r
  x2  y2  z2 = . 3
=  4E r 3  . 4E0 r 3
.r =
4E0 r
 0 
The electrostatic potential energy of a two – charge system is
1 Q1Q2
U= …………………………………(1)
4E 0 r1 , 2

The electrostatic potential energy of a three – charge system is

1  Q1Q2 Q1Q3 Q2 Q3 
U=     ………………(2)
4E 0  r1 , 2 r1 , 3 r2 , 3 

The electrostatic potential energy of a four-charge system is

Q Q QQ QQ QQ QQ QQ 
U =  1 2  1 3  1 4  2 3  2 4  3 4  ……(3)
 r1 , 2 r1 , 3 r1 , 4 r2 , 3 r2 , 4 r3 , 4 

Equipotential surface: Is one on which the potential of points is constant, and

the potential difference between points is zero. The work done in moving a test
charge between points on an equipotential surface is zero. E.g earth’s surface.
Electric field lines are perpendicular to an equipotential surface.
Dielectric breakdown: Is the phenomenon in which an insulator medium
(dielectric) loses its insulating capacity at high potential differences and electric
fields, and the material conducts electricity. The electric field strength at which
dielectric breakdown occurs is called the dielectric strength of the material e.g for
air, dielectric strength is 3 x 106 V/m = 3 x 106 N/C.

Problems
1. Three identical particles each having a charge of 15 C are located at the
vertices of an equilateral triangle 9cm along each side. Calculate the
electric potential energy.

Solution Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = Q = 15 C = 15 x 10-6 C ;
r1,2 = r1,3 = r2,3 = 9cm = 0.09m.

1  Q1Q2 Q1Q3 Q2 Q3  1  Q .Q Q .Q Q .Q 
U=     =    
4E 0  r1 , 2 r1 , 3 r2 , 3  4E 0  r r r 
3Q 2 9 x10 9 x3 x 15 x10 6 
2
1  Q2 Q2 Q2  1
=     = . = =67.5 J
4E 0  r r r  4E 0 r 0.09
2. A spherical conductor has a radius of 2m.
(a) What maximum charge can be placed on the sphere before dielectric
breakdown occurs?
b) What is the maximum potential of the sphere?
(Assume the maximum electric field in air is 3 x 106 N/C).

Solution (r = 2m ; E = 3 x 106 N/C).

a) Electric field on conductor surface is
 Q Q
E=  
E0 AE 0 4r 2 E0

 Q = 4  r2E0E = 4 x 3.142 x (2)2 x 8.85 x 10-12 x 3x 106 = 1.33 x 10-3C

1 Q 9 x10 9 x1.33 x10 3
b) V= = 5.98 x 106 V.
4E 0 r 2
 CHAPTER FOUR

CAPACITANCE AND DIELECTRICS

Capacitor: This is a device used for storing charges and energy; it consists of
two conductors (plates) separated from each other by an insulator called
dielectric.
Capacitance: This is the ratio of the charge stored on the plates to the
potential difference between them.
Q
i.e C= ……………………………………………….. (1)
V
Q
 Q = CV  V=
C
Where C is capacitance ; Q is charge ; V is potential difference. The
capacitance of a conductor depends on the geometry (arrangement) of the
conductors.
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor having two plates is
E0 A
C= ………………………………………………..….. (2)
d
where A is area of plates ; d is separation distance between the plates; E0 is
permittivity of free space (or air)
2 E 0 L
The capacitance of a cylindrical capacitor is C = ……………………. (3)
b
In  
a
where L is length of capacitor; b is radius of outer conductor cylinder ; a is
radius of inner conductor cylinder.
4E 0 ab
The capacitance of a spherical capacitor is C = ………………….. (4)
ba
where a is radius of inner conductor sphere ; b is radius of outer conductor
sphere.
Problems
1. A 2.0F capacitor is desired. What should be the area of the plates if they
are to be separated by a 4.5mm air gap?
Solution
C = 2F ; d = 4.5mm = 4.5 x 10-3m ; E0 = 8.85 x 10-12 C2 /Nm2
E0 A 8.85 x10 12 A
Using C =  2=
d 4.5 x10 3
2 x 4.5 x10 3
A= = 1.02 x 109 m2
8.85 x10 12
2. A coaxial cable of length 2m consists of a wire of diameter 1mm and an
outer shell of diameter 3mm. Find the capacitance of the cable.

Solution
1 3
L = 2m ; a = mm = 0.5mm ; b = mm = 1.5mm
2 2
2 E 0 L 2 x3.142 x8.85 x10 12 x 2
C= = = 1.01x10-10F = 101PF
b  1.5 
In   In  
a  0.5 
3. An air filled spherical capacitor is constructed with inner and outer
shell radii of 7cm and 14cm respectively.
i) Calculate the capacitance of the device
ii) What potential difference between the spheres will result in a
charge of 8 C on each conductor?
Solution
i) a = 7cm = 0.07m ; b = 14cm = 0.14m
4E 0 ab 4 x3.142 x8.85 x10 12 x0.07 x0.14
c= = = 1.56x10-11F = 15.6PF
ba 0.14  0.07
ii) Q = 8 C = 8 x 10-6 C
Q 8 x10 6
V=   5.14 x10 5 V
C 1.56 x10 11
Note:
i) For n capacitors connected in series, the equivalent capacitance is given
1 1 1 1 1
by     ......... …………………………. (1)
C eq C1 C 2 C 3 Cn

where Ceq is the equivalent capacitance ; Cn is the nth series – connected

capacitance.
From (1), the equivalent capacitance of two series-connected capacitors C1 and
1 1 1 C  C2
C2 is given by    1
C eq C1 C 2 C1C 2
C1C 2 product of capaci tan ces
 Ceq = = ………………………………. (2)
C1  C 2 sum of capaci tan ces
ii) For n capacitors connected in parallel, the equivalent capacitance is
Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + ……………………….. + Cn ……………(3)
where Cn is the nth parallel – connected capacitance.
From (3), the equivalent capacitance of two parallel-connected
capacitors C1 and C2 is Ceq = C1 + C2 ………………….. (4)

iii) Capacitors in series have same charge on their plates but different
potential difference (p.d) across the m; capacitors in parallel have same
p.d but different charge.
iv) The energy stored in a capacitor is equivalent to the total work done in
charging the capacitor. It is given by the following alternative
expressions.
Q2
U …………………………………………………………….. (5)
2C
1
U CV 2 ………………………………………………………….. (6)
2
1
U  QV ………………………………………………………….. (7)
2
The electrostatic energy density of a parallel-plate capacitor is
1
u E0 E 2 …………………………………………………………………… (8)
2
Where E is the electric field between the plates.
V
E
d
Problems
1. Find the charge and potential difference (p.d) across each capacitor
shown below.

Solution
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 8
      
C eq C1 C 2 C 3 3 12 4 12
12
 Ceq   1.5F  1.5 x10 6 F
8
Total charge Q = Ceq V = 1.5 x 10-6 x 16 = 2.4 x 10-5 C
Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = Q = 2.4 x 10-5 C (series connected capacitors
have same charge).
5
Q 2.4 x10 C
V1  1   8V
C1 3x10 6 F
Q2 2.4 x10 5 C
V2    2V
C 2 12 x10 6 F
Q3 2.4 x10 5 C
V3    6V
C3 3 x10 6 F

2. Find the equivalent capacitance for the circuit shown below. Also find
the charge and p.d across each capacitor.
Solution
Using progressive diagram reduction:

C5 = C2 + C3 = 1 + 5 = 6 F C2 , C3 combine in parallel to give C5 

3x6
C6 =  F C1 , C5 combine in series to give C6 
36

Ceq = C6 + C4 = 2 + 4 = 6 F = 6 x 10-6 F
charge on Ceq is Q = Ceq V = 6 x 10-6 x 8 = 48 x 10-6 = 48  C
V4 = V6 = V = 8V (capacitors in parallel have same p.d)
Q4 = C4V4 = 4 x10-6 x 8 = 32 x 10-6 C = 32  C
Q6 = C6V6 = 2 x10-6 x 8 = 16 x 10-6 C = 16  C
Q1 = Q5 = Q6 =16  C (capacitors in series have same charge)
Q1 16 C
V1    5.33V
C1 3F
Q5 16 C
V5    2.66V
C5 6 F

Q2 = C2V2= 1 F x 2.66V = 2.66 C

Q3= C3V3= 5 F x 2.66V = 13.3 C
3. A 2  C capacitor is charged by a 12 volt battery. It is disconnected from
the battery and then connected to an uncharged 5  C capacitor.
Determine the total stored energy (a) before the two capacitors are
connected (b) after they are connected.
 1
a) Before connection, total stored energy is U C1V 2
2
1
x 2 x10 6 x12   1.44 x10  4 J .
2
=
2
b) After connection, total capacitance is C = C1 + C2
= 2 + 5 = 7  F = 7 x 10-6 F
Q1 = C1V = 2 x 10-6 x 12 = 24 x 10-6 C
Q2 = 0 (C2 = 5  F is uncharged before connection to C1)
Total charge on C1 , C2 is Q = Q1 + Q2 = 24 x 10-6 + (0) = 24 x 10-6 C

Total stored energy U 

Q2

24 x10 6  
 4.11x10 6 J.
2

6
2C 2 x7 x10
4. The effective capacitance in points x and y in the diagram below is 1
 F. What is the value of capacitance C ?

Solution
Ceq = 1 F
Reducing the diagram gives
2Cx2 4C
 1  2C  2  4C
Ceq 2c  2 2C  2
2
4C  2C  2  2C  2 C   1F
2
Dielectric: This is an insulating medium placed between the plates of a
capacitor, that prevents contact between the plates. If C0 is the capacitance
with a vacuum or air between the plates and C is the capacitance with a
E0 A EA
material dielectric between the plates, C = K C0 = K  …………..(1)
d d
Where k is dielectric constant of material ; E0 is permittivity of a vacuum ; E is
permittivity of the material
From (1)  E  KE0 ………………………………………………… (2)
 E0
Also, E= ……………………………………… (3)
K
Where E0 is electric field with air as dielectric ; E is electric field when a
material dielectric is placed between the plates. i.e inserting a dielectric
increases the capacitance and decreases the electric field by a factor K.

The capacitance of an air – filled parallel-plate capacitor having n plates is

n  1E0 A
C0  …………………………………….(4)
d
The capacitance of a parallel – plate capacitor with a material dielectric,

having n plates is C 
n  1EA ……………………………………….. (5)
d
Where E is permittivity of the material. The relationship between the free
charges on the capacitor plates, Q and the induced (bound) charges on
 1
dielectric surface, Qind is Qind = Q1   …………………… (6)
 K
Problems
1. Two parallel plates of area 100cm2 are each given equal but opposite
charges of 8.9x 10-7 C. The electric field within the dielectric material
filling the space between the plates is 1.4 x 106 V/m
a) Find the dielectric constant of the material.
b) Determine the magnitude of the charge induced on each
dielectric surface.
Solution
A = 100cm2 = 100 cm x cm = 100 x 10-2m x 10-2m = 100 x 10-4 m2 = 0.01m2 ;
Q = 8.9 x 10-7C ; E = 1.4 x 106 V/m = 0.14 x 107 V/m = 0.14 x 107 N/C
 
 
A Q 8.9 x10 7
a) E0 =     12
 1x10 7 NIC
E0 AE 0 0.01x8.85 x10
E0 1x10 7
Using E =  0.14 x10 7 
K K
 1x10 7
K  7.14
0.14 x10 7
 1  1 
b) Qind = Q1   = 8.9x10-7 1  7.14  = 7.65 x 10-7 C
 K  

2. A capacitor is made with 7 plates and separated by sheets of mica

having a thickness of 0.3mm and relative permittivity of 6. The area of
one side of each plate is 500cm2. A p.d of 400V is maintained across the
terminals of the capacitor. Calculate.
a) The capacitance in F
b) The charge on the plates
c) The electric field or potential gradient.

Solution
V = 400V ; n = 7 ;
d = 0.3mm = 0.3x10-3 m = 0.0003m.
K = 6 ; A = 500cm2 = 0.05m2

a) C
n  1EA  n  1E0 A  7  1x6 x8.85 x10 12 x0.05
d d 0.0003
= 5.3 x 10-8 F = 0.053 x 10-6 F = 0.053 F
b) Q = CV = 5.3 x 10-8 x 400 = 2.12 x 10-5 C = 21.2  C
V 400
c) EE    1.33 x10 6 V / m
d 0.0003
 CHAPTER FIVE

ELECTRIC CURRENT
Electric Current: This is defined as the time rate of flow of charges in a circuit.
dQ
i.e I= ……………………………………………………………….. (1)
dt
Q
or I= ………………………………………………………………. (2)
t
where I is electric current in amperes (A); Q is charge ; t is time.
For a wire of length L, cross-sectional area A within which charges each of
magnitude q flow with a drift velocity vd the electric current flowing is I = q n
A vd………………………………………………… (3)

Current density j: This is defined as the electric current per unit cross
sectional area at any point in space.
I
i.e j =…………………………………………………………….. (4)
A
qnAvd
 j=  qnvd ………………………………………………….. (5)
A
where n is the number of charges per unit volume of wire.
Resistance: Is the property of a conductor by which it offers opposition to the
flow of current.
Ohm’s law: The current in a conductor is propotional to the potential
difference applied to its ends
i.e. V I  V = IR. Cohm’s law …………. (6)
V
where R is the resistance of the conductor (unit is ohms,  )  R 
I
The resistance of a wire is directly proportional to the length of wire L, and
inversely proportional to its cross sectional are A.
L L
i.e R   R= ………………………………….. (8)
A A
 RA
where  ……………………………………………………… (9)
L
Conductivity  : Is the reciprocal of resistivity
1
i.e  = …………………………………………………………. (10)
e
(unit is m1 )
Conductance G: Is the reciprocal of resistance
1
i.e G = ……………………………………………………………….. (11)
R
(unit is siemens, S)
2
V
Electric Power is P  I V  I 2R  ………………………………… (12)
R
(unit is watt, W)
Problems
1. A 0.40 mm diameter copper wire carries a current of 3  A Find the
current density.
Solution
diameter d = 0.4mm = 0.4 x 10-3m = 0.0004m ; I = 3  A = 3 x 10-6 A

3.142 x0.0004 
2 2
d 
A = r =    =
2
= 12.56 x 10-8 m2
2 4
I 3x10 6
j=  8
 23.89 A / m 2
A 12.56 x10
2. A 20.0m length of wire 1.5mm in diameter has a resistance of 2.5  .
What is the resistance of 35.0m length of wire 3.0mm in diameter made
of the same material?

Solution
1 .5
wire 1: L1 = 20m ; d1 = 1.5mm = = 0.0015m ; R1 = 2.5 
1000
3
wire 2: L2 = 35m ; d2 = 3mm = m = 0.003m
1000
Since wires are made of same material   1   2
 d12 .L2
R1
R1 A1 R2 A2 R1 A1 L2 4
   R2 = 
L1 L2 A2 L1 d 2 .L1
2

4
2 2
R1 L2  d1  2.5 x35  1.5 
   x   1.09
L1  d2  20  3 
3. A wire with resistance of 6  is drawn out through a die so that its new
length is three times its original length. Find the resistance of the longer
wire assuming that the resistivity and density of the material are
unchanged during the drawing process.

Solution

Before drawing After drawing

R1 A1 R2 A2
Since material of wires is unchanged   1   2  
L1 L2
R1 A1 L2 R1 A1 3L1 
 R2 =  = 9R1 = 9x6 = 5.4 
A2 L1  A1 
  L1
 3 
4. The wiring in a house must be thick enough so that it does not become
so hot as to start fire. What diameter must a copper wire be if it is to
carry a maximum current of 40A and produce no more than 1.8W of
heat per metre of length (resistivity of copper = 1.67 x 10-8  m)?

I = 40 A ; P = 1.8 W ; L = 1m ;  = 1.67 x 10-8 m

I 2 L I 2 L 4 I 2  L
Using P = I2 R =  
A d 2 d 2
4
4 I 2 L
d2 =
P

4 x40  x1.67 x10 8 x1

2
4 I 2 L
d   = 4.3 x 10-3m = 4.3mm
P 3.142 x1.8
5. An electric fan draws 2A of current from a 220 V source. Find
a) The power rating of the fan
b) Electrical resistance R
c) The cost of operating the fan during the month of April, if it
operates continuously and electric energy costs eight kobo per
kilowatt hour (KWH).
Solution
I = 2A ; V = 220 V
a) P = IV = 2 x220 = 440 W = 0.44 kW
V 220
b) R=   110
I 2
c) t = 30 days = 30 x 24 hrs = 720 H
Energy = Pt = 0.44 kW x 720H = 317KWH
8kobo
Cost of the energy = 317KWH x = 2536 kobo = N25.36
1KWH
6. What is the conductance of an object that draws 800mA of current at
12V ?
Solution
800
I = 800mA = 800x10-3 A = A 0.8 A ; V = 12V
1000
1 1 I 0.8
G=    = 0.0667 S (Siemens)
R  v  V 12
 
I
7. A current of 0.9A is maintained in a 160  resistor for 3 hours.
Calculate the heat energy developed in the resistor.
I = 0.9 A ; R = 160  ; t = 3hr = 3x60 x 60s = 10800s
Heat energy = Pt = I2Rt = (0.9)2 x 160 x 10800 = 1.4 x 106J
OR
P = I2R = (0.9)2 x 160 = 129.6 W = 0.1296KW ; t = 3H
Heat energy = Pt = 0.1296 KW x 3H = 0.39KWH
Note: The parameters on which the resistivity of materials depends are
(i) Length L (ii) Cross sectional area A (iii) Temperature T
 CHAPTER SIX

DC CIRCUITS AND INSTRUMENTS

Direct Current (d.c): This is current that does not vary with time. For series-
connected resistances, the current flowing through each resistance is the
same; for parallel-connected resistances, the p.d across each resistance is the
same.
The equivalent resistance of n series-connected resistances is
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 +……………………………………………..+ Rn (1)
where Rn is the nth series connected resistance.
From (1), the equivalent resistance of two series connected resistances R1 and
R2 is Req = R1 + R2……………………………………………… (2)

The equivalent resistance of n parallel-connected resistances is given by

1 1 1 1 1
    …………………………… + ………………. (3)
Req R1 R2 R3 Rn
Where Rn is the nth parallel-connected resistance.
From (3), the equivalent resistance of two parallel connected resistances
1 1 1 R  R2
   1
Req R1 R2 R1 R2

R1 R2 Pr oduct of resis tan ces

 Req = = …………………………….(4)
R1  R2 Sum of resis tan ces
Problems
1. Find the equivalent resistance of the network of identical resistors, each
having R as shown below.
Solution
Using progressive circuit diagram reduction:

R1 = R + R = 2R
R2 = R + R +R = 3R
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6  3  2 11
       
Req R R1 R2 R 2 R 3R 6R 6R
6R
 Req   0.545 R
11
2. What value is the equivalent resistance of the network shown below?
Each resistor has R = 2.1k 

Solution
Using progressive circuit reduction:

R1 = R + R = 2R = 2 x 2.1 = 4.2 K 
R1 R 4 .2 x 2 .1
R2 =   1 .4 K 
R1  R 4.2  2.1

R3 = R2 + R = 1.4 + 2.1 = 3.5 K 

R3 R 3.5 x 2.1
R4 =   1.31K
R3  R 3.5  2.1

Req = R4 + R = 1.31 + 2.1 = 3.41 K 

3. Find the equivalent resistance of the circuit shown below, and the
current passing through the R4 resistor.
 R1 R2 6 x3
R7 =   2
R1  R2 6  3

R8 = R3 + R7 = 4 + 2 = 6 
R4 R8 12 x6
R9 =   4
R4  R8 12  6

Req = R5 + R6 + R9 = 8 + 2 + 4 = 14 
V 28
Total current is I=   2A
Req 14

 I5  I6  I9  I  2A (resistors in series pass same current)

V9  I 9 R9  2 x 4  8V
V4  V8  V9  8V (resistors in parallel have same p.d)
V4 8
 I4    0.67 A
R4 12
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL): The algebraic sum of the currents at a node or
junction is equal to zero.
i.e sum of currents entering junction = sum of currents leaving junction
 E  IR   0 ………………………………………………. (2)
e.g considering the circuit below,

Using KCL at node a gives I1 = I2 + I3

Taking loop fadef and applying KVL gives
V1 – I1R1 – I2R2 – (I2 + I3) R4 = 0
Taking loop abcda and applying KVL gives
V2 – I3R3 + I2R2 = 0
Note: If current or loop directions are not given in the circuit, they have to be
assumed. In using KCL, currents entering a node are considered positive and
currents leaving a node are negative. In using KVL, if the loop direction is the
same as current, p.d across a resistor is negative, otherwise p.d across the
resistor is positive. If loop direction is from positive terminal of a battery to
the negative terminal, battery emf is negative otherwise the emf is positive.

Problems
1. Find the currents I1, I2 , I3 in the circuit below.

Solution
Applying KCL at node a gives I1 + I3 = I2 …………………………… (1)
Applying KVL in loop abda gives 8 + 10 I1 – 6 = 0
2
 10 I1 = - 2  I1 = = - 0.2A
10
Applying KVL in loop acda gives 8 – 16 I2 – 12 = 0
4
 - 16 I2 = 4  I2 = = - 0.25A
 16
Substituting for I1, I2 in (1) gives - 0.2 + I3 = - 0.25
 I3 = - 0.25 + 0.2 = - 0.05 A.
(negative signs show that actual current directions are opposite to the
assumed ones).
2. Find the power dissipated by the 1  resistor in the circuit shown
below.
Solution
Using KCL at node a gives I = I1 + I2…………………… (1)
Using KVL in loop badcb gives 10 – 2I – 6 – I2 – 6I = 0
- 8I – I2 = - 4
Substituting (1) gives - 8 (I1 + I2) – I2 = - 4
 - 8I1 - 8I2 - I2 = - 4  -8I1 - 9I2 = - 4
 - 8I1 + 9I2 = 4  -8I1 - 9I2 = - 4
 - 8I1 + 9I2 = 4 …………………………………………………… (2)
Applying KVL in loop adfea gives 4-6-I1 + 4I1 = 0
4I1 – I2 = 2  I1 = 4I1 – 2 …………………………. (3)
Putting (3) into (2) gives 8I1 + 9 (4I1 -2) = 4
 8I1 + 36I1 -18 = 4  4.4I1 = 22
22
 I1 = = 0.5A
4 .4
Substituting for I1 in (3) gives I2 = 4 (0.5) – 2 = (0) A
(where I2 is current flowing in R = 1  resistor).
 Power dissipated in 1  resistor is P = I2R = (0)2 x 1 = 0 W.
Galvanometer: Is an instrument that detects current flowing and deflects to
indicate the direction of flow of the current.
Ammeter: Is a device used to measure current. It consists of a galvanometer
(having internal resistance r) and a low resistance Rs (called shunt resistance)
in parallel with the galvanometer.

p.d across r = p.d across Rs (Since r is in parallel with Rs)

 Imr = Is Rs
Imr
 Rs = …………………………………………………… (1)
Is
Where Im is full scale deflection (fsd) for galvanometer ; Is is current flowing
through shunt ; I is full scale deflection current for ammeter.
Voltmeter: Is an instrument used to measure potential difference. It consists
of a galvanometer and a high resistance R (called multiplier resistance) in
series with the galvanometer.

V = Imr + Im R = Im (r + R)
V
R=  r ……………………………………………………… (2)
Im
Where V is fsd voltage for voltmeter ; Im is fsd current for galvanometer ; r
is internal resistance of galvanometer.
Wheatstone Bridge: Is used in measuring an unknown resistance Rx.

The variable resistor R1 is adjusted until the balanced or null condition is

achieved, when the potential at F and H are the same and no current flows
through the galvanometer.
Applying KVL in loop EFHE gives -IxRx + I1R1 = 0
 -IxRx = I1R1 …………………………………………………………… (1)
Applying KVL in loop FGHF gives -IxR3 + I1R2 = 0
 -IxR3 = I1R2 …………………………………………………………… (2)
I x R x I 1 R1 R x R1
Dividing (1) by (2) gives   
I x R3 I 1 R 2 R3 R 2
R3 R1
 Rx =
R2
Potentiometer: Is used to measure an unknown voltage (emf) E x by
comparing with a standard cell of known voltage Es.

Since R  L
 AQ = Lx  Rx
AQ’ = Ls  Rs

The variable resistance Ru is adjusted to give a convenient voltage between

points A and B; the working battery supplies current I to the resistance wire
AB. When the switch is at position (2), Ex is connected, the slider is moved
along AB to Q, where the null condition exists.
Applying KVL in loop AQKCA gives - IRx + Ex = 0
 Ex = IRx ………………………………………………………………….. (1)
When the switch is at position (1), Es is connected, the slider is moved along
AB to Q12 where null condition exists.
Applying KVL in loop AQ1LCA gives - IRs + Es = 0
 Es = IRxs………………………………………………………………….. (2)
when switch S2 is closed, S1 is open, at time t, current I flows in the circuit and
charge Q is on the capacitor.
The instantaneous charge is Q = Q0 (1-e-t/RC) = CE (1-e-t/RC) …………….. (1)
Where Q0 = CE is the maximum of final charge on capacitor; E is the emf of
the charging battery. Q increases exponentially with time t.
Time Constant: Is the time required for the capacitor to be charged to 63 per
cent of its final maximum charge. It is given by t = RC

dQ E t / RC
The instantaneous charging current is I =  e ……………… (2)
dt R
 E
Where I0 = is the original maximum current. I decreases exponentially with
R
time t.

Problems
1. A galvanometer has an internal resistance of 140  . It requires 1.2mA
to give a full scale deflection.
i) What resistance should be placed in parallel with the
galvanometer to make an ammeter that gives full scale deflection
for a current of 2A?
ii) What resistance should be placed in series with the
galvanometer to make a voltmeter that gives a full-scale
deflection for a potential difference o 5 volts.
Solution
r = 140  ; Im = 1.2mA = 1.2 x 10-3 A = 0.0012A
i) I = 2A

I = Is + I m  Is = I - Im = 2 – 0.0012 = 1.9988 A
I m r 0.0012 x140
Imr = IsRs  Rs =  = 0.084 
Is 1.9988

ii) V = 5 volts ;
r = 140  ;
Im = 0.0012A
5
R= -r= - 140 = 4027 
0.0012

2.
Consider the Wheatstone bridge shown above. When it is balanced, the
voltage drop across R3 is 3.2 V and I1 = 200 A . If the total current drawn from
the battery is 500 A , what is the resistance Rx ?

Solution
I = 500 A ; I1 = 200 A
I = I1 + I2  I2 = I – I1 = 500 - 200 A = 300 A = 300 x 10-6 A = 0.0003A
Applying KVL in loop abca gives - I2Rx + I1R3 = 0
 - 0.0003 Rx + 3.2 = 0  0.0003Rx = 3.2
3 .2
 Rx =  10700  = 1.07 x 104 
0.0003
3.

The diagram above shows a slide-wire form of Wheatstone bridge.

If R3 = 30  and the length AC is 60cm and CB is 40cm when the
galvanometer reads zero current, what is the value of Rx? Assume slid-wire is
uniform.
Solution
AC = L2 = 60cm ; CB = L1 = 40cm
Since R  L  R1  L1 ; R2  L2
Applying KVL in loop BKCB gives - I2R3 + I1R1 = 0
 I2R3 = I1R1………………………………………………………………. (1)
Applying KVL in loop AKCA gives - I2Rx - I1R2 = 0
 I2Rx = I1R2………………………………………………………………. (2)
I 2 R x I 1 R2 R x R2
Dividing (2) by (1) gives   =
I 2 R3 I 1 R1 R 3 R1
R3 R 2 R L 30x60cm
 Rx = = 3 2 =  45
R1 L1 40cm
4. A slide-wire potentiometer is balanced against a 1.0182 V standard cell
when the slide wire is set at 4.0.2cm out of a total length of 100.0cm. For
an unknown source the setting is 11.9cm. What is the emf of the
unknown cell?
Es = 1.0182 V ; Ls = 40.2cm ; Lx = 11.9cm
E s Lx 1.0182 x11.9
Ex =   0.3014 V
Ls 40.2

5. How many time constants must elapse before a capacitor in an RC

circuit is charged to within 1.0 percent of the equilibrium charge?
Solution
1
Charge Q = Q0  0.01 Q0  0.01 CE
100
Using Q = CE (i-e-t/RC)  0.01 CE = CE (1-e-t/RC)
 0.01 = 1-e-t/RC  e-t/RC = 1-0.01 = 0.99
Taking the natural logarithm of both sides gives
t t
= In (0.99) = - 0.01005  = 0.01005
RC RC
 t = 0.01005 RC
i.e there are 0.01005 time constants.
 CHAPTER SEVEN

MAGNETISM
Magnetic Field: This is the region around a magnet or current-carrying wire
where magnetic force is experienced.

The basic law of magnetism is: like poles repel unlike poles attract.
The rules used to determine the direction of magnetic field around current-
carrying wires are:
i) Right-hand grasp rule (or clenched first rule): If one grasps the wire
with the right hand in such a way that the thumb is in the direction of the
current, then the fingers will encircle the wire in the direction of the magnetic
field lines.
ii) Maxwell’s corkscrew Rule: if a right handed corkscrew could be
screwed into a conductor, then the direction of the current is represented by
the longitudinal movement of the corkscrew, and the direction of the
magnetic field is represented by the direction of rotation.
Note: The symbol 0 represents direction of current (or magnetic field) coming
out of the page, into the reader’s eyes; the symbol x represents direction of
current (or magnetic field) going into the page, away from the reader’s eyes.

The magnitude of magnetic force on a current-carrying conductor placed in a

uniform magnetic field is
F = ILB Sin  …………………………………………………………….. (1)
where I is current in conductor (wire); L is length of conductor in the
magnetic field; B is magnitude of magnetic field;  is the angle between the
conductor and the magnetic field

the magnetic force F on the wire is maximum if the wire is perpendicular to

the field (  = 900)
i.e the maximum magnetic force on wire is
Fm = ILB sin 900 = ILB (1)
 Fm = ILB ……………………………………………………………….. (2)
  
From (1)  F  I L X B ……………………………………………….. (3)
(cross product).

The direction of the magnetic force F is given by the right hand rule: extend
the right hand so that the thumb points in the direction of the current, and the
four fingers in the direction of the magnetic field, then the palm pushes in the
direction of the force.

The magnitude of force on a moving charge in a magnetic field is

F = q v B sin  …………………………………………………………………. (4)
Where q is the magnitude of the charge ; v is velocity of motion of the charge ;
B is magnitude of magnetic field ;  is the angle between the velocity and the
magnetic field.
  
From (4)  F  q v X B ……………………………………… (5)
(cross product).
The direction of the force is given by the right hand (thumb) rule: the thumb
points in the direction of motion of the positive charge; the fingers point in
the direction of the field, and the palm of the hand pushes in the direction of
the force.
Hall emf (voltage): Is the p.d set up across a current-carrying conductor slab
1 IBd
or strip in a perpendicular magnetic field. It is given by V = …….. (6)
nq A
where n is number of charges per unit volume of conductor; q is magnitude
of each charge ; I is current flowing; B is magnetic field ; d is width of
conductor ; A is area of conductor.
1
is called the Hall coefficient.
nq
The drift velocity of the charge carriers is
 E
v ………………………………………………………………….. (7)
B
where E is electric field in conductor.
V
But E ………………………………………………………. (8)
d
Putting (8) into (7) gives
V 
 
d V 1 V
v  x v ……………. (9)
B d B Bd
The magnetic dipole moment of a loop containing N coils of wire is
 
 = NIA n ………………………………………………………. (1)

Where I is current flowing ; A is area of loop ; n is unit vector normal to the
surface of loop.
 magnitude of magnetic dipole moment is   NIA ……………. (2)
The torque on a loop is
  B Sin ………………………………………………………………..(3)
 
where  is the angle between n and the field B .
  = NIAB Sin 

The torque is maximum when  = 900 ; sin  = 1

 maximum torque is   NIAB ……………………………………… (5)
m

  
From (3)   =  x B ……………………………………………. (6)
(cross product)
Problems
1. Calculate the magnetic force on a 240m length of wire stretched
between two towers carrying a 150A current. The earth’s magnetic field
of 5 x 10-5 T makes an angle of 600 with the wire.
Solution
L = 240m ; I = 150 A ; B = 5 x 10-5 x sin 600 = 1.56N.
2. A wire carries a steady current of 2A. A straight section of the wire,
with a length of 0.75m along the x-axis, lies within a uniform magnetic

field B = 1.6k T. If the current flows in the x-direction, what is the
magnetic force on the section of wire ?

Solution

I = 2A ; L = 0.75 I m (since length is along x – axis);

B = 1.6k T
  
F = I L x B = 2 (0.75i x 1.6k) = (2) (0.75) (1.6) (ixk)
= 2.4 (-j) = - 2.4j N

3. An electron experiences a force F = (3i-2j) x 10-12 N when passing

through a magnetic field B = 0.5 k T. What is the velocity of the
electron?

Solution
 
F = (3i – 2j) x10-12 N = 3 x 10-12i – 2x 10-12j N ; B = 0.5k T ; q = - 1.6 x 10-19 C.

Let the velocity be V = Vxi + Vyj + Vzk
  
Using F = q V x B
 3x10-12i – 2 x 10-12j = - 1.6 x 10-19 (Vxi + Vyj + Vzk) x (0.5k)
= (-1.6x10-19) (0.5) (Vx (ixk) + Vy (ixk) + Vz (kxk)) = - 8x10-20 (Vx (-j) + Vy (i) + (0))
= - 8x10-20 Vyi + 8 x10-20 Vxj
Equating corresponding components gives:
 2 x10 12
8x10 -20 Vx =-2x10 -12  Vx = = - 2.5 x107 m/s
8 x10  20
3x10 12
- 8x10-20 Vy =-3x10-12  Vy = = - 3.75 x107 m/s
8 x10  20
Vz = 0

 V = Vxi + Vyj + Vzk = - 2.5 x 107i – 3.75 x 107 j m/s
4. A positively charged ion (q = 1.6 x10-19 C) has a mass of 3.2 x 10-26kg.
After being accelerated through a p.d of 8.33 V, the ion enters a
magnetic field of 0.92 T along a direction perpendicular to the direction
of the field. Calculate the radius of the path of the ion.

Solution

mass of ion, m = 3.2 x10-26kg

charge q = 1.6 x10-19C
p.d = V = 833 V ; B = 0.92 T
F = magnetic force = qvB
mv 2
Fc = centripetal force =
r
work done on ion by electric field = kinetic energy of ion
1 2qV
qV= mv 2  v2 =
2 m
2qV 2 x1.6 x10 19 x833
 v= =  26
= 9.13 x104 m/s
m 3.2 x10
when ion enters magnetic field, magnetic force on ion = centripetal force
mv 2 mv 2 mv 3.2 x10 26 x9.13 x10 4
 qv B =  r=  
r qvB qB 1.6 x10 19 x 0.92
= 0.0198m = 1.98cm.
5. A charged particle describes a circular path in a magnetic field B. show
2mE  2
1

that the radius of the path is given by R =

Bq
where the particle has mass m, electrostatic energy E and carries charge q.
Solution