GEOLOGICAL OCCURRENCE

Gem stones are mainly inorganic solids obtained from the Earth. They belong
largely to the mineral kingdom and have been formed by inorganic
processes i.e. without the agency of organisms. This may be the reason why,
in gemology or the gem trade, the term stone is colloquially used for any
gem material whether organic or inorganic, natural or man-made.

Mineral
An inorganic, homogeneous substance, formed in the Earth's crust, with a
characteristic chemical composition and physical and optical properties
which are constant within narrow limits.
Example: emerald, ruby, diamond etc.
Rock
An aggregate of two or more minerals. It may consist of a single component
like marble (calcite), or may contain more than one mineral. Lapis lazuli is a
rock which is made up of lazurite with (sometimes) calcite and / or pyrite.
Structure of the Earth

The earth is a sphere made up of concentric layers. The outermost layer is a

thin shell (10 - 35 km thick) called the crust. It is made up solid rocks. The
innermost part is a sphere with a radius of 3480 km called the core. It is
made up of metallic iron and nickel. The inner core (radius 1220 km) is solid,
while the outer core is molten. Between the crust and the core there is a
very thick layer (about 2890 km thick) called the mantle. It consists of semi-
solid silicate matter which undergoes slow convection. When the
temperature locally increases, a part of the outermost layer of the mantle
gets melted to produce magma which then penetrates the crust to solidify
as igneous rocks.

HOW ARE ROCKS FORMED?

Rocks: There are three major rock
types: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.
 Igneous Rocks

This rock type is formed by the solidification of molten magma either at the
surface as volcanic lava, or within the Earth's crust.

Most of the common gemstones are formed in this rock type. Igneous rocks
are divided into two (2) major types:

1. Intrusive igneous rocks:

Igneous rocks which solidify below the surface of the Earth are called intrusive rocks. Dykes, laccoliths,
batholiths, stocks, pipes and pegmatite are various forms of intrusive
rocks. Feldspar, quartz, beryl, tourmaline, topaz and zircon are some of the gemstones formed in pegmatitic
rocks. Pegmatites generally represent the final phase of the crystallization of magma and are bodies
associated with granitic rocks i.e. granular igneous rocks made up of quartz, feldspar and mica.
2. Extrusive igneous rocks:
Extrusive or volcanic rocks are formed when the magma erupted through the upper layers and crystallised by
rapid cooling at the surface of the Earth. The fine grained texture of these rocks i.e. the relatively small size of
the component mineral grains emphasizes the rapid rate of cooling of the magma. Slow cooling produces
larger, well formed crystals. On the basis of their silica content, igneous rocks are divided into acid rocks
intermediate, basic and ultra basic rocks.
Sedimentary Rocks

A rock exposed on the Earth's surface gets weathered (decomposed and

disintegrated) into small particles. These are removed and carried away by
the action of rain, flowing water (streams), moving ice (glaciers) and
consolidates to form sedimentary rocks.

Some material is carried in solution and is precipitated when physical or

chemical conditions change. These precipitates also form layers of
sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks are classified into three (3) types:

1. Detrital sedimentary rocks:

These are composed of fragments of rocks which were transported from the source by mechanical means,
deposited and subsequently compacted, e.g. sandstone, conglomerate and shale.
2. Chemical sedimentary rocks:
These is formed when chemicals dissolved from the rocks are carried in solution to other areas where
evaporation and precipitation of the dissolved materials takes place, e.g. limestone, opal and gypsum.
3. Organic sedimentary rocks:
These are formed by the accumulation of material of organic origin e.g. jet.
Metamorphic Rocks
 This rock type is formed when igneous and sedimentary rocks in the various
layers of the crust undergo changes as a result of a change in temperature
and pressure conditions.

Typical metamorphic minerals

are garnet, andalusite, kyanite, sillimanite, iolite, epidote etc. On the basis of
the temperature, pressure and chemical conditions, metamorphic rocks are
divided into various types.
1. Contact or Thermal Metamorphism:
Rock formation occurs at higher temperatures and low pressure, for example sandstone converted into quartz.
Common contact metamorphic minerals are garnet, diopside, epidote and corundum.
2. Regional or Dynamic Metamorphism:
Rocks are formed due to rise in temperature and pressure. It involves larger rock masses. The main rock types
are gneisses and schists which have a laminated banded appearance.

Gneiss is a coarse foliated rock with alternating discontinuous layer of

minerals.
Schist is a finely foliated rock consisting of layers of different minerals which
split into thin irregular plates.

HOW ARE GEMSTONES FORMED?

There are various types of deposits and formations of gemstones (precious
and semi-precious stones). The most important are as follows.

Magmatic Crystallization:
Magma, on cooling produce crystals of various minerals. Some of these,
like diamond, are used as gemstone. Crystals formed at great depths may be
brought to the surface by lava in volcanic eruptions. Minerals
like moonstone, topaz and corundum are common gemstones of this type.
Pegmatite:
Towards the final stage of magmatic crystallisation, a thin silicate liquid
remains and if this is squeezed into surrounding rocks, it produces
pegmatites containing very large crystals. Many of these are used as
gemstones. Tourmaline, topaz, beryl, quartz and spodumene are some of the
common pegmatitic gem stones.
Hydrothermal vein deposits:
When most of the silicate matter in the magma has crystallized, what
remains is a hot watery (hydrothermal) solution of various chemicals. These
hot fluids penetrate the fissures and cracks in surrounding rocks and are
precipitated in Veins. Examples are emerald, topaz, red beryl and benitoite.
Placer or Alluvial deposits:
Some minerals are highly resistant to weathering and when the rest of the
rock has decomposed and disintegrated they are also carried away by
flowing water. But because of their high specific gravity, they get deposited
on the river bed giving rise to gem gravels such as those formed in Sri
Lanka, Myanmar, India etc. Gemstones such
as diamond, ruby, sapphire, chrysoberyl, zircon, garnet, quartz are
commonly found in such deposits.
Chemical precipitates:
Chemicals carried in solution may be precipitated when the physicochemical
environment changes. Common examples
are malachite, opal, rhodochrosite and turquoise. E.g. when acidic copper
bearing solutions move through porous volcanic rocks, they react with
minerals containing aluminium and phosphorous to form turquoise.
Metamorphic deposits:
When a rock is subjected to high temperature and / or high pressure, the
chemical components of its constituent minerals get rearranged into new
minerals. Gem minerals formed in this fashion
are diopside, corundum, andalusite, sillimanite, kyanite, epidote, garnet, iolit
e etc.

HOW ARE DIAMONDS FORMED?

Diamonds differ from rest of the gem minerals in that they were formed
somewhere in the region between the lower part of the earth's crust and the
beginning of the mantle. The current theory is that diamond crystallizes at
an approximate depth of 100 to 200 kms beneath the earth's surface, from
carbon, at very high temperatures & pressures. The diamond - bearing
magma was then forced upto the earth's surface by explosive gas pressures
in a volcanic type eruption.
The magma eventually cooled and solidified to form the present day
kimberlite / lamproitic pipes which make up the bulk of the world's primary
source. These pipes are thought to have originally extended above the
surface as cone shaped hills or even as mountains. Over millions of years,
these kimberlite / lamproitic hills were eroded away by the weathering action
of wind and rain into low lying hillocks. The diamonds contained in the top
section of the pipes were washed away to form alluvial deposits along river
beds as in the case of south west Africa, along the marine terraces of the
Namibian coast.

TYPES OF GEMSTONE MINING METHODS

The methods used in the mining of gem materials are many, from native
mining to highly technical methods.

 Gemstone Mining
1. Open Cast Mining

i. Pit Mining
ii. Terrace Mining
2. Underground Mining

i. Tunneling
ii. Block Caving
iii. Chambering
3. Water Bodies

i. River Diggings

a. Dry Diggings
b. Wet Diggings
ii. Sea

a. Tidal
b. Undersea or Marine Mining
 Open Cast Mining:
It includes the removal of overlying minerals or rocks to reach the gem bearing rocks. The gem - bearing rocks
 are then washed by jets of water under high pressure or by traditional methods to obtain the gem gravels.
These gravels are then washed and assorted at the treatment plants. Opencast mining is done in many parts of
the world e.g. Myanmar, Sri Lanka, U.S.A., Brazil etc.
 Pit mining is the term used to describe a mining method where pits are dig up to about 12 meters. Open
cast mining operations are generally initiated by pit mining.
 Terrace mining is the term used to describe a mining method where the gem bearing rocks are exposed
by digging horizontal terraces in step-like, generally circular formations. Blasting or digging is done and the
debris is then washed to obtain the gem gravels. Emerald mining in Columbia (Chivor Mine) is the best
example of terrace mining.
 Underground Mining:
This includes mining from alluvial and pipe deposits. In the case of alluvial deposits where pit mining is done,
deeper pits of over 10 metres are considered by some as a form of underground mining.
 Tunneling technique is employed when there is a gem - bearing rock either as an outcrop or as a seam
running close to the surface. A tunnel is made from the surface to the gem - bearing rock and mining is
done by blasting or by using pick axes to remove individual gem rough. This type of mining is seen at a
few emerald mines in Columbia.
 In Block caving, a series of parallel tunnels called scraper drifts are driven from the main shaft into the
pipe, about 400 to 600 feet below the top of the mother rock. Starting at the top level, whole blocks of blue
ground are mined out by blasting of the roof of the tunnels through conical draw points into the scraper
drift. This is then transported to the main shaft and then to the surface.
 In Chambering, initially a main vertical shaft is sunk into the rock surrounding the pipe. tunnels are driven
into the pipe from the main shaft at established levels of 600, 1000 and 1600 feet. The ore is retrieved by
blasting and transported to the main shaft and then to the surface. Levels are worked on, till a seam is
exhausted.

Block caving and chambering are commonly used in diamond mining where
the deposit is a pipe deposit. In general, block caving techniques are almost
completely mechanized; all operations are carried out in one level only. This
gives better yields and higher levels of safety and efficiency, as against
chambering techniques.
 River Diggings:
Gemstones which have been deposited in river and lake beds can be mined by this method.
 Dry Diggings: In this type of mining, a river has either changed its course naturally or is made to change.
This is done artificially by blocking the river at two ends and creating a canal to divert the water. In
whichever manner, the rock bed is allowed to dry and then the gravel is sieved to obtain the gem rough.
 Wet Diggings: In such diggings the gravel is removed from the flowing river and then sieved to separate
the gem rough.
 Sea:

 Undersea or Marine Mining: This type of mining is used wherever there are marine deposits. These may
be on the beach, as in the Namaqualand diamond deposits in West Africa, or they may be off - shore
deposits. This type of mining may involve land reclamation or even deep sea dredging. Mention must be
made of the organic gem materials and the manner in which they are retrieved. Amber and Jet are
recovered by pit mining while amber is also fished out of the waters, as is seen in the Baltic
Sea. Corals are collected by divers with specialized equipment to remove and cart them out. Pearls are
recovered by divers who collect the pearl bearing molluscs from the sea bed.
 GEMSTONE EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES FROM ORE
Extraction of Rough Gemstones from the Ores

The process of extracting the gemstones from the ores varies from place to
place and is dependent on the nature and quality of the gemstone. In
general those from alluvial deposits are assorted by washing with sieves.

 Slurry containing the gemstone rough along with mud and other materials is washed with water on a sieve. A
vibratory motion is applied to the sieve so as to separate the slurry quicker. The gem rough is then hand picked
from the sieves. Depending on the size of the rough, different sieve sizes are employed. This method is
commonly employed for most gemstones.
Extraction of Rough Diamonds from the Ores
In the case of Diamond extraction from the mother rock, the process is more
complicated. The entire process however utilises the properties of diamonds
to separate them. Following are the basic processes by which diamonds are
recovered from the ore.
1. Crushing: Done to reduce the size of the rocks in the ore.
2. Heavy Media Separators: Make use of the property of specific gravity wherein a heavy stone will sink in a
liquid of lower specific gravity. Either one or a series of Heavy Media Separators are used to separate the
diamonds. A centrifugal force is applied to the liquid inside, for faster separation.
3. Grease Table or Belt: Uses the property that diamonds stick to grease. The ore is poured over this table and
washed with water. A vibratory motion is given to the table. The diamonds with a few other minerals stick to the
table while the rest is washed off. Heat is used to separate the diamonds from the grease.
4. X - Ray Separators: Uses the principle that diamonds fluoresce to X - rays. The ore is dropped in a fine stream
through a channel and an X- ray beam is directed at it. As a diamond fluoresces, a detector activates an airjet
and the diamond is directed into another channel.
5. Magnetic Separators: In areas where there are magnetic minerals present in the ore, a magnetic belt is used
for separation.

The material which is discarded, also known as tailings, after going through
the processes in a treatment plant is sometimes re-checked and is
considered in the evaluation of the efficiency of the plant. The diamonds
which have been separated are now washed in acid and cleaned, ready for
assortment. Diamonds which are coated will probably not react well to the
above processes. Under the circumstances, the quality of the rough should
be ascertained before the specific processes are employed.

HOW TO IDENTIFY GEMSTONES VISUALLY?

To identify a gemstone there are a number of very accurate tests which a
jeweler - gemologist can make use of. Each gem species has characteristic
physical and optical properties which are constant with in narrow limits and
to a certain extent can be objectively determined. However, a basic fact
which must never be forgotten, is the importance of a visual identification.
An unknown stone can be classified by correctly perceiving its color, cut,
transparency, luster, dispersion, heft, as well as any phenomenal properties
etc. The type of light in which each of the properties is observed is also
important.

Beauty, Rarity & Durability: B, R, D, is one of the basic concepts by which a

material can be defined as a gemstone.
Beauty: This is a subjective property and is defined by the 4 C's, Color,
Clarity, Cut and Carat size. The presence of a Phenomenon also enhances
the beauty of a gemstone.
 Color: In colorless stones, the lesser the color the better the quality. In case of colored stones, the darker and
purer the shade of color, the better the quality.
 Clarity: This is defined by the presence or absence of inclusions within a stone which indicates the
transparency. This can be more objectively judged by:
 Number of inclusions
 Size of inclusions
 Position of inclusions
 Color of inclusions
 Cut: A stone which has been cut and polished keeping in mind the accurate angles and proportions of cutting,
which brings out the full life, fire and brilliance of a gemstone. The beauty of a particular cut can be observed by
examining the type of cut, and the symmetry and polish on the crown, pavilion and girdle portions of the stone.
 Carat size: This relates primarily to the weight of a stone. 1 carat = 100 cents/ points = 200mg. The larger is the
size with good color and clarity, the higher the value.
 Phenomena: A stone which exhibits a cat's eye, star or change of color would have an additional beauty and
value also.

Rarity: This is an important aspect and may either be due to natural

resources or due to man made situations. If a gemstone is available in large
quantities, it will not be much in demand. If a gemstone has all the four C's
and a phenomenon, it would be rare. Political and economic conditions in
country can control the supply to demand ratio of rough and cut stones. If a
stone has a limited geological and geographical occurrence i.e. from a single
source e.g.red beryl from Utah (U.S.A.)
Durability: A gemstone must be durable enough to withstand daily wear
and tear. This includes the qualities of hardness, cleavage, brittle,
toughness, resistance to heat, pressure or chemicals. A softer stone will get
scratched more easily. A stone with a number of internal cracks will be less
durable. A stone with easy cleavage, e.g. diamond, topaz etc, may split into
two if it suffers a hard knock. Perspiration, perfumes, lime juice etc. may
damage less resistant gem materials such as pearls.
Color: Perceived by the eye as a result of particular wavelengths of light that
the material is capable of transmitting or reflecting. Color is considered by its
hue, tone and saturation.
 Hue: Pure spectral colors.
 Tone: That attribute by which a color is perceived as holding a position on a scale from light to dark.
 Saturation: Measurement of the amount of hue in a color.

Color is also considered in terms of a primary and a secondary

shade, e.g. bluish green. These factors depend essentially on the type of
light used. The same stone may behave differently in different light sources.
The light source should be daylight, with a preference for north light
(less U.V. radiations). The stone should be examined in reflected white light
initially, and then in transmitted light.

Transparency: The quantity and quality of light transmitted by the stone.

Use transmitted light to judge.
 Transparent (TP): Transmits light readily, can read through easily, even if
colored e.g. Diamond, Ruby, Emerald etc.
 Semi-Transparent (S-TP): Transmits light somewhat less readily, can read through, but slight distortion
(somewhat hazy), e.g. Amber and Moonstone.
 Translucent (TL): Transmits light with difficulty, cannot read through, e.g. Chalcedony.
 Semi-Translucent (S-TL): Transmits a very small amount of light, primarily around the edges, e.g. star garnet.
 Opaque (OP): Transmits no light, e.g. Pyrite, Hematite, Lapis Lazuli.

Over colored stones tend to give a misleading idea of transparency. Due to

the intensity of color, a transparent stone would appear opaque in reflected
light.

Cut: The basic shape or style of fashioning. A few common styles are as
follows.
 Facetted: Bounded by flat polished surfaces. Such a stone can be defined by the crown, pavilion and the girdle.
The quality of cut can be judged by examining the facets (size, number, shape, symmetry, polish), the cutting
angles and the perfection of the girdle shape. A few of the basic styles are:

 Brilliant cut - the inclined facets are triangular and or kite-shaped.

 Step cut - One or more of the edges of all of the inclined facets are parallel to the girdle edge.
 Mixed cut- A combination of brilliant and step cut.
 Cabochon: A cut stone with a convex or curved form. The flatter portion is considered the base as against the
curved surface or dome. Types of cabochons include:
 Single Cabochon - a convex top and flat base.
 Double Cabochon - a convex top and base.
 Other Cabochon styles - Lentil shaped, Hollow cabochon, Reverse cabochon.
 Tumbled: An irregular or baroque form, polished without further shaping.
 Bead: A basically spherical shape, with a hole drilled through the centre. It may be smooth or facetted.
 Cameo: A carved gem with the entire design carved above the girdle edge.
 Intaglio: A carved gem with the entire design carved below the girdle edge.
 Plaque: A flat gem with parallel surfaces. It may have any shape.

Luster: The quality of light reflected off the surface of a stone. Use reflected
light to judge.
 Metallic: Metal-like; the highest possible luster. Example: Hematite, Pyrite.
 Adamantine: The highest possible luster for gemstones. Example: Diamond, Zircon, Demantoid Garnet.
 Vitreous: Glass-like; the most common luster for gemstones. Example: Quartz, Beryl, Topaz.
 Greasy: An oily appearance; common for jade. Also seen in some garnets, peridot etc.
 Resinous: Similar to greasy; used to describe the luster of amber.
 Waxy: Little reflection; similar to the luster of a candle or a fingernail. Example: Turquoise, Chalcedony.
 Dull: Very irregular, fine-grained surface common on unpolished, opaque stones. Example: rough
Turquoise, Malachite.
 Silky: Reflection off fibrous structure (sheen). Example Tiger's eye.
 Pearly: Due to structure (sheen); common to pearl, rough moonstone, cleavage surfaces etc.

Dispersion: The breaking of white light into its component spectral colors.
Observed as flashes of spectral colors, known as fire. A few stones have eye-
visible dispersion which can be a useful identifying characteristic. The
presence or absence of dispersion in diamond simulants is important in their
identification (example Strontium Titanate - very high dispersion; Y.A.G. -
barely visible dispersion).
Phenomena: These are optical effects which occur in some varieties of
certain species.
 Sheen: The moving white light optical effect observed below the surface of the stone as a result of reflections
from layers within. Example: Moonstone
 Opalescence: The milky sheen observed in opals.
 Chatoyancy: A cat's eye effect which is caused by reflections of light from parallel needle-like inclusions. This
is observed as a bright line moving over the surface of a polished cabochon at right angles to the direction of
the parallel inclusions. Example: Chrysoberyl, Apatite, Quartz, Enstatite etc.
 Asterism: A star effect which is caused by reflections of light from two or three sets of parallel needle-like
inclusions. This is observed as a four rayed or six rayed star over the surface of a polished cabochon.
Example: Ruby, Sapphire, Garnet, Spinel, Diopside, Quartz etc.
 Aventurescence: A glittery effect which is caused by reflection of light from inclusions of tiny platelets or flakes
of another mineral. Example: Aventurine Quartz, Goldstone, Glass and Sunstone feldspar.
 Change of Color: A noticeable change in the body color of a stone when it is observed under daylight and
incandescent light. This is caused by selective absorption and selective transmission of light.
Example: Alexandrite, Sapphire, Garnet etc.
 Play of Color: The spectral colors produced by a combination of interference and diffraction of light.
Example: Opal, Labradorite etc.
 Iridescence: In oil on water effect, giving rise to prismatic colors caused by interference of light from thin films
of gas or liquid, Example: Iris-Quartz.
 Orient: The prismatic colors caused by interference and diffraction of light in the scale-like structure
of pearls and shell.
 Adularescence: A billowy blue or white light in feldspars caused by scattering of light along with an interference
effect. Example: Blue sheen in Moonstone.
How to identify fracture & cleavage?
 Use oblique, reflected light.
 Observe the surface of the stone, especially in areas prone to damage (e.g. the girdle and culet).
 Note any external breaks.
 Note any internal, parallel, iridescent smooth cleavage fractures.

Fracture - any irregular break; identify according to type and luster (the
luster of fractures can be a key identifying characteristic).

Types of Fractures:

 Conchoidal: Shell-like; a smooth, curved break often with concentric ridges; the most common fracture for
transparent crystal materials and glass.
 Splintery - Fibrous appearance due to structure; similar to a break on wood with the grain.
 Granular - Sugary; a grainy or coarse fracture is common to crystalline aggregates.
 Even - Relatively smooth, flat break. Resembles cleavage, but with no step - like breaks.
 Uneven - A rough, irregular fracture that does not fit into any of the above categories.

Cleavage - A smooth, flat break; attempt to find the number of directions;

use as proof if this property is correctly identified in the form of smooth
internal parallel cleavage fractures or as an external feature.

Parting - False cleavage; a smooth flat break normally following twinning

planes; visually resembles cleavage.

Heft: Each gemstone has a characteristic specific gravity which is denoted

by a number.
Knowledge of this property enables a jeweler / gemologist to approximate
the specific gravity with respect to the weight of the stone. By judging the
loose stone in the hand, one can determine whether the stone is light,
medium or heavy in weight. With practice, one can easily separate stones
such as

 aquamarine (lower heft) from blue topaz (heavier)

 rock crystal quartz (lower heft) from white topaz (heavier)
 diamond (lower heft) from synthetic cubic zirconia (heavier)

Further one can estimate the size of a stone by relating to the heft of the
stone. Hence a two carat aquamarine will be bigger in size than a two
carat blue topaz.

Some common terms:

The International Confederation of Jewellery, Silverware, Diamonds, Pearls
and Gemstones (CIBJO) defines synthetics, imitations and composite
gemstones as follows:

 Synthetic Stones are crystallized or re-crystallized products whose manufacture, by which ever method, has
been caused completely or partially by man. Their physical and chemical properties and/or their crystal structure
essentially correspond to their naturally occurring counterparts.
 Imitation Stones are simulations of natural or synthetic stones, products made entirely or partially by man.
These stones imitate the effect, color and appearance of natural gemstones or synthetic stones without
possessing their chemical composition and/or their properties and/or their crystal structure.
 Composite Stones are crystalline or amorphous bodies composed of two or more parts assembled not by
nature, but by cementing of the pieces or by other artificial methods. Their components may be either natural
gemstones or other minerals, or synthetic stones or a chemical product.
 Reconstructed Stones are artificial products, manufactured by melting, bonding, or fusing materials to form a
coherent whole. Natural and synthetic chips or waste materials are commonly bonded, as is seen
in turquoise, coral etc.

A Simulant may be a.......

Natural; Synthetic; Imitation; Composite; Reconstructed; Surface modified

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
Crystal: It is a solid substance having a regular internal arrangement of
atoms and a definite geometrical shape.
Amorphous: It is a solid substance having no internal arrangement of atoms
and no definite shape.

Aggregate: Crystallization of a mineral from many different centres often

produces a mass of interlocking anhedral crystals in random orientation.

Cryptocrystalline: The individual crystals of an aggregate material cannot

be resolved by the naked eye but are visible only at higher magnification.
Also known as microcrystalline, e.g. jade, chalcedony, turquoise.

Habit: This is a term used to define the general shape of a crystal, and is
related to the length of the "c" crystallographic axis i.e. Long "c" axis
(prismatic); short "c" axis (tabular).

Form: This is a set of identical faces, all of which have the same relation to
the crystallographic axis. Those which have the ability to enclose space by
themselves are called closed forms, while those which cannot enclose
space by themselves are called open forms.

Metamict state: Owing to the effects of internal or external radioactivity,

the crystal lattice becomes damaged, weakened and finally collapses due to
the weakening and rupturing of the atomic bonds. This gives rise to an
almost amorphous state which is known as the "Metamict State".

Crystallography is the science of crystals. The properties by which

gemstones are identified are entirely based upon their basic crystal
structure. Rough crystals themselves are very beautiful and well formed
crystals display characteristic features such as cleavage, surface markings,
forms etc. Hence, knowledge of crystals is absolutely essential. The
fundamental principles are briefly explained below.

 The formation of minerals, which ultimately form rocks, may be either fast or slow.
 Slow formation results in well formed, large crystals provided other environmental conditions are conducive.
 During slow formation atoms of different elements come together and arrange themselves in a pattern
depending upon the forces acting on these atoms.
 This regular arrangement of atoms in a definite orderly manner ultimately results in a framework or lattice of
atoms.
 When this frame work develops in a regular manner, it gives rise to a structure, which has smooth surfaces and
geometrical form and is called a crystal.
 The regular spacing of atoms within crystals also causes many differences in their properties including color,
hardness, and ease of splitting etc., which a lapidary must take into account when cutting.
 All natural gem materials, with the exception of pearl, coral, amber and a few others of organic origin
are minerals.
 When minerals or rocks do not have the regular internal arrangement of atoms as in crystals, they are
called amorphous which means "no form" in Greek.
 Here the atoms are mixed together in small groups like the particles in a pile of mud.
 There is no tendency to take a definite form and consequently smooth crystal faces are never seen.
Difference between Crystal and Amorphous
Crystal Amorphous
1 No definite geometrical
Definite geometrical shape.
. shape.
There is no regular
2 An orderly and symmetrical internal arrangement of
internal arrangement of
. atoms.
atoms.
3 Properties which vary with direction such as: hardness, Their properties are
. cleavage, velocity of light etc. constant in all directions.
Examples: Amber (organ
ic
resin), Ivory (organic), O
pal (silica
gel), Pearl (partially
crystalline / partially
4 Examples: Diamond, Quartz, Garnet, Zircon, Beryl, Chrys amorphous), Plastic,
. oberyl, Corundum etc. Glass (both natural and
man-made); among
the natural glasses are
Moldavite, Obsidian and
Tektites, while man-
made glasses are known
as "paste".
1. Geometrical structure and appearance of crystal:
 Minerals by definitions usually have a characteristic internal structure, which may or may not be expressed
in typical outward forms called crystals.
 The crystal form is the general equilibrium state of all solid substances.
 Most minerals crystallize into distinct, geometrically regular, homogeneous bodies bounded by faces,
edges " angles, with an ordered internal structure.
 This internal homogeneity is retained even if the growing crystals come into contact with each other in the
solidifying melt and their growth thus becomes irregular.

The ability of assume a crystal shape is not exclusive to natural minerals

because synthetic substances also form crystals.
2. Internal Structure:
 A molecule is the smallest possible unit cell of a compound that can exist independently and has the same
properties as the compound.
 A molecule is composed of a definite number of elements.
 Each atom of an element is the smallest possible unit for that element and has a definite arrangement of
sub-atomic particles like protons, neutrons, electrons etc.
 The atoms of individual elements as well as atoms of different elements exercise forces very similar to the
gravitational and magnetic forces.
 Thus in every molecule there is a definite arrangement of atoms called the atomic lattice since the atoms
and bonds, or imaginary lines linking them look very much like the lattice or framework.
 This structure is also known as a crystal lattice or a space lattice.
 Polymorphism: The arrangement of atoms in the structure may vary in substances with the same
chemical compositions; e.g. Diamond and Graphite; the two crystalline forms of Carbon (C) have different
internal structures.
 In diamond the atoms are closely packed while in graphite the lattice has a much looser
arrangement.
 As a result, diamond and graphite have different crystal forms and different physical properties.
 This is known as "Polymorphism" and diamond and graphite are said to be polymorphs of each
other.

3. Directional Properties: It is very interesting to note that, not only does

the chemical composition play an important role to decide the properties
of a mineral but also the arrangement of atoms inside the crystal affects
the physical properties of minerals.

 Depending upon variations in bond strengths, the forces vary in different directions.
 When the forces of attraction are uniform in all three directions, then the physical and optical properties
may remain isotropic.
 The basic geometry of the smallest crystal unit tends to reflect itself in the finished crystal, which, no
matter how large it grows, is nothing more than the neat stacking of the smaller units.
 This is sometimes seen as distorted crystals depending on the growth rate of every face.
 No matter what the final external appearance the internal angles between faces always remain constant.
These angles are known as the interfacial angles.

ELEMENTS OF SYMMETRY
Crystal Symmetry refers to the 'balanced' pattern of the atom structure. In
well developed crystals, this 'balance' of structure is evident in their outward
shape and if a large number of such crystals are examined, it will be found
that different species vary in the symmetric, arrangement of their faces.
There are three basic elements of symmetry - centre of symmetry, plane of
symmetry and axis of symmetry.
A centre of symmetry exists when every face of the perfect crystal is
parallel to a similar face diametrically opposite to it on the other side of the
crystal.

A plane of symmetry is an imaginary plane dividing a body into two parts,

so that each half is the mirror image of the other. If a crystal was cut in half
along such a plane and then the cut surface was to be placed against a
metal mirror, the reflection would appear to replace the missing half. The
number of possible planes of symmetry in a crystal varies from nine (in a
cube) to none at all, according to the species of crystals.

An axis of symmetry is an imaginary line through the crystal about which

the crystal can be rotated to represent the same appearance two, three, four
or six times in one complete rotation of 360°.

 Axis of two-fold or binary or digonal symmetry: During a complete rotation, a similar face appears twice in the
same position.
 Axis of three-fold or trigonal symmetry: During a complete rotation a similar face appears thrice in the same
position.
 Axis of four-fold or tetragonal symmetry: During a complete rotation a similar face appears four times in the
same position.
 Axis of six-fold or hexagonal symmetry: During a complete rotation a similar face appears six times in the
same position.

Although for clarity one set of faces is considered in these examples, all
other faces in the figures fall similarly into repeat positions i.e. the whole
crystal presents a like appearance two, three, four or six times in the
revolution.

CRYSTAL FORM
Crystal Form: A set of identical faces is called a form.

 In ideal conditions, a mineral crystallises into well developed geometrical forms bounded by smooth plane
surfaces (faces). The following terms are used to describe them.
 Euhedral (eu = well, hedra = face): a perfectly developed crystal
 Subhedral: faces are not properly developed.
 Anhedral: when a crystal shows no faces either due to erosion or some other reason.
 Some crystals are bounded by like faces, i.e. they all have the same properties.
 Faces with different properties are said to be unlike.
 All the like faces of a crystal constitute a crystal form.
 A crystal form made up entirely of like faces is termed a simple form e.g. Cube, Octahedron etc.
 Such forms which totally enclose a volume of space and can form solid crystals by themselves are known as
closed forms. Two or more closed forms may occur in combination also.
 Forms which enclose a volume of space, only when in combination with other forms are known as open forms.

It is, however, rare to find perfectly developed crystals. Usually the crystal
faces develop in a distorted fashion. Although all crystals of a particular
mineral must exhibit the same combinations of symmetry elements, it does
not mean that they look alike, they may show a range of crystal shapes
depending on which of the crystal forms-singly or in combination - are
developed. For example the cube (6 faces), octahedron (8 faces) and the
rhomb -dodecahedron (12 faces) are different forms displayed by crystals
with cubic symmetry.

Open Forms
1. Pinacoid: A form with two (2) parallel faces having any orientation with respect to the chosen crystallographic
axis. The faces forming the top and bottom of a crystal are referred to as basal pinacoid. These often terminate
the faces of a prism.
2. Dome: A form with two (2) intersecting faces which cut the vertical axis and one horizontal axis and are parallel
to the other horizontal axis.
3. Prism: A form with 3, 4, 6, 8 or 12 intersecting faces which are parallel to the vertical axis and cut the horizontal
axis. This is one of the very common forms.
4. Pyramid: A form with 3, 4, 6, 8 or 12 non-parallel triangular faces that meet at a point. Each face cuts the entire
axis.
Closed Forms
1. Bipyramid: A form with 6, 8, 12, 16 or 24 faces consisting of two pyramids on either side of the horizontal each
half being a mirror image of the other.
2. Rhombohedron: A set of three (3) pyramidal faces above and three (3) below which are not mirror images of
each other i.e. the intersecting edges are not at right angles. This form is found only in crystals of the Trigonal
system e.g. calcite.

The following forms (3 to 9) are typical for the cubic system.

3. Cube or Hexahedron: A form with six (6) square faces which cut one axis and are parallel to the other two.
4. Octahedron: A form with eight (8) faces, each an equilateral triangle, each face cuts all three axis at equal
distances. This form is basically a bi-pyramid.
5. Rhomb dodecahedron: A form with twelve faces (12), each is rhomb or lozenge-shaped. Each face cuts two
axes at equal distances and is parallel to the third.
6. Trapezohedron (Icositetrahedron): A form with twenty four (24) faces, each a trapezoid. Each face cuts two
axes at equal distance and the third at a smaller distance.
7. Tetra hexahedron: A form with twenty four (24) faces, each cube face (i.e. in a hexahedron) is further divided
into four triangular faces by growth.
8. Trlsoctahedron: A form with twenty four (24) faces.
9. Hexoctahedron: A form with forty eight (48) faces.

SEVEN (7) CRYSTAL SYSTEMS

Crystals are divided into seven major systems on the basis of:

 Possible combinations of the elements of symmetry.

 In terms of three or four imaginary lines of reference called the Crystallographic Axes, which pass through the
centre of the crystal.
 Crystals are allocated to seven systems according to the number of these axes, their lengths and the angles
between them.

There is a conventional notation for the lettering and order of the

crystallographic axes.

 In general, the vertical axis is called the "c" axis,

 That running from right to left is the "b" axis,
 That running from front to back is the "a"' axis.
 If the horizontal axes are equal in length, they are referred to as a 1 and a2 and the third (vertical) axis is the "c"
axis. If all the three axes are equal in length, they are referred to as a 1, a2 and a3 and are interchangeable (as in
the cubic system).

Crystallographic axes are not the same as the axes of symmetry. For
example: In the Hexagonal, Trigonal and Tetragonal systems, the vertical "c"
crystallographic axis coincides with the axis of 6-fold, 3-fold and 4-fold
symmetry respectively. In the Orthorhombic system all the three
crystallographic axes coincide with the three axes of 2-fold symmetry.

The most characteristic crystallographic elements are used in the following

description of the seven crystal systems.

Cubic System (Isometric System)

No. of Crystal
3
Axes:
Length: a1 = a2 = a3
Angles: at 90°
Symmetry a Center, 9 Planes, 13 Axes (6 of 2-fold, 4 of 3-fold, 3
Elements: of 4-fold)
Common Cube, Octahedron, Do-Decahedron, Tetrahedron etc.
Forms:
Cubic System (Isometric System)
Diamond, Garnet, Spinel, Fluorite, Pyrite, Lazurite
Examples:
etc.

Trigonal System
No. of Crystal
4
Axes:
Length: a1 = a2 = a3 ≠ c
Angles: at 60°, "c" at 90° to their plane
Symmetry a Center, 3 Planes, 4 Axes (1 of 3-fold, 3 of 2-
Elements: fold)
Rhombohedron, Prism, Pyramids, Basal
Common Forms:
Pinacoid etc.
Examples: Calcite, Quartz, Corundum, Tourmaline etc.

Tetragonal System
No. of Crystal
3
Axes:
Length: a1 = a2 ≠ c
Angles: at 90°
Symmetry a Center, 5 Planes, 5 Axes (1 of 4-fold, 4 of 2-
Elements: fold)
Tetragonal Prism, Bipyramid, Basal
Common Forms:
Pinacoid etc.
Examples: Zircon, Idocrase, Rutile, Scapolite etc.

Hexagonal System
No. of Crystal
4
Axes:
Length: a1 = a2 = a3 ≠ c
Angles: at 60°, "c" at 90° to their plane
Symmetry a Center, 7 Planes, 7 Axes (1 of 6-fold, 6 of 2-
Elements: fold)
Hexagonal System
Hexagonal Prism, Pyramids, Basal
Common Forms:
Pinacoid etc.
Examples: Beryl, Apatite, Benitoite etc.

Orthorhombic System
No. of Crystal
3
Axes:
Length: a≠b≠c
Angles: at 90°
Symmetry a Center, 3 Planes, 3 Axes (all of 2-fold, 3 of 2
Elements: fold)
Common Forms: Prism, Pyramids, Pinacoids, Dome etc.
Examples: Andalusite, Chrysoberyl, Iolite, Peridot, Topaz etc.

Monoclinic System
No. of Crystal
3
Axes:
Length: a≠b≠c
"a" axis inclined to the plane containing "band c", "b
Angles:
and c" at 90°
Symmetry
a Center, 1 Planes, 1 Axes of 2-fold
Elements:
Common
Prism, Pinacoids, Dome etc.
Forms:
Examples: Jade, Orthoclase Feldspar, Sphene, Spodumene etc.

Triclinic System
No. of Crystal
3
Axes:
Length: a≠b≠c
Angles: All inclined
Symmetry a Center, No Planes, No Axes
 Triclinic System
Elements:
Common Forms: Pinacoids, Pedio etc.
Plagioclase Feldspar, Microcline
Examples:
Feldspar, Kyanite, Turquoise etc.

HOW TO IDENTIFY ROUGH GEMSTONES?

Surface Imperfections (markings): On close examination all natural
crystals show ridges, grooves, plateaus, pits, and a number of other defects
which indicate the disruptions in environmental growth conditions. A study of
these features aids in the identification of rough gem stones.

Surface imperfections of crystals include:

1. Growth Hillocks: Spiral growths cause low mounds or hillocks on faces which are otherwise nearly flat.
Triangles on the base of tourmaline crystals and depressed triangles on the octahedral faces of diamond
crystals are very common. Sometimes these become over developed and a parallelism in the structure and
orientation of all the faces is seen e.g. Amethyst, Calcite etc.
2. Etching and Dissolution: In general, a great many crystals show light to moderate local dissolution, commonly
called etching, usually seen as numerous pits, imparting a frostiness to the faces, or as distinct pits scattered on
the otherwise smooth face. Close inspection reveals relationships to the underlying atomic structure.
 Thus, the hexagonal pits on beryl itself and their shape are regulated by the beryl structure.
 On the other hand, the boat shaped indentations on the prism faces are not nearly so diagnostic.
 Since every crystal is a neatly balanced structure of like atoms in like positions, it follows that such pits
must look the same when present on identical crystal faces.
 For example, in a cubic mineral the same atomic pattern lies beneath all cube faces.
 If one face is partly dissolved and covered with small square pits, all other faces will develop exactly the
same kind of pits if attacked by the same solution.
 This is of great importance in identifying like faces when examining etched crystals.
 By turning over a severely corroded specimen, it is sometimes possible to orient the crystals correctly from
noting that pits of similar shape appear only in certain directions.
3. Oscillatory Striations: Crystals of pyrite, quartz and tourmaline are commonly covered by numerous grooves
and striations. In detail, each striation is caused by two narrow crystal faces forming the sides of a 'vee'.
Because several faces are trying to develop simultaneously upon the same crystal area, it is called oscillatory
growth. All three species, quartz, pyrite and tourmaline can be identified with a high degree of confidence when
these characteristic markings are present on the crystals. Quartz exhibits lateral striations on the prism faces,
Tourmaline exhibits deep vertical grooves or striations on the prism faces while pyrite exhibits three sets of
parallel striations on adjacent faces.
4. Aggregates: Growth of crystals in a confined space results in a crystalline aggregate of interlocked grains
without crystal forms. The appearance of these aggregates is very variable from simple, massive to
characteristic groups of perfect crystals grown in openings. Remember that any grain of an aggregate, whether
developed or a fragment, still remains a crystal with a homogeneous internal structure e.g. Chalcedony,
Turquoise, Jade etc.
 CRYSTAL TWINNING
Twinned Crystals: Crystals of many minerals grow in fixed relationships
known as Twins. When two or more crystals grow together symmetrically, in
other words, they share some crystallographic direction or plane, but other
parts are in a reversed orientation they are called twins.

Twinning begins in most instances when crystals are very small. An ion in the
growing crystal may take a position which is not geometrically perfect or
nearly as good. If rapid growth takes place, it is possible for this ion to serve
as a seed attractive to arriving ions which attach themselves and establish a
new direction of growth. Gradually, the offset crystal enlarges and becomes
half of the twin.

 Since twinning occurs early, it is usual to find twin parts nearly, if not exactly, the same size and exhibiting the
same faces, markings, etch pits etc.
 Fast growth promotes twinning and conversely slow growth discourages twinning because ions have more time
to shift to correct positions.
 Twin crystals always take the same positions relative to each other, the forces of attraction being very strong
along twin junctions.
 As a result true twins do not break apart easily.
 There is also a constancy m the angles between twins very similar to the constancy of angles between faces of
normal crystals.
Characteristics & Identification of Twins
 Re-entrant angles: Shallow or steep angles between twins are usually present at one or more points or as
deep depressions in the center of some cyclic twins.
 Composition plane: The plane along which two twin halves appear to have been stuck together.
 Reversed surface markings on adjacent faces: Striations meeting in 'vees' (usually indicate twin junctions).
 Change in lustre between adjacent faces: Close examination is necessary to detect differences in etch
marks, pits and lustre between twin individuals.
 Position: Twins show unvarying mutual positions; angles between them measure the same from twin to twin.
 Size: Because many twins begin growth at nearly the same instant, individuals tend to be of the same size.
 Occurrence of Twins: Some species twin according to one mode only, others twin in several distinct modes.
Very few species do not twin.

Types of twinning: There are two basic types of twins.

1. Contact twins - simple contact, lamellar / polysynthetic, cyclic.

2. Interpenetrant twins
 The fastest method to detect twins to look for places where 'Vee' - shaped depressions mark the junctions
between crystal pairs. Depressions of this sort are commonly called "Re-entrants", and the angles, re-entrant
angles.
 A dotted plane passing through the spinel crystal represents the composition plane or the plane on which both
halves of the twin meet.
 The twinned crystal can be visualized as a single crystal sliced in half with the front rotated to twin position.
Such a twin is called a contact twin.
 This is commonly seen in a number of species e.g. beryl, topaz, diamond, spinel etc.
 In the case of spinel and diamond they are simple contact rotation twins. Such a diamond twin is known as
a macle.
 Twinning is also observed as a change in lustre among narrow parallel bands which completely encircle the
crystals. The slight differences in reflections indicate that each crystal actually consists of several crystals
of repeated twins.
 Repeated twinning is called lamellar or polysynthetic twinning. It is commonly seen in plagioclase feldspar,
and one can distinguish between the grains of this mineral and a similar potash feldspar.
 Another form of the repeated twin is the cyclic twin. Cyclic twins develop when crystals twin on several sides at
once curving round to form dislike or circular groups, e.g. Chrysoberyl.
 Interpenetrant twins occur in many species. All give the impression that two crystals were pushed into each
other as if each had no real substance.
 The twin relationship began when both crystals were very small and merely continued as they grew larger.
 Junctions between such twins are often irregular e.g. Fluorite, Staurolite, Quartz, etc.
 Cyclic and penetration twins produce misleading shapes, sometimes, making one believe that they belong to
one class of crystals, when they really belong to another.
 Thus the Chrysoberyl cyclic twins are hexagonal in profile and one could really believe that it is a single crystal
belonging to a mineral with a hexagonal structure, whereas they are actually orthorhombic.

CRYSTAL HABIT
Crystal Habit: The relative width, length and the number of faces
determine a crystal's overall shape or habit.

 Since the structure of a crystal determines the size and shape of faces, the habit or general shape is of great
importance in identifying many species which prefer to grow in typical habits.
 This can be affected by the conditions of impurities in the solidifying unit.
 A particular habit may thus be characteristic of crystals from a certain locality.

Many terms are used to describe a crystal habit. A gemstone may exhibit
both a prismatic and tabular habit, depending upon the conditions of
growth.

A crystal is described as:

 Prismatic: If it is markedly longer in the vertical or "c" axis direction than in the other two.
 Some specific terms used to define this habit are:
 Acicular: Needle-like (e.g. crystal inclusions in Rutilated Quartz)
 Barrel-shaped: e.g. Corundum.
 Columnar: e.g. Beryl, Tourmaline.
 Fibrous fine strand-like e.g. Nephrite.

Tabular / Lamellar: refers to a crystal that is much shorter in the vertical or

"c" axis direction than in the other two.

Such Crystals can be called:

 Tabular: Thick crystals, e.g. Feldspar, Zoisite, Corundum,

 Platy: Thin crystals, e.g. some Hematite varieties.
 Micaceous: Sheet-like crystals that easily split apart e.g. Mica.
 Foliated: The thin sheets or lamellae may be folded and distorted.
 Bladed: e.g. Kyanite.

In crystals belonging to the cubic system all the faces are equally developed
and are called isometric. The majority of crystals lack faces because they
grew in groups competing for the same nourishment in the same cavity
space. The term massive is used to describe close-unit growths of one or
more species.

Familiarity with habits is useful as it enables one to make shrewd and often
accurate guesses as to the identity of the crystals. However, it must be
remembered that habit implies that presence of characteristic faces, and
when the expert examines a crystal, he is also mentally noting what kind of
faces are present, how flat and smooth they are, whether they are striated or
etched and how they are placed in relation to each other.

Metamict State: Owing to the effects of internal or external radioactivity or

similar such natural phenomena, over a long period of time (a few million
years), the crystal lattice becomes damaged, weakened and finally collapses
due to the weakening and rupturing of the atomic bonds. This gives rise to
an almost amorphous state which is known as the metamict state.

In gem stones, this state is found in zircon which has a natural affinity and
ability to attract and entrap even tiny particles of radio-active materials like
uranium and thorium oxides. These, in turn continuously emit radiations in
the form or Alpha, Beta, Gamma rays and also Neutrons. Over a long period
of time, these radiations, weaken the atomic bonds and finally cause the
lattice to collapse, thus causing the zircon to loose its crystalline structure
and turn into a greenish, milky, semi-transparent or translucent, sleepy
stone (the concentration of the radioactive oxides may be to the extent of
0.001%). Another stone which exhibits this state is Ekanite.

In the Metamict state as the crystalline form is lost,

 The physical and optical properties like specific gravity, refractive index, birefringence, dispersion, hardness etc.
are considerable lowered.
 The metamict state of zircon known as the "low" type has much lower constants than the full crystalline "high"
type Zircons.
 All metamict, (low and intermediate type) zircon when heated under specific conditions recover their crystalline
form. This destroys the radioactivity and often results in a change of colour of the stone.

CLEAVAGE, PARTING & FRACTURE (PHYSICAL

PROPERTIES OF GEMSTONE)
Cleavage is the tendency of a crystallised mineral to break in certain
definite directions, giving more or less smooth surfaces.
 This splitting is due to weak cohesive forces present in a mineral along different directions and is also related to
the form and crystal structure of the mineral.
 A crystal may cleave in more than one direction.
 A crystal which cleaves in one direction will cleave equally well in every other parallel plane.
 Planes of cleavage are always planes of the crystal structure and therefore are parallel to possible crystal faces.
 Cleavage is due to the regular arrangement of atoms. Hence, there is no cleavage in an amorphous substance.

Cleavage in a crystal is described by the direction of cleavage, the number of

directions in any single crystal, the ease of splitting and the quality of the
cleavage surface obtained.

Cleavage is said to be:

 Octahedral, when it is parallel to octahedral faces or planes of cubic crystals (diamond).

 Prismatic, when it is parallel to the prism face (spodumene).
 Basal, when they are parallel to the basal pinacoid (topaz).
 Rhombohedral, when they are parallel to the rhombohedral faces (calcite).

Types of cleavage can be described as:

 Perfect as in mica, topaz, or calcite.

 Easy but imperfect as the octahedral cleavage in fluorite.
 Easy and perfect as the rhombohedral cleavage in calcite.
 Difficult as in peridot.
 Perfect but difficult as the octahedral cleavage in diamond.
 Difficult and imperfect as the basal cleavage in beryl.

For identifying cleavage:

 On the surface observe some minutely stepped flat planes, or a wavy pattern.
 The surface will show a pearly luster because of its laminated nature.
 Iridescent colours develop within the stone or on its surface along cleavage directions or cracks. This is caused
when a thin film of air penetrates into the flaws or cracks. Spectral colours are seen in fluorite, topaz and calcite.
 In cut specimens smooth parallel cracks or directional cracks are indications of cleavage directions. They may
or may not exhibit iridescence.

Too easy a cleavage is not desirable, because while cutting or polishing, the
stone may level flaws or may even crack. Hence a good gem cutter selects
the type of cut with respect to the cleavage directions. Cleavage is useful in
cleaving rough stones such as diamonds, so as to improve yield and costs.
Cleavage Chart
Gemstone No. of Directions Gemstone No. of Directions
Apophyllite 1 Fluriote 4
Apatite 2 Iolite 1
Calcite 3 Kyanite 1 (+1 parting)
Diamond 4 Orthoclase Feldspar 2
Diopside 2 Sillimanite 1
Dioptase 3 Sodalite 6
Epidote 1 Spodumene 2
Euclase 1 Topaz 1

Parting (pseudo cleavage) - Some crystals can be divided in two, along a

plane of weakness known as a parting plane which is along a twin plane.

 Parting is usually due to lamellar twinning, as in labradorite feldspar.

 Parting is possible only along definite planes in twinned crystals and not along every parallel plane.
 A crystal may exhibit both cleavage and parting, as in corundum, (parting parallel to the rhombohedral face and
cleavage parallel to the basal pinacoid) and labradorite (parting along the lamellar plane and two other
directions of cleavage).
Fracture - The surface of a mineral obtained when it breaks in directions
other than cleavages or parting is known as fracture. Fracture occurs in
random directions mostly due to a sharp impact.

Types of fractures are:

 Conchoidal (shell like) as a smooth break with concentric rings. This is the most common form of fracture,
particularly well seen in glass, quartz and garnet.
 Splintery - has a fibrous appearance similar to a break on wood with the grain. E.g. nephrite, jadeite and ivory.
 Granular - Sugary appearance common to crystalline aggregates.
 Even - smooth break, but does not show the stepped structure as in cleavage e.g. diamond.
 Uneven - a rough and irregular fracture. Any rock or mineral can exhibit this.

Fracture surfaces and the lustre observed on them are important from the
point of identification. E.g. Rough moonstone can be identified from rough
chalcedony of the same quality by the lustre on the fracture
surfaces. Moonstone will have a pearly lustre while chalcedony will exhibit a
waxy to dull lustre.

GEMSTONE HARDNESS
Hardness is best defined as a property possessed by a substance to resist
abrasion when a pointed fragment of another substance is drawn across it.

Hardness is related to the atomic bonding of a substance i.e. loose bonding

between atoms generally gives rise to lower hardness and vice-
versa e.g. diamond and graphite, the two polymorphs of carbon, have a
hardness of 10 and 2 respectively.

Mohs' Scale: This is a universally used scale of hardness devised by a

German Mineralogist Friedrich Mohs (1773-1839). This scale is based on the
principle that a harder mineral will scratch a softer mineral. To serve as a
standard of comparison, Mohs selected ten well-known and easily obtainable
minerals. The ten standard minerals used in Mohs' scale, in their increasing
order of hardness are given in the box. Two important factors to be
remembered are:
 Mohs' scale is not a linear scale but a relative one (i.e. the difference in absolute hardness
between corundum at 9 and diamond at 10, is much greater than the difference between corundum at 9
and topaz at 8).
 The ten chosen minerals are those which are easily available and exhibit a fairly constant hardness from
specimen to specimen.

Hardness of:

 Fingernail is about 2.5.

 Window glass is about 5.5.
 Steel file about 6.5.
 Copper coin is about 3.
 Knife blade is about 6.
Directional Hardness

Some crystalline gem materials show distinct difference in hardness along

different directions.

 In kyanite the difference is very pronounced; it has a hardness of 4 along the longer dimension and 7 at right
angles to this i.e. the same large face of kyanite gives different values for hardness depending upon the
direction of scratching.
 In case of diamond the dodecahedral face is the softest, and the octahedral face is the hardest.
 The angles and edges of a crystal are sometimes harder than the faces of the same mineral, e.g. the edges of
a topaz crystal will scratch the face of another topaz crystal. Hence gem stones having a similar hardness can
scratch each other.

Procedure for Hardness testing: Two (2) common methods used for
scratch hardness test are:

 Hardness Pencils: In this, pointed fragments of standard minerals on Mohs' scale (4 to 10) are mounted on
metal or wooden holders. The hardness point should be applied firmly to some inconspicuous part of the
specimen to be tested. Always start with the softer pencil and proceed up the scale until just a visible scratch is
seen. Examine the scratch with a 10x lens to ensure that it is a scratch and not powder from the point itself.
 Hardness Plates: This is a safer method for testing scratch hardness since the plate is scratched by the edge
(girdle) of the specimen. You can use polished plates of quartz, topaz, synthetic corundum and diamond. They
need not be of gem quality. A polished plate of synthetic corundum can be used for testing
of diamond since diamond is the only natural substance which can scratch corundum. A man-made material
which can scratch corundum is silicon carbide (synthetic moissanite).

Precautions:

 If it is really necessary to apply the hardness point or file on faceted stones, never scratch the table or culet.
 If the stone is not mounted then work on the girdle, if not then try to work as near to the girdle as possible.
 It is better to let the specimen to be tested act as a hardness point against polished plates of standard
hardness.
Limitations:

 A hardness test is a destructive method of identification hence it should be used as the last resort.
 If too much pressure is applied while testing a brittle stone like an emerald it is liable to break.
 A hardness test cannot distinguish between natural and synthetic stones because they have the same
hardness.
 Paste jewellery and lesser known valuable gemstones can be damaged by this test.
 Along a cleavage direction, a stone is liable to split into two.
 A hardness test should be used in a limited manner. There are more accurate methods which can be employed
in gem identification.

Importance of Hardness to a Gemologist and a Lapidary:

 The hardness of a gem affects the appearance of the stone in terms of surface luster and polish. This helps the
gemologist to get an idea about its identity. Harder the gemstone, higher the lustre e.g.Apatite has a duller
lustre than beryl.
 For unknown rough, the hardness test plays an important role. A Hardness pencil of known hardness used on
unknown gemstones can help to make a rough identification.
 Harder gemstones generally take a better polish than softer ones. Since a lapidary knows what plate should be
used for polishing, he can distinguish one stone from another by knowing the
hardness, e.g. a diamond from topaz or quartz.
 Directional hardness plays an important role. This is of use to the gemologist in separating blue kyanite from
blue sapphire. It is useful to the lapidary in identification as well as in deciding the direction for faceting and
polishing a stone.
 Knowledge of hardness enables a lapidary to control the speed of cutting and the quality of the polishing
powder to be used. While mounting a gemstone in jewellery, it may have to endure the occasional hard knock
or abrasion. Knowledge of hardness would help reduce damages during the setting stage also.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY
S.G. is defined as the weight of a body compared with the weight of an equal
volume of pure water.

The specific gravity of a gemstone is a ratio which could be of great help in

identifying gemstones. Although a gemstone cannot normally be identified
by its S.G. alone, together with other measurements this can help in
narrowing down the range of possibilities.

The specific gravity of a substance is due to:

 The atomic weights of its constituent elements e.g. corundum has a higher specific gravity than quartz since it
consists of heavier elements.
 The compactness of the structure formed by these constituents. E.g. diamond, with its light but compactly
arranged atoms of carbon, has a higher S.G. than graphite, which consists of less densely packed atoms of
carbon.

Heft: Specific gravity can be related to the heft as well as the size of a
gemstone. Some gemstones are 'heavier1 than others i.e. they have more
heft. This method of sensing the S.G. of a gem, is of course very crude, but is
sometimes of value when making a quick subjective assessment of a stone.

 E.g. zircon is twice as heavy as an opal of similar size.

 A one carat synthetic cubic zirconia is smaller in size then a diamond of the same weight.
How to measure S.G. of a Gemstone?
1. Hydrostatic method
2. Heavy liquid method
Hydrostatic Method

This direct weighing method, though time consuming, gives an accurate

result except for very small stones. To simplify calculations, Archimedes
Principle is applied, which states that, when a body is immersed in a fluid
there is an apparent loss of weight; this loss of weight is equal to the weight
of fluid displaced. Thus when a stone is immersed in water there is an
apparent loss of weight equal to the weight of the water it displaces. Clearly
a stone displaces its own volume of water. Therefore, the apparent loss of
weight is equal to the weight of an equal volume of water.

Specific Gravity = Weight of stone in air / Loss of weight in water

The essential information necessary is as follows:

 Weight of the stone in air = (A)

 Weight of the stone in water = (B)
 Loss of weight in water (A − B)
 S.G. = A ÷ (A − B)

Method: An accurate balance is required (either a single-pan or a double-

pan balance). The only difficulty is weighing the stone in the water. To do
this a few adaptations have to be made.

 First of all, bridge the left-hand pan of the balance with a wooden stool (without touching the pan).
 Place a beaker of pure distilled water on it.
 Make a wire support or spiral cage for the stone under test.
 Suspend it in the beaker of water by means of a non-rusting wire (or mono-filament nylon) such that it moves
freely without touching the beaker.
 To simplify calculations, a counterpoise can be fitted to the other weight pan to exactly balance the added
weight of the wire cage when it is immersed in water.
 Weigh the stone in the pan in the usual manner. Suppose the weight is 5.00ct.
 Place the stone in the cage, immerse completely in the water and weight it, suppose the weight is 3.37ct.
 Weight of stone in air = 5.00ct
 Weight of stone in water = 3.37ct
 Lost of weight = 1.63ct
 S.G. = weight in air ÷ loss of weight
 S.G. = 5 ÷ 1.63 = 3.06
By looking up S.G. table, the stone is identified as Tourmaline.

Precautions:

 Care must be taken to remove any air bubbles adhering to the stone, the wire and the spiral cage. A small paint
brush will help remove this or the use of boiled or distilled water will reduce the risk of them forming.
 The surface tension or the cohesion of the water molecule causes a drag on the wire cage as it moves in the
water. This effect can be reduced by adding a drop of detergent to the water or by using a very thin suspension
wire.
 Alternatively, when very great accuracy is required, replace the water by a liquid having a lower surface tension
such as toluene or benzene and the resulting S.G. determination is multiplied by the S.G. of the liquid used.
 In this case it is also important to make the necessary corrections for temperature as the S.G. of these liquids
are much more sensitive to temperature than water. Hence it is essential to multiply the S.G. of the liquid at the
working temperature.

Disadvantages:

 The only disadvantage against hydrostatic S.G. determination is that it is time consuming.
 Mounted stones and drilled beads cannot be tested by this method.
 Porous and dyed stones might give wrong result due to water absorption.
 Stones less than 1 carat tend to give wrong readings due to surface tension.
Heavy Liquid Method

This immersion method is purely comparative and, which when done with
care gives fairly good results. The principle used here is again Archimedes
Principle. If a gemstone has the same S.G. as that of the liquid in which it is
immersed, it would experience an upward force equal to its own weight. This
is seen only when the stone is completely immersed in the liquid and floats
freely within the liquid.
This method makes use of three or four liquids having S.G. between 2.65 and
4.15. The gemstone under test is immersed in each liquid in turn.

 If the stone sinks in the liquid, the S.G. of the stone is greater than that of the liquid.
 If the stone floats at the surface of the liquid, the S.G. of the stone is less than that of the liquid.
 If the stone is freely suspended within the liquid the S.G. of the stone equals that of the liquid.

The rate of rise or fall also indicates whether the S.G. of the stone is near
that of the liquid or not. This rate of rise or fall is further dependent on the
shape of the stone i.e. a "streamlined" cut will sink faster than a "blunt" cut.

Liquids may be sensitive to temperature variations and stones which are

just floating in the liquid may sink if the beaker is warmed in the hand. Most
of the liquids used are volatile and their fumes are poisonous.

Following is a list of liquids with their S.G's & R.I.'s:

S. No. Liquid S.G. R.I.

1. Water 1.00 1.33

2. Benzyl Benzoate 1.17 1.54

3. Carbon Tetrachloride 1.59 1.44

4. Monobromonapthalene 1.49 -

5. Toluene - 1.49

6. Olive Oil - 1.47

7. Castor Oil - 1.47

8. Xylene - 1.49

9. Cedar wood Oil - 1.51

10. Clove Oil - 1.54

11. Canada Balsam - 1.54

 S. No. Liquid S.G. R.I.

12. Aniline - 1.58

13. Cinnamon Oil - 1.59

14. Ethylene Dibromide 2.18 -

15. Bromoform 2.88 1.58

16. Acetylene Tetra bromide 2.96 1.638

17. Methylene Iodide(Di-Iodomethane) 3.33 1.745

18. Clerici Solution 4.00 -

 Clerici solution (a mixture of thallium malonate and thallium formate in water) is highly corrosive and
poisonous and therefore not recommended for general use.
 Methylene Iodide when fresh is light yellowish brown, but darkens on exposure to sunlight, due to the release
of Iodine. To reduce the discoloration a piece of copper or tin is placed in the liquid.
 Bromoform also darkens when exposed to light due to the release of Bromine. In this case a small amount of
mercury is added to the liquid to decolorize it.

The actual liquids may be varied to suit the needs of the users, for e.g.

S. No. Liquid S.G. Indicator Stone

1. Bromoform diluted 2.65 (indicator-quartz)

2. Pure Bromoform 2.88 -

3. Methylene Iodide -diluted 3.05 (indicator -Tourmaline)

4. Pure Methylene Iodide 3.33 -

5. Clerici solution-diluted 3.52 (indicator-diamond)

6. Clerici solution -diluted 4.00 (indicator-corundum)

Method: The S.G. of gemstones is sufficiently constant to act as an

important means of identification. Clean both the stone and the tweezers
thoroughly before immersing in the liquid, so as to avoid contaminating the
liquid. The stone should be actually placed into the liquid, about half way
down to the bottom and released while observing from the side. By the
action of the stone i.e. whether it sinks, floats or suspends, a fairly accurate
estimate of the S.G. can be made. A stone which floats must be tapped with
the tweezers to ensure that it is not being held at the surface due to surface
tension.

Advantages:

 Quick separation of packet lots of gemstones, though care should be used e.g. blue topaz and aquamarine;
pink tourmaline and rhodolite garnet, iolite and tanzanite.
 Both rough and cut stones can be checked.
 Less time consuming and more convenient.

Indicator stones are stones of known specific gravity which are used to
keep a check and ensure that the S.G. of the liquid has not changed due to
partial evaporation of the liquids.

To make a liquid of the desired S.G. (say 2.65), the following procedure is
adopted:

 Quartz (citrine or amethyst), S.G. 2.65, indicator is immersed in ethylene dibromide S.G. 2.18;
 The indicator sinks.
 Then bromoform is added gradually with constant stirring until the stone freely suspends in the liquid.
 The liquid mixture now matches the S.G. of the indicator stone i.e. 2.65
 Before testing an unknown stone, one should check with the indicator stone for higher accuracy, as evaporation
may change the specific gravity of the liquid.
 In such cases, the speed of floating / sinking of the indicator stone should be considered.
 A box of glass S.G. Indicators are marketed by a number of instruments manufacturers.

Limitations:

 Porous stones such as turquoise, opal and pearls which may absorb the solutions should not be tested by this
method as they may damage the stone.
 Pieces which are heavily cracked or contain too many inclusions may give an incorrect S.G.
 Drilled and mounted stones cannot be checked by this method.
 Only an approximate S.G. can be obtained, though with care a fairly accurate estimate can be made.

For very accurate S.G. determinations, an approximate S.G. of the stone with
heavy liquids is obtained and then an accurate S.G. of the blended liquid is
got by the pycnometer or S.G. bottle method or the Hydrometer method.
 These are however time-consuming and not very practical for day to day
working.

S.G. Calculations with respect to weight and size of different stones can be
done by using a simple formula applicable to two stones A and B of similar
size:

(Weight of A × S.G. of B) ÷ (S.G. of A) = Weight of B

Thus, the weight of two different stones of the same size can be calculated
when their S.G's are known. In the case of similar sized diamond (S.G. 3.52;
weight: 3ct) and synthetic cubic zirconia (S.G. 5.95).

(3 × 5.95) ÷ 3.52 = 5.07ct

Hence a 3ct diamond and a 5.07ct synthetic cubic zirconia would be of the
same size.

OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF GEMSTONE

In the identification of gemstones, a proper study of their optical property
has always been found to be of great value. Accurate measurement of the
optical properties of gemstone is very useful since they are extremely
sensitive to minute changes in composition and strain in the crystal
structure. Precise identification can be made conveniently with reference to
their optical properties.

Certain characters of minerals depend upon light. For a detailed accurate

study and proper understanding of optical characters of the mineral,
knowledge of the following terminology is very essential.

1. Light: It travels in the form of waves, like ripples in a pond. It has a dual nature i.e., it behaves as a wave, as
well as a stream of particles (energy). In the production of light, energy is derived from some other form of
energy. Visible light, whether emitted by the sun or a candle, is a form of radiant energy. The portion of the
sun's radiant energy spectrum that we can see is only a very small part of the Electromagnetic Spectrum, the
remainder being invisible radiations.
  The electromagnetic spectrum includes the high frequency (short wavelength) cosmic rays, gamma rays,
X-rays, ultra-violet rays, visible light, infrared rays, radar and television waves, the radio and electrical
waves (long wavelength).
 All these forms of radiation travel in air at about the same speed (186,300 miles per sec.) and travel in a
wave form. The frequency and the wavelength determine the type of radiation i.e. the region of the electro-
magnetic spectrum. The longer the wavelength, the lower is the frequency and the shorter the wavelength,
the higher is the frequency.
 The units of measurement used for wavelength (also used to measure very small stances like atomic
bonding) are the Angstrom Unit and the Nanometer.
 1 Angstrom Unit (A.U.) = one ten millionth of a millimetre (10−7mm).
 1 Nanometer = 10−6 mm = 10 Angstrom units, (e.g. the mean wavelength of sodium light is
expressed as 5893 A.U. or 589.3 nm)
 The following table gives approximate wavelengths, frequencies and energies for certain regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Region Wavelenght (Angstroms) Frequency (Hz) Energy (eV)
Radio > 109 < 3 × 109 < 10−5
Infrared 106 - 7000 3 × 1012 - 4.3 × 1014 0.01 - 2
14 14
Visible 7000 - 4000 4.3 × 10 - 7.5 × 10 2-3
Ultraviolet 4000 - 10 7.5 × 1014 - 3 × 1017 3 - 103
X-Rays 10 - 0.1 3 × 1017 - 3 × 1019 103 - 105
Gamma Rays < 0.1 > 3 × 1019 > 105
2. Ordinary Light: In gemmology, the most important portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is that of visible
light. The visible spectrum ranges from approximately 400 nm (4000 A.U.) to 700 nm (7000 A.U.) and includes
the seven primary colours - violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red (VIBGYOR). When these
wavelengths are mixed together we see them as white light.
3. Polarised Light: Light obtained from any source (sun, lamp etc.) vibrates in all planes at right angles to the
direction of propagation. But when this light is passed through a polaroid sheet, the vibrations get confined to a
single plane. The light that emerges through the polaroid sheet is said to be polarised.
4. Absorption: The colour of a stone is governed by absorption of some of the visible wavelengths. Absorption
occurs due to the atomic arrangements in particular substances. When any radiation is incident on a substance,
some wavelengths are absorbed by the sub-units (electrons) of atoms while the unabsorbed wavelengths are
transmitted, resulting in a particular colour being seen. Some mineral absorb different wavelengths from light
vibrating in different planes. Such minerals are said to be pleochroic and the property is called pleochroism.
5. Reflection: When a ray of light that strikes a polished surface, is bounced back into the same medium, it is said
to be reflected.
6. Refraction: When light passes obliquely from one medium to another, in which it .ravels with a 'different
velocity', it undergoes an abrupt change in direction. The change in the direction of light that occurs at the
contact surface between two media, such as air and water, is known as Refraction.
7. Isotropic: When any refracted ray is transmitted as a single ray in all directions within a substance, the
substance is said to be Isotropic.
8. Anisotropic: When an incident ray is refracted as two rays within a substance such that the vibration direction
of one of the rays is perpendicular to that of the other, it is called an anisotropic substance.
9. Optic Axis: In an anisotropic stone, the refracted ray may be transmitted as a single ray i.e. without splitting, in
one or two particular directions. Such a direction of single refraction in a doubly refracting substance is called an
optic axis direction, i.e. a direction along which an anisotropic substance behaves as if it were isotropic, is called
the optic axis.

The qualities that determine the beauty of a gemstone are directly related
to the appearance of the stone when light is transmitted through the stone
or when it is returned from the surface.

Reflection of Light

It can be best observed on a smooth surface. It is defined by the terms -

incident ray (I), normal (N) and reflected ray (R). When a ray falls on a
surface the falling ray is called the incident ray while the ray which goes
back after striking the surface, is the reflected ray. An imaginary line
perpendicular to the surface at the point of contact of the rays with the
surface is called the normal.

There are two laws of reflection which state that:

 The incident-ray, the normal and the reflected ray lie in the same plane.
 The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

The phenomenon of reflection of light is responsible for optical effects such

as lustre, sheen, chatoyancy, schiller, asterism, aventurescence etc.

1. Lustre: The quantity and quality of light reflected off the surface of the stone, give rise to specific lustre such as
metallic, adamantine, sub-adamantine, vitreous, sub-vitreous, greasy, resinous, waxy, silky and pearly.
2. Sheen: Reflection of light from inclusions or layers below the surface of the stone moving white light effect as
schiller in moonstone, milky white sheen from silk inclusions in ruby and sapphire (referred to as milky-ness in
corundum etc.)
3. Aventurescence: Reflection of light from metallic platelets or inclusions, resulting in a shimmering, glittery
effect as in the case of aventurine quartz, sunstone feldspar, goldstone glass etc.
4. Schiller: Similar in effect to aventurescence, it is the technical name given to stones that, by virtue of many flat
separations or partings, usually along cleavage planes, show a strong sheen - like reflection in certain positions.
5. Chatoyancy (Cat's Eye): Reflection of light from one set of parallel inclusions (needles or crystals) or structural
planes (twin planes and / or cleavage planes), which results
 in a single moving white line on the surface of a stone,
 when the stone is cut in a cabochon or domed cut,
 the eye is seen at right angles to the direction of the inclusions. This is commonly seen in chrysoberyl cat's
eye, apatite cat's eye, quartz cat's eye.
6. Asterrism (Star Effect): This is merely an extension of the cat's eye effect, in that, the presence of tow sets or
three sets of parallel inclusions result in 4-rayed or 6-rayed stars when the stone is cut as a cabochon.
 Asterism can be observed in reflected light and with transmitted light. When seen in reflected light as in the
case of the star ruby, star diopside etc. it is know as Epiasterism. Star rose quartz and some pyrope -
almandine star garnet, exhibit asterism in both reflected and transmitted light. Such stones are said to
show Diasterism.
Refraction of Light

When a ray of light passes from an optically rarer medium ( air ), to an

optically denser medium (gemstone), it bends towards or nearer to the
normal and vice versa. In other words, the velocity of light changes with me
optical density of the medium.

 Light moves relatively slowly through an optically denser medium and hence bends towards the normal.
 It travels relatively faster in an optically rarer medium and hence moves away from the normal.
 When a ray of light strikes the surface at right angles i.e. at normal incidence there is no deviation and the light
is transmitted through.

The Laws of refraction of light were laid down in the 17th century by the
physicist Snell, and are known as Snell's Laws which are:

1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence, lie in the same plane.
2. The sine of the angle of incidence and the sine of the angle of refraction bear a definite ratio to each other,
which depends upon
 the optical densities of the two media in contact with each other
 the wavelength of light being used.
(sine i ÷ sine r) = R.I. = a constant (for a given set of media and particular wavelenght of light.)

When the light is incident from air, this constant is the Refractive index, of
the denser medium (stone).

REFRACTIVE INDEX
R.I. is the comparative ability of a gem to bend, or refract light. It is
expressed as the ratio of the velocity of light in air to its velocity in the
substance e.g. diamond has an R.I. of 2.42. This means that light travels in
air at a velocity 2.42 times its velocity in the diamond. Since R.I. is a
measure of the optical density, the higher the R.I., the greater the degree of
bending for the same angle of incidence.
 The optical density and therefore the strength of refraction vary from species to species.
 For a given species, the velocity at which light passes through is constant.
 The angle of refraction for any given angle of incidence is constant for every gem species, since the reduction in
velocity determines the degree of refraction or bending of light, as it enters the gem.
 Refractive index can be measured by an instrument known as the refractometer, as well as by other simple
methods to be discussed later.
Total Internal Reflection and Critical Angle
 To determine the behavior of light leaving a gemstone rather than entering it, it is only necessary to reverse the
direction.
 Since light is reversible, a ray can therefore pass from a denser to a rarer medium.
 In this case, the refracted ray bends away from the normal and angle of refraction is greater than the angle of
incidence
 Since there is a definite relationship between the angle of Incidence and angle of Refraction, with an increase in
the angle of incidence the angle of refraction also increases.
 When the angle of refraction is 90°, the refracted ray moves parallel to the interface of the two media.
 The angle of incidence which corresponds to this angle of refraction is called the critical angle.
 Rays with greater angles of incidence do not pass into the rarer medium, but are totally reflected back into the
denser medium. This is called total internal reflection of light.
 The critical angle of a gemstone is dependent on both the R.I. of the stone and that of the surrounding medium.
 Thus by taking the reciprocal of the R.I. of a substance and calculating the sine with the help of tables, we can
find the critical angle for that substance.
 For example, glass (denser) and air (rarer) medium. For glass (R.I. 1.52) this angle is 41°28' but for diamond
(R.I. 2.42) this angle is 24°24'.

The measurement of the critical angle helps in:

 accurate determination of Refractive Index

 cutting of gemstones, especially in the cutting of colourless stones like diamond so as to obtain maximum
amount of light reflection back to the observer, as a result of total internal reflection at the back facets.

BRILLIANCE OF GEMSTONE
It is defined as the intensity of the light that enters the eye after internal and
external reflection from the cut gemstone. It is best explained by the terms
life, fire and scintillation.
 Life: Incident white light which is reflected as white light only from the surface and from the total internal
reflection, of light from its pavilion facets is known as life.
 Fire: Reflection observed as spectral colours is known as fire.
 Scintillation: It is the multiple and alternating reflections of light from the facets of a polished gemstone, when
there is a relative movement between the observer and the light source or the gemstone.

Brilliance depends on a number of factors:

 Polish
 R.I. (critical angle)
 Transparency
 Proportioning, in terms of number and size of facets and their cutting angles.

A cutter must keep in mind that to obtain maximum brilliancy from a

gemstone it must be cut in proportions that will cause the greatest possible
amount of light entering the stone, to be totally reflected from the pavilion
facets and to pass out through the crown facets.

The light which enters the stone must strike the pavilion facets at:

 angles greater than the critical angle to be totally internally reflected.

 then strike the crown facets at angles less than the critical angle to be refracted out and returned to the
observer. This is also known as planned leakage of light.
 Light striking a pavilion surface at an angle less than the critical angle will be refracted out of the stone and is
this lost to observer, thereby reducing its brilliance. This is known as unplanned leakage of light. This is
observed in diamonds clearly in terms of a lumpy stone (deep pavilion) and fish eye (shallow pavilion) stones.

ISOTROPIC (SINGLE REFRACTING) & ANISOTROPIC

(DOUBLY REFRACTING)
Gem minerals belong to two optical classes - Isotropic and Anisotropic

1. Isotropic or Single Refracting (S.R.): A ray of light which enters an Isotropic substance will obey Snell's lawof
refraction and will produce a single refracted ray, regardless of the direction in which the ray enters the gem.

Isotropic or Single Refracting Gemstones:

 Amorphous materials (glass, opal, amber which lack a regular internal structure), as well as gemstones
belonging to the Cubic system (diamond, garnet, spinel, fluorite etc.)
 They are all defined by a single refractive index, since light is propagated with equal velocity in all
directions.
 The index of refraction of such optically isotropic crystals does not depend on the direction in which the ray
of light passes through them.
2. Anisotropic or Doubly Refracting (D.R.): A ray of light which enters an anisotropic substance is not only bent
or refracted, but it is also broken or split into two rays, each of which travels with a different velocity and hence
has a different Refractive Index.
 Each of these rays is polarised and differs from the other in velocity and vibration direction. Their vibration
planes are perpendicular to each other.
 The light ray with a constant velocity of propagation in different directions is called the ordinary ray.
The R.I. of the ordinary ray is constant i.e. it does not vary with direction of propagation.
 The rays of variable velocity of propagation of light in different directions are called the extra-ordinary rays.
The R.I. of the extra-ordinary ray varies not only with direction of propagation but also with planes of
polarization.
  Gemstones belonging to the tetragonal, hexagonal and trigonal systems have two principal R.I.'s - Omega
for ordinary ray and Epsilon for extra-ordinary ray.
 Gemstones belonging to orthorhombic, monoclinic and triclinic systems have three principal R.I.'s - Alpha
(least) for the fastest ray, Beta (intermediate) and Gamma (greatest) for the slowest ray.
 In addition, every day ray of light is differently refracted for different colours of light.
3. A.D.R. (S.R.) = Anomalous Double Refraction (seen in S.R. stones)
4. A.G.G. = Aggregate

BIREFRINGENCE (DOUBLE REFRACTION)

The arithmetical difference between the refractive index of the ordinary ray
(Omega) and that of the extra-ordinary ray (Epsilon) in the case of uniaxial
minerals and that between the alpha and gamma in the case of Biaxial, at
their maximum divergence, is known as the birefringence or double
refraction. The following examples illustrate the above principle.

Optic Character Gemstone Refractive Index Birefringence (D.R.)

Isotropic Diamond 2.418 -
Isotropic Fluorite 1.434 -
Anisotropic Corundum 1.762 - 1.770 0.008
Anisotropic Peridot 1.654 - 1.690 0.036
 This is a property characteristic of anisotropic gemstones.
 The optic axis is a direction of single refraction hence no birefringence is seen in this direction.

A stone with higher birefringence will exhibit doubling. Inclusions, facet

edges or an object viewed through the stone will appear double. A good
illustration of double refraction occurs in transparent calcite. An object
observed through an anisotropic substance will show double edges or a
double image.

OPTIC AXIS & OPTIC SIGN

Optic Axis - Uniaxial / Biaxial

Not every direction in a doubly refracting stone is a direction of double

refraction Directions of single refraction in an anisotropic stone are known as
the optic axis direction.

 Depending on the crystal system to which it belongs, every anisotropic stone has one or two directions of single
refraction i.e. directions along which light is not polarised.
 Light that is transmitted along a path parallel to the optic axis will have only a single refractive index.
 Crystal belonging to the Tetragonal, Hexagonal and Trigonal system has only one optic axis, parallel to the
crystallographic "C" axis direction, and is known as uniaxial gemstones.
 Crystals belonging to the Orthorhombic, Monoclinic and Triclinic systems, have two directions of single
refraction i.e. two optic axis and hence these crystals are termed biaxial gemstones. The angle between the
optic axes varies from species to species. There is no simple relationship between optic axis directions and
crystallographic axes.
Optic Sign - Positive / Negative

The optic sign is calculated on the refractometer by noting whether

 the ordinary ray or the extra-ordinary ray (in uniaxial) moves faster or slower, or
 alpha or gamma (in biaxial) moves beyond the half way mark of the total birefringence.
 For accurate determination, the stone should be rotated in all directions on any particular facet, and sets of
readings observed.
 Uniaxial positive (U+): varying ray (extraordinary) has a higher R.I. than the fixed ray (ordinary).
 Uniaxial negative (U−): varying ray has a lower R.I. than the fixed ray.
 Biaxial positive (B+): beta R.I. reading is closer to alpha reading. The higher shadow edge moves beyond the
half way position between maximum and minimum.
 Biaxial negative (B−): beta R.I. reading is closer to gamma reading. The lower shadow edge moves past the
halfway position.

Examples:

U+
Quartz 1.544 - 1.553
1.544 - 1.551
U−
Corundum 1.762 - 1.770
1.760 - 1.770
B+
1.654 - 1.690
Peridot
1.650 - 1.680
1.655 - 1.670
B−
1.634 - 1.643
Andalusite
1.636 - 1.645
1.640 - 1.648

The examples given in the box are over simplified to give an idea as to the
calculation for positive and negative signs. In the case of corundum, ω =
1.759 , ε = 1.767. Increasing substitution of Al3+ by Cr3+ increases both ω
(upto 1.763) and ε (upto 1.772). Similarly the readings would vary with
respect to the elemental percentages in a species.

CAUSES OF COLOR
Absorption
Some of the effects related to absorption like colour,
luminescence, pleochroism etc. have important applications in gemology.
 The color is the most obvious and conspicuous property of a large number of minerals.
 These mineral are distinguished by an extra-ordinary variety of colour, shades, richness and intensity.
 The colour of a gemstone is determined by:
 The light by which it is observed.
 The gemstone itself.
 The eye of the observer.

White light is composed of all the colours or wavelengths that make up the
visible spectrum (VIBGYOR). When white light falls on a gemstone:

 Some wavelengths are fully absorbed.

 Some are totally transmitted.
 Some wavelengths are reflected back by the surface of the gem.
 The colour we see is due to the selective absorption of light and the wavelengths which are reflected back by
the surface.

The term colour can be explained by at least three different aspects.

 Property of an object: Blue sapphire.

 Characteristic of light rays: As blue sapphire efficiently reflects blue light while absorbing light of other colours
more or less completely.
 Sensations: The brains interpretation in which the eye perceives light selectively, reflected from sapphire,
results in perception of blue.
Causes of Colour

There are a number of different causes of colour in gemstones.

 The best known cause of colour is that derived from transition metal compounds or impurities. This provides the
colour of many of our minerals, gems and pigments.
 The transition elements are a group of elements in the periodic classification of elements which have the ability
to absorb energy from the light rays as they pass through the crystal, giving rise to the colour in a gemstone.
 These transition elements are Titanium (Ti), Vanadium (V), Chromium (Cr), Manganese (Mn), Iron (Fe),
Cobalt (Co), Nickel (Ni) and Copper (Cu), and are the most important colouring agents in minerals and gems.
 Idiochromatic Gemstones (self colored): In these stones, the transition metal is an essential ingredient of the
chemical composition e.g. Manganese in Rhodonite and Rhodochrosite produces a red color.
 Allochromatic Gemstones (other colored): In these stones the transition metal is present as an impurity and
not as an essential ingredient of the chemical composition e.g. chromium produces the red colour in Ruby and
the green of Emerald.
 Pseudochromatic Gemstones(false colored): This is a general term which is applied to causes of color due to:
 Lattice Imperfections: It results a colour centre or a defect hole. This occurs when ions of one element are
present in excess or less than the number required by the chemical formula e.g. amethyst, smoky
quartz and fluorspar.
 Semi-conductors: It includes diamond and pyrite. In the case of diamond, the presence of nitrogen and
boron produces the yellow and blue colours respectively.
 Physical optics: The colour in this case may be due to interference of light which causes irridescence in
Iris quartz and play of colour in labradorite. Diffraction causes play of color in opal and dispersion
produces the fire in gems.
 In some gems, the colour may be due to the presence of coloured inclusions e.g. some varieties
of chalcedony, quartz and calcite.
 In some varieties of gemstones even within a single crystal, the colour may vary. A good example is that of
parti-coloured tourmaline. A single crystal may show three colours - red, almost colourless and green at the
other extreme, as a result of which this is often called watermelon tourmaline.

USAGE OF GEMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS

 Refractometer: It is based on the principle of "total internal reflection". It is used to determine refractive index,
optic character, optic sign and optic axis direction of gemstones.
 Polariscope: It is used to find the optic character, optic figure and to detect pleochroism of gemstones.
 10x Loupe: It is used for diamond clarity grading, inspection of internal and surface features of gemstones.
 Microscope: It is used to find minute inclusions and blemishes of gemstones.
 Dichroscope: It is used to detect pleochroism and optic axis direction of gemstones.
 Chelsea Filter: This instrument normally indicates the coloring elements present in certain green and blue color
gemstones, namely emerald and spinel.
 Spectroscope: This instrument helps in identification of gemstones by absorption spectrum and detects
treatment like dyeing.
 U.V. Lamp: It detects fluorescence and phosphorescence and helps to detect treatments done on the stones.
 Reflectivity Meters: It is used to quickly determine refractive index of a gemstone.
 Thermal Probe: This instrument is used to differentiate diamond from its simulant mainly from synthetic
moissanite through head conduction process.
 Advanced Techniques: These are some of the advanced instruments used to identify gemstone, treatments and
source of its occurrence.
 FTIR
 LRS
 UV-VIS-NIR
 EDXRF
 SEM

REFRACTOMETER
This gemological instrument is based on the principle of "total internal
reflection".
Uses of refractometer:

 To determine Refractive Index.

 S.R. or D.R.
 Birefringence
 Optic Character (Uniaxial or Biaxial)
 Optic Sign (Positive or Negative)
 Optic Axis Direction
 Approximate R.I. on curved surfaces.

Important to Note:

 The R.I. can be taken on any stone that has flat or curved surfaces as long as the surface is polished.
 No rough gemstone should be tested on the refractometre.

A general procedure is explained for taking R.I. measurements. There are

two distinct types of readings taken for flat facets (flat facet R.I.) and for
curved surfaces such as cabochons (spot R.I. or distant vision method).

Procedure:

 Clean the stone.

 Place a very small drop of contact liquid onto the glass prism.
 In facetted stones use the largest well polished facet, for cabochons or curved surfaces use the surface which
has the best polish.
 Gently slide the stone onto the contact liquid with your fingers. Do not use tweezers.
 Under white light / monochromatic light, observe the image of the stone on the scale as a black spot having the
shape of the contact facet.
 The spot will correspond to the shape of the facet, i.e. it may be round, oval, square or octagonal, as the case
may be.
 Move your head up and down while observing the black spot:
 For cabochons, curved surfaces, very small facets and for poorly polished facets, the reading is taken
where the spot is
 Exactly half light and half dark, or
 The spot blinks from dark to light, or
 If the spot lightens gradually, take the reading where the spot changes to a completely light spot i.e.
the last all dark and first all light spot.
 In the case of cabochons etc. with high birefringence, the D.R. can be obtained by using
the birefringence blink method. While observing the spot place the polaroid filterover the eyepiece and
note the reaction.
 The spot will blink from light to dark, or
 The spot will blink from red to green.
 Note: The reading where the spot starts blinking at the top (lower reading) and then note the reading
where it stops blinking (higher reading). Take both the readings and the difference between these
two readings will give the birefringence.
 For exact and precise R.I. measurements on flat facets, the R.I. will appear as a sharp grey / black line or cut
off.
 Place the polaroid filter over the magnifier and rotate. If the grey / black cutoff or line remains constant, then the
stone is S.R.
 If on rotating the polaroid filters the grey / black line moves up or down, then it is a D.R. stone and you have to
determine the birefringence.
 To determine the birefringenceof the stone:
 Rotate the polaroid filter and note any shift in the shadow.
 Take the readings of the stone from at least 4 different directions.
 The difference between the maximum and minimum readings will give the birefringence of the stone.
 Along the optic axis direction the stone will give only one single reading.
 Over range stones will show either the grey cutoff reading or sometimes spectral colours at 1.80 while a spot
reading will change completely white at 1.80 indicating that the stone has a reading over the range of the
refractometer.
 In the case of garnet-glass doublets, a red reflection will be observed when the reading is taken on the garnet
surface, using white light. The base of the spot will reflect this colour which is known as the red - flag effect.
 After taking the readings gently slide the stone from the glass prism and wipe the glass hemi-cylinder with soft
tissue.

 The glass prism has a very low hardness and hence will scratch easily. Be very careful while placing or
removing the stone from the glass prism.
 Care should be taken when testing mounted stones, so that the metal does not scratch the glass. Never use
tweezers.
 When not using the refractometer for long periods of time, place a thin film of vaseline to prevent tarnishing.
 If the contact liquid evaporates and hardens to give sulphur crystals - Do not try to forcibly wipe the glass as it
will scratch the surface of the prism. First remove the crystals with more contact liquid or M.I. liquid and then
wipe the glass gently.
 Evaporation of the liquid will tend to change its refractive index and thereby change the higher limit of the
refractometer.
 Good quality R.I. reading depends on the quality of polish of the stone and flatness of the facet.
 Too much contact liquid will cause a dark ring around the stone that will confuse the readings. To avoid this use
a very small drop of contact liquid.
 Wipe the glass prism with soft tissue, in one direction only.
 A Parallax error is basically an optical distortion. The readings tend to vary slightly between divisions. Care
should be taken not to mistake this for double refraction.

Limitations:

 Rough gemstones cannot be tested on refractometro.

 Stones with R.I. more than 1.80 cannot be tested on refractometre.
Types of Refractometer
 There are a number of different types of refractometers - Duplex (GIA model), Rayner, Eickhorst (some
with LED source), RosGem models etc.
 Most of the refractometers available are the critical angle refractometers.
 Some refractometers employ a high R.I. prism made of strontium titanate or synthetic cubic zirconia, but the use
of toxic contact liquids is a deterrent.
 One of the newest refractometer on the market is the Brewster angle refractometer with a much higher range
from 1.40 to 3.50.This instrument does not use a contact liquid and has the advantage of a wider range.
Refractometry

Methods of R.I. Measurement:

Immersion methods: A number of variations are in use. A few are briefly
explained below.

1. Becke Line Method: This method has been adapted by Mittchell and is used for facetted stones.
 Requires a microscope with light field illumination.
 The stone is placed in an immersion cell, table facet down.
 The liquid used should be one whose R.I. is known.
 Restrict the transmitted light to the area of the stone by adjusting the aperture below.
 Focus of the microscope in the liquid above the stone.
 If the facet edges appear black and then change to white as the focus is lowered into the stone, then the
liquid has a higher refractive index.
 If the stone has a higher R.I., the reverse would occur.
 By using liquids of different R.l.'s a fairly accurate R.I. of the stone can be obtained.
2. Immersion Contrast: This method observes the relief and appearance of the girdle and the facet edges when
immersed in a liquid of known R.I.
 Place the stones to be checked in a glass cell containing the liquid, table facet down.
 Place the dish on a mirror so as to view the exact reaction while using a single light source from directly
above.
 When the liquid has a higher R.I., the girdle appears white, while the facet edges appear as black lines.
 When the liquid has a lower R.I., the girdle appears black, while the facet edges appear white.
 When the liquid and the stone have approximately the same R.I., the facet edges become almost invisible.
 The thickness or width of the girdle edge can aid in determining the difference in R.I. between the stone
and the liquid.
3. Direct Measurement Method: This method requires a microscope with a vernier scale fitted on it or a
calibrated focus adjustment.
 Two parallel facets / surfaces are required i.e. the table facet and the culet.
 Focus on the table facet and take a reading (A).
 Focus through the stone till the culet is sharply defined and take a reading (B).
 Focus on the glass slide on which the culet point rests, for an exact measurement of the culet (C).
 Calculate the real depth (C − A) and the apparent depth (B − A).
 The R.I.is calculated by dividing the real depth from the apparent depth.
 real depth ÷ apparent depth = R.I.
 This method is more effective for singly refracting stones, uniaxial stones (ordinary ray direction) and
high R.I. stones.
4. Minimum Deviation Method: This method uses a table spectrometer (goniometer) and is the most accurate
method of measuring the refractive index. It requires both skill and ideal conditions for the results to be
accurate.

POLARISCOPE
 Before starting with polariscope there is need to understand polarisation.

Polarisation: In ordinary light which comes from a source such as the sun or
a lamp, the wave motion is not confined to a single plane. Instead there are
many waves vibrating in all planes normal to the line of transmission. This is
known as unpolarised light. When this vibratory motion is restricted to a
single plane, at right angles to the line of transmission, it is said to
be polarised light or plane polarised light.

 This can be better understood with the help of a polarising filter.

 Light which is reflected off a polished surface is mostly polarised with its vibration direction being parallel to the
reflecting plane.
 If the polarizer is aligned such that its vibration direction coincides with the vibration direction of the reflected
light, then the light will pass through the filter and will be visible to the observer.
 When two polarisers are placed one over the other such that the vibration directionsn are at right angles to each
other, they are said to be "crossed polars" or in " extinction position" and no light comes through them.
 Gemstones can be analysed for their optic character by rotating them between the crossed polars and
observing their reaction.

Polariscope: It is an instrument which consists of two polaroid plates

mounted apart. The lower plate is generally fixed and is known as
the polariser, while the upper plate can be rotated and is known as
the analyser.

Uses of Polariscope
1. To find the optic character

 S.R. = Singly Refracting
 A.D.R. (S.R.) = Anomalous Double Refraction (seen in S.R. stones)
 D.R. = Doubly Refracting
 A.G.G. = Aggregate

Procedure:

 Place the stone on the polariser. Begin with the polariscope in the Dark or extinction position. On looking
through the analyser rotate the stone 360° with your fingers and note the reaction of the stone.

Test the stone in at least 3 directions. If the stone:

 Remains completely dark during rotation, it is S.R.

 Remains completely light during rotation, it is A.G.G.
 Shows distinct, snake-like bands or a patchy effect it is A.D.R.
  Blinks from dark to light during rotation, it indicates D.R. or A.D.R. (S.R.) needs to be confirmed.

Stones showing S.R. or A.G.G. need not to be confirmed whereas

stones showing D.R. or A.D.R. need a confirmatory test.

Confirmatory Test: In order to confirm D.R. or A.D.R. (S.R.):

 With the polariscope still in dark position, rotate the stone to the position in which it appears the lightest, or
observe one small area only which appears the lightest.
 While observing only this lightest area of the stone, quickly rotate the analyser to the light position of the
polariscope and not the reaction.
 Eliminate external light effects with your fingers which can be used to mask most of the polariser while
confirming the reaction.
 If the light portion of the stone becomes:
 noticeably lighter / brighter i.e. it transmits more light; it is A.D.R. (S.R.)
 darker or remains the same, it is D.R.
2. To locate the optic figure (uniaxial / biaxial): In order to resolve the optic figure, stones must be: doubly
refracting, transparent and should be a single crystal and not an aggregate.

Procedure:

 Begin with the polariscope in the dark position.

 Hold the stone in your finger and rotate it.
 Look for interference colours.
 If the colours are located, place the optic glass sphere /10x lens, in the area where you observe the
heaviest concentration of the interference colours.
 The colours when located may also be seen by turning the stone 180° and viewing from the opposite
direction. This will also indicate the optic axis direction through the stone.
 If you observe two black arms making a cross like figure with circular rings, or a bull's eye figure, it
confirms that the stone is a uniaxial stone.
 If you observe a bull's eye figure, the stone under test can be identified as quartz.
 If you observe a single black arm, which is narrow at the center, it confirms that the stone is a biaxial
stone.
3. To detect pleochroism:
 Begin with the polariscope in the Light position and rotate the stone on the polariser.
 Observe one pleochroic colour, continue rotating till another pleochroic colour is seen.
 When oriented properly, the colour observed will switch upon every 90° turn of the stone.
 Pleochroic colours are not seen side by side as with the dichroscope.
 The stone should be checked in all directions in order that all principal rotation directions have been
analysed.

Limitations:

 The test is applicable only for transparent and semi-transparent stones and not opaque stones.
 Materials tested should be a single crystal and not an aggregate for detecting pleochroism.
Precautions:

 Analyse the stones in different directions in order to observe the principal colours, since along the optic axes
directions the stone will appear S.R.
 Highly included or fractured stones will reduce transparency and can cause a stone to exhibit almost any
reaction. A stone which may be S.R. or D.R. may give an A.G.G. reaction.
 The reaction of small stones may be difficult to observe and interpret.
 Red, orange and violet stones must be reconfirmed with the dichroscope as they tend to give wrong results,
e.g. almandine garnet.
 Some S.R. stones can exhibit almost any reaction, mostly due to internal strain e.g. hessonite garnet,
red spinel.
 An A.G.G. reaction may be seen in both S.R. and D.R. stones.
 Some doubly refractive, uniaxial / biaxial stones, exhibit biaxial / uniaxial optic figures i.e. pseudo-biaxial and
pseudo-uniaxial. Such stones need to be confirmed with a dichroscope.
 Stones with higher R.I. and higher dispersion, tend to give misleading results, e.g. synthetic cubic zirconia must
be examined in different directions.

10X HAND LOUPE / HAND-HELD LENS

10x Loupe

10x Loupe: One of the most important instruments for the identification of
gemstones is the 10x loupe. The hand-held lens, or hand loupe, is perhaps
the most frequently used item of the gemologist equipment.

 It is the standard magnification used for diamond clarity grading.

 With experience, many gemstones can be positively identified by the careful inspection of internal and surface
features.

A quality loupe should be corrected for defects (aberrations) to be useful.

Two important aberrations in lenses are chromatic aberration - due mainly to
 the material of which the lens is made up, and spherical aberration - due to
the shape and curvature of the lens.

1. Chromatic aberrationor colour distortion causes colour fringes to be produced round an image as the result of
optical dispersion of the glass used in the lens.
 It is corrected by making the lens in two sections, each having a different dispersion.
 One lens is bi-convex and the other is bi-concave.
 Because of the different dispersion of the two lenses, all the colour component rays in white light can be
brought to a common focus.
 Composite lenses of this type are called achromatic lenses.
2. Spherical aberrationor line distortion occurs in strongly curved lenses and results in the focus of rays passing
through the edges of the lens lying closer to the lens, than the focus of those rays which pass through the
centre of the lens. The resulting image has a hazy circumference and may be distorted.
 To correct this, the single lens is replaced by lenses of various radii i.e. of different curvatures.

As it would be impossible to avoid image distortion and colour fringing if the

10x hand loupe were made using only a single lens, all high quality loupes
use compound lenses, consisting generally of three lens elements. The
lenses are called triplets, and are corrected for both chromatic and
spherical aberration. Such a corrected lens is called an aplanatic lens and
generally consists of a double-convex crown glass lens between lenses of
flint glass.

With all loupes, illumination of the stone under inspection plays an important
part. The lamp used to illuminate the stone should be adjusted as to direct
light into the side of the gem. Any internal features of the gem will then
appear brightly visible against a relatively dark background.

To use a lens correctly maintain the following procedure:

 Clean the stone thoroughly.

 Hold the lens very close to your eye, steadied against the cheek or nose.
 Hold the stone with a tweezer or your fingers approximately one inch from the lens or until it comes into focus.
 Observe the stone with the help of light coming from the side and not directly into the eyes. Any internal
features of the gem will then appear brightly visible against the darker background of the stone.
 Keep the lens always out of the light, but the stone always in the light.
 First look for surface characteristics like pits and polishing lines, and then focus down into the stone for
inclusions, doubling, etc.

MICROSCOPE
 Microscope

This consists mainly of a mechanical section and an optical section. Following

is a brief description of some of the main parts and their functions.
Mechanical section:

 The base or foot has to be fairly solid to maintain the overall balance.
 The vertical limb contains the focal adjustments; knob for moving the body tube and at the lower end is the
stage on which the stone is placed.
 The stage has a central aperture through which light from below can pass, a diaphragm to control the light
aperture, holders to place the tweezer and a knob to provide the required illumination (dark or light field).

Optical section:

 The body tube contains the optical components.

 At the bottom end of the tube is the objective which is made of compound lenses to provide the primary
magnified image.
 At the top there are two oculars (eyepieces) with a specific magnification to produce an enlarged virtual image
of the image formed by the objective.
 A combination of lenses produces the enlarged image (zoom facility).

There are a few important features of a microscope which must be

considered:

 The field of view. The greater the magnification of the microscope, the smaller will be the field of view and the
working distance.
 The working distance.
 The depth of focus i.e. the distance over which the image is within focus becomes smaller as the magnification
increases.
 Adjust the microscope eyepieces (oculars) to give you a single three dimensional view.
 Clean the stone thoroughly with a lint-free stone cloth.
 Hold the stone with the stone holder and fix it to the stand provided.
 Using low magnification, observe the stone in all directions and adjust the focus till the stone is visible clearly.
Look for fractures, structure, lustre, inclusions etc. by focusing up or down.
 Switch to higher magnification and attempt to identify the inclusions, cleavage etc.
 Observe the distinct differences in surface features and internal features.
 Proper illumination of the stone helps in correct identification.
Immersionscope

Observing a stone by immersion is useful since it eliminates surface and

facet reflections and enables one to observe the internal features clearly.

 The immersionscope consists mainly of a stage on which the microscope, transparent immersion cell and light
source with iris diaphragm are placed in a horizontal plane.
 Choose the appropriate liquid for immersion. In general, liquids having a similar refractive index as the stone are
used. E.g. benzyl benzoate (R.I. 1.54) is used for emeralds and quartz, water (R.I. 1.33) for opal, while
methylene iodide (R.I. 1.74) is used for Rubies and Sapphires.
 Solid and liquid inclusions - like crystals, nature of fingerprints and phase inclusions and their optic character
can be examined more clearly.
 Growth features like plato lines, Brazil law twinning, graining, hound's tooth markings, growth zoning, curved
lines / bands etc. can be easily observed.
 Type of enhancement - diffusion treatment, fracture filling etc. In diffusion, blue colour concentrations on facet
edges and colour bleeding. Fracture filling with colourless oils / resins exhibits typical colour flashes on rotation
and coloured fillings exhibit colour concentrations in fractures.
 Composite stones show a distinct junction plane and the inclusions in the two portions.
 Commonly gemstones like emerald, opal, quartz, ruby and sapphire are examined with an immersionscope.

Precautions:

 Appropriate liquid should be used for better clarity.

 Before doing the immersion test, confirm that the stone is not porous.
 Dyed or coated since it may absorb the solution and thus be decolourised / damaged.
 In the case of composites, care should be taken to prevent the joined parts from separating.
 Do not inhale the liquid.
 Clean the stone immediately after the immersion test with absorbent cloth / paper.

Magnification: Magnifying an object simply means to observe it as a larger

image, which helps in observing the finer points. Magnification is important
in that it is useful in various aspects of gemstone identification.
 External features:
 Identification with respect to rough and cut gemstones.
 Identification of surface features like markings on rough crystals, polishing lines, pits, nicks etc. on cut
stones.
 Identification of habit and form in rough and the type and quality of cut in facetted stones.
 Identification of surface enhancements like coating, foiling, diffusion treatment etc.
 Identification of phenomenon.
 Internal features:
 Identification of inclusions which would be useful in determining.
 Natural and synthetic stones.
 Geographic Origin of stones.
 Identification of a species.
 Detection of composites.
 Grading of gemstones: This is internationally standardised for diamonds using 10x magnification as the
standard, while coloured stones are graded more on individual office requirements.
 Jewellery: Observation of quality of jewellery in terms of setting, texture etc.

Illumination and magnification: This is of great importance since it

determines the visibility of the features to a great extent.
 Most microscopes are provided with a built-in means of illuminating the specimen on the stage. This can be as
basic as a lamp and condenser lens assembly under the stage, with an iris control to vary the area of
illumination.
 A model of a 10X lens has been made with an attached dark field illumination.
 In the more sophisticated models, the choice of incident, light-field, or dark-field illumination is provided, the
latter two being contained in the sub stage lamp assembly.
1. Light-field illumination: Light is transmitted upwards through the specimen and into the objective of the
microscope. An inclusion appears as a dark object against a bright background. This is useful while viewing the
internal features in opal.
2. Dark-field illumination: Light is directed into the gem from the sides, and there is no direct light path between
the lamp and the objective. Dark-field illumination is generally the preferred method for gemmological work, as it
gives better contrast. An inclusion appears as a bright object against a dark background.
3. Diffused illumination: It is produced using a diffuser type tissue paper or translucent plaster etc. Curved
coloured bands, curved lines, and colour zoning are seen clearly even in light coloured stones.
4. Polarised illumination: It is used to detect the optic character of gemstones, or of inclusions in a gemstone, to
detect growth features like plato lines and Brazil law twinning.

DICHROSCOPE
It consists of a cleaved rhomb of optical quality calcite (Iceland spar), which
is mounted in a tube having an eye piece at one end and a square aperture
at the other. A glass prism is cemented to each end of the calcite rhomb to
allow the light to enter and leave the calcite rhomb in a straight line. The
gemstone under test is positioned so that white light passes through the
stone and enters the dichroscope aperture.

Uses of dichroscope:

 To detect pleochroism i.e. dichroism or trichroism.

 To locate the optic axis direction.

In order to detect pleochroism, the stone must be:

 Coloured
 Doubly refractive
 Transparent to semi-transparent
 A single crystal (not an aggregate)
 Observed only in white light.

Procedure:

 Place the dichroscope 1/4 inches away from your eye, holding the stone near the instrument.
 The stone should be away from the light source which transmits strong diffused white light.
 The stone should be viewed in at least 3 different directions.
 Once pleochroic colours are detected, rotate the dichroscope for confirmation. The colours should switch sides
upon rotation of 90°.
 The presence of two colours or two shades of the same colour proves the stone is D.R. but not whether it is
uniaxial or biaxial.
 If three colours are seen, the stone is biaxial but, if you are unsure of the results, then this test should be
disregarded to prove uniaxial or biaxial.

Precautions:

 White light should be used to examine the stone.

 Analyse the stone in different directions so as to avoid making mistakes in the optic direction.
 Highly included or fractured and composite stones can exhibit any reaction i.e. it may exhibit
an S.R. or D.R. reaction.
Pleochroism

A beam of light emerging from a doubly refracting transparent stone

generally consists of two polarised rays vibrating in planes at right angles to
each other.

 If these two rays are emerging through a coloured stone, they may undergo a different degree of colour
absorption during their passage through the stone, and hence will be differently coloured.
 This phenomenon is known as pleochroism. It is distinguished as dichroism if two principal colours are seen
when observed from two different directions and as trichroism if three principal colours are observed.
 Dichroism is shown by uniaxial minerals and trichroism by biaxial minerals.
 Pleochroism is shown only by doubly refractive coloured stones; but some doubly refractive stones may not
show pleochroism even when coloured.
 The strength of pleochroism is not related to the strength of double refraction. For example zircon has a
strong D.R. but is practically non - pleochroic whereas apatite, aquamarine and iolite are markedly dichroic but
do not have strong D.R.
 The strength of pleochroism is dependent on the depth of colour in the stone and can vary even in the same
species, e.g.:
 Ruby - two shades of red.
 Tourmaline - two shades of body colour.
 Iolite - pale brownish yellow, pale blue, deep violet blue.
 Andalusite - green, brownish yellow, red.
 The instrument used to detect pleochroism is the dichroscope.

CHELSEA FILTER
The Chelsea filter is a dichromatic filter which transmits two wave lengths
only - in the red region at 690nm and the other in the yellow region
at 570nm. The presence of the elements chromium or cobalt in a gemstone
makes it appear red when viewed through this filter.
Uses of Chelsea Filter:

 This filter normally indicates the coloring elements present in certain gems.
 Stones coloured by chromium and cobalt will appear red under this filter.
 In some cases it may help to detect dye in certain stones.
 It is generally useful for green and blue stones such as emerald and aquamarine.

Procedure:

 Use strong white light source.

 Light may be transmitted or reflected from the stone.
 Hold the filter close to your eye or to the stone; observe the reaction of the stone.
 It can either be red or green, with secondary shades of pink, brown, yellow, blue or black.

Precautions:

 Stones should be observed from all directions.

 The reaction seen through the stone would depend on size, shape, transparency, cut and colour of the stone.
 Each stone would react differently depending upon the colouring agents present.
 Chelsea Filter is an indicative test. This test in itself is not a confirmatory test of the stone's identity.
 Presence of iron tends to retard or dampen the red colour in emeralds, ruby etc. and is responsible for the
shade variations.
 A synthetic emerald with iron content will tend to behave as some natural emeralds, while a natural
emerald with high chromium content will exhibit red like some synthetic emeralds.

Some Common Reactions Under Chelsea Filter:

1. Synthetic Emerald (Cr) Red

2. Blue Glass (Co) Red
3. Synthetic Blue Spinel (Co) Red
4. Synthetic Blue Quartz (Co) Pink
5. Natural Aquamarine (Fe) Green
6. Natural Zircon (Blue) Green
7. Dyed Green Chalcedony Red to Orange Red
8. Dyed Blue Chalcedony Red to Pink
9. Natural Emerald (Cr/V/Fe) Pink to Red / Green to Yellow Green
10. Demantoid Garnet Reddish
11. Blue Topaz Blue Green

SPECTROSCOPE
Colour in gemstones is mainly due to the selective absorption of wavelengths
by the transition elements present in their structure.

 In order to discover which wavelengths have been absorbed by a gemstone, it is necessary to inspect it using
an instrument called the spectroscope.
 When light is transmitted through or reflected from a gem material, some colours of light representing certain
wavelengths may be selectively absorbed.
 Any wavelengths that are selectively absorbed will appear as dark vertical lines, bands or cutoffs of varying
width and intensity across the range of spectral colours known as the absorption spectrum.
 An emission spectrum is observed when the elements emit light instead of absorbing the incident radiation
which is seen as bright vertical fluorescent lines.

Spectroscope (Visible Range): Gemmological spectroscopes fall into two

categories, prism spectroscope and diffraction grating spectroscope. The
basic difference between the two lies in the brightness of the spectrum and
the absorption spectrum.

 Diffraction Grating Spectroscope: Wavelengths are evenly distributed, multiple spectral images - bright
 Prism Spectroscope: Red end is compressed while the blue end is expanded, purer spectrum.

Commonly a prism spectroscope is used.

 This instrument consists essentially of a train of prisms enclosed in a tube, with a slit at one end and a convex
lens at the other.
 A converging lens is placed between the slit and the prism assembly to collimate (make parallel) the light.
 The spectroscope separates white light into its component spectral colours, which range in wavelength from
400nm to 700nm.
 These absorption patterns are characteristic to varying degrees, of some gem materials and can provide
valuable information in their identification.
Uses of spectroscope
 Identification of gemstones by absorption spectrum.
 To detect dye treatments.
 Get an indication of colouring elements present in the gemstone.

Procedure:

 Place the stone on the lighted base. (Only light that passes through the stone should enter the slit of the
spectroscope).
 Position and focus the light source so that the maximum amount of light is transmitted through the stone (for
transparent stones) or reflected (for opaque stones) from the surface.
 Close the slit width of the spectroscope completely; then open it slowly until the entire spectrum is visible.
Observe and note the cutoff, bands and lines at various positions.
 Examine the stone in different directions, as some stones exhibit directional absorption spectrums.
 Make a conclusion by considering all the lines and bands seen in each different direction.
 The nature of the spectrum observed is affected by the lighting, transparency of the stone, depth of colour etc.
 Dust or dirt cause dark horizontal lines, across the spectrum.
Transition Elements
Elemen Spect
Colour
t rum
Weak
absorp
tion in
the
Vanadiu Usually plays secondary role. Green: beryl, tsavorite, color changing
blue
m sapphire, tanzanite.
and
green
portio
ns.
Broad
absorp
tion in
violet
and
green
Chromiu Red: ruby, spinel, pyrope garnet. Green: emerald,
with
m demantoid garnet, jadeite, alexandrite.
narro
w
lines
in the
red
area.
Broad
absorp
tion
bands
in
Yellow: chrysoberyl, citrine. Green: sapphire, peridot, tourmaline. Bl blue-
Iron
ue: aquamarine, spinel, sapphire. Red: almandine garnet. green
portio
ns of
the
spectr
um.
Nickel Green: chrysoprase, prase opal. Norm
ally
no
absorp
tion
Elemen Spect
Colour
t rum
patter
n,
when
presen
t,
seen.
Broad
absorp
tion
bands
Mangane in the
Pink: rhodochrosite, rhodonite, morganite, kunzite.
se violet
and
blue
portio
ns.
Very
faint
absorp
tion if
Copper Blue: chrysocolla, azurite, turquoise. Green: malachite, dioptase.
any,
in the
blue
area.
Three
bands
in the
green,
yello
Cobalt Blue: synthetic spinel, glass, synthetic blue quartz.
w and
orang
e
portio
ns.
Absor
ption
is
Titanium Occasionally occurs with Iron. Blue: sapphire, benitoite. with
iron in
the
blue.
Rare Yellow: apatite, danburite. Green: sphene. Sever
Elemen Spect
Colour
t rum
al
sharp
Earth
bands
(Neody
in the
mium,
yello
Praesody
w
mium)
region
.

The Light Spectrum

Color Angstrom Units (A.U.) Nanometers (nm)
Ultra-Violet 1000 - 3900 100 - 390
Violet 3900 - 4300 390 - 430
Blue 4300 - 4900 430 - 490
Blue-Green 4900 - 5100 490 - 510
Green 5100 - 5500 510 - 550
Yellow-Green 5500 - 5750 550 - 575
Yellow 5750 - 5900 575 - 590
Orange 5900 - 6300 590 - 630
Orange-Red 6300 - 6500 630 - 650
Red 6500 - 7000 650 - 700
Deep Red 7000 - 7800 700 - 780
Infra Red 7800 - 10,000,000 780 - 1,000,000

ULTRA VIOLET LAMP

Ultra Violet Lamp

Ultra violet radiation has a range of wavelengths from 400nm to up to 10nm.

However, the usable range is from 400nm to 200nm.
 Long wave U.V. lamps: 410nm to 300nm range.
 Short wave U.V. lamps: 300nm to 200nm range.

Uses of ultra violet lamp:

 To detect fluorescence and phosphorescence.

 At times to distinguish between natural and synthetics.
 Gives an idea about colouring elements present in the stone.
 Detect treatments done on the stones.

Procedure:

 Place the stone on a dark background within a viewing cabinet and note the type of radiation used - whether
long wave or short wave.
 The stone should be held close to the ultra violet source of radiation, at a constant distance.
 Observe the fluorescence/ phosphorescence in the dark.
 Analyze the stone in different directions and observe the external and internal reactions in the stone.
 Note the stone's reaction and check the intensity and colour of fluorescence.
 If the stone glows, it is fluorescing; if not, it is Inert.
 Some stones continue to glow after the radiation is cut off. This effect is called phosphorescence.

Precautions:

 Do not look directly into the unit because it will make your eyes burn.
 Avoid holding the stone with your fingers or tweezers.
 Transparency of the stone should be considered. Some opaque and transparent stones of the same species,
will give different reactions.
 Fluorescence may vary from one stone to the other because of chemical impurities, strain in the structure,
matrix or other foreign material.

Limitations:

 This is not a confirmatory test. It should be considered as an indicative test.

 Prolonged exposure to ultra violet radiation is harmful.

Common Fluorescent Colours

Stone Short Wave Long Wave

Fluorite Strong Violet Violet
Synthetic Sapphire (color changing) Chalky Orange Violet / Orange
Natural Blue Sapphire Inert Inert
Synthetic Blue Sapphire Chalky Inert
Moonstone Pinkish Inert
Synthetic Blue Spinel Chalky Blue Strong Red
 Stone Short Wave Long Wave
Ruby Strong Red Moderate Red

Luminescence: Some minerals when irradiated or acted upon by other

external factors can emit light. The ability to do this is called luminescence. It
may be exhibited when the mineral is subjected to:

 Ultraviolet rays, visible light rays (photoluminescence),

 X-rays or cathode rays (X-ray or cathodoluminescence),
 Mechanical deformation (triboluminescence) etc.

Luminescence is characterised by:

 colour
 intensity
 excitation
 duration

Luminescence is linked to lattice disturbance especially due to the presence

of foreign ions which function as activators. When subjected to excitation by
ultraviolet light or x-rays, the electrons in the activators absorb a quantum of
energy and are raised to a higher excited level. Subsequently, when the
irradiation source is switched off, they fall back to their ground level and
the energy which is released is in the form of the appropriate wavelength
electromagnetic radiation.

 This emitted radiation is always of a longer wavelength than that of the original excitation. It is known
as fluorescence. The substance ceases to luminesce when the source of irradiation is switched off.
 If, however there is an observable delay before the electrons gives up their surplus energy by emitting light, the
phenomenon is called phosphorescence, i.e. if the luminescence continues for a noticeable period after the
irradiation source is switched off. This is an 'after-glow' effect. In this case the release of energy occurs in two
steps with a lag effect.
 Both fluorescence and phosphorescence are grouped under the common heading "photoluminescence" to
distinguish it from luminescence caused by other forms of energy such as heat or friction.
 The fact that the emitted radiation is always of a longer wavelength than that of the applied radiation is of prime
importance. It means that visible light is often emitted by a gem mineral when it is irradiated by a source having
a much shorter wavelength, such as ultra-violet light or X-rays.
 With some gemstones (natural and synthetic), even the short wavelength visible light in the blue / violet end of
the spectrum will result in the emission of a longer wavelength of red light.
 The colour and intensity of the luminescence of minerals are of various natures and cover a wide range with
different kinds of mineral species. Minerals are known to show violet luminescence (fluorite), blue (scheelite),
orange (sodalite) or red (ruby).
 Cases are not rare when one mineral can luminesce in different colours, e.g. calcite is found to have red,
orange, yellow, green or light blue luminescence.

REFLECTIVITY AND REFLECTANCE METERS

The principle of Reflectivity came into its own with the need for a fast
method for identifying gemstones with a refractive index over the limits of a
standard refractometer.

 According to the French physicist Fresnel, reflectivity is the ratio of the intensity of the reflected ray to that of the
incident ray.
 The light reflected from a surface is a measure of that surface's reflectivity or lustre.
 Reflectivity is dependent mainly on the refractive index of the gemstone along with its structure and
transparency.
 Reflectivity meters are calibrated in terms of comparative reflectivity and not in absolute terms, i.e. they indicate
the differences in reflectivity between polished stones.
 Reflectivity meters are generally calibrated using diamond as a standard.
 Reflectivity meters consist of a light emitting diode (LED) which is an infra red source (approximate 930nm)
which acts as the incident light, a detector to sense the amount of light reflected from the sample and a meter
which displays it.

Important factors to be remembered while using these meters are

as follows:

 Stone should be absolutely clean and dust free.

 Polish of the stone should not contain any scratches.
 An opaque cap must be placed over the sample to prevent external light from entering the instrument.
 A single sample should be examined a number of times in different directions so as to eliminate misleading
results.
 It is useful for separating diamond from its simulants.
 There are a number of reflectivity meters in the market - namely the Jewelers Eye, Jemeter, Lustremeter etc.

THERMAL PROBE
Thermal Conductivity: Heat conduction by a material has been used
primarily in the identification of diamond from its simulants.
 Breath Test is based on a diamond's high heat conduction (the rapid dispersion of the film of moisture on the
diamond's surface acting as an indicator). This test has been used with varying degrees of success for many
years.
 At room temperature, the thermal conductivity of:
 Single crystal diamond varies from 1000 W/m/°C for Type I material to 2600 W/m/°C for Type IIa material.
(Watts/metre/degree Celsius)
 Synthetic cubic zirconia, one of the early man-made diamond simulants, has a very low thermal
conductivity of 10 W/m/°C.
  All other possible simulants, corundum has the highest value at 40 W/m/°C.
 The most recent of simulants is synthetic moissanite which has a thermal conductivity very similar to diamond
and as a result gives the same reaction to the thermal testers, as diamond.
 The instrument used to measure thermal conductivity is the Thermal Probe. It consists of a pen type test probe
and a battery operated control unit.

Procedure:

 The copper tip is in thermal contact with two miniature thermistors (i.e. ceramic elements) whose resistance
varies inversely with their temperature.
 If the tip is pressed against the facet of a diamond, each short pulse of heat is conducted away and the
temperature of the tip falls.
 If the probe tip is held in contact with a poor heat conductor, such as a diamond simulant, the tip temperature
rises to an intermediate level which is significantly higher than that for diamond.
 While testing a stone, the probe tip must be held in contact with, and at right angles to, the surface of the gem,
for at least three seconds until a constant reading is obtained.
 Two test surfaces are provided on the instruments control panel for checking calibration.
 The copper tip in the test probe is spring-loaded and retracts into the body of the probe when pressed against
the surface of a gemstone.
 The Moissanite Tester was developed and marketed by C3 Inc. The C3 tester is used to identify diamond
from synthetic moissanite after both give a positive reaction to the thermal probe. This tester determines the
relative transparency in the near ultra-violet, where diamond transmits while synthetic moissanite absorbs and
indicates the same on the instrument. A word of caution, heavily included diamonds may not transmit and may
give an incorrect response.

1. Electrical Properties: These properties are observed in gemstones in various ways.

 Tribo-electricity or frictional electricity is the property possessed by certain gem materials whose surface
develops an electrical charge when rubbed. E.g. amber and plastic
 Pyroelectriclty is the property possessed by certain gem materials which develop an electrical charge
when heated e.g. tourmaline and quartz.
 Piezoelectricity is the property possessed by certain gem materials which develop an electrical charge
when pressure is applied mechanically in certain directions e.g. tourmaline and quartz.
 Electrical Conductivity: Most gemstones are insulators with a few exceptions. One characteristic
example is that of natural Type II b blue diamonds which contains boron as an impurity and is a semi-
conductor, while irradiated blue diamonds are not. This can be measured with a conductivity meter. A
word of caution, natural coloured Type I a blue diamonds have been found in Australia which are not semi-
conductors.
2. Magnetic Properties: The reaction of a gemstone to a magnetic field may be either attraction (paramagnetism)
or repulsion (diamagnetism).
 Paramagnetism: Paramagnetism is possessed by iron, steel, nickel, cobalt and several gemstones.
Magnetic susceptibility or the strength of magnetic pull varies from mineral to mineral and this can be
measured by using a balance and a magnet. This property can be used to differentiate between similar
looking gemstones e.g. spessartine from hessonite or zircon.
 Gemstones which contain iron or manganese have magnetic properties.
 The percentage of iron in a gemstone is not the sole cause for magnetic susceptibility. E.g.
magnetite is strongly attracted to a magnet while pyrite (46% iron content) and hematite (70% iron
content) are unaffected by a hand magnet.
  Hematine, an imitation of hematite is attracted to a hand magnet. Though most hematite does not
have magnetic susceptibility, material from some sources is attracted to a hand magnet.
 Diamagnetism: A material is repelled by a magnet e.g. bismuth.

ADVANCED GEMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS

The need for more precise techniques for identification of gemstones,
synthetics and enhancements has led to the usage of advanced and
sophisticated equipment. Most of these techniques are based on the
spectroscopic properties of gemstones. Though there are a number of
different methods, almost all work on the same basic principle.

 Spectrometer:
 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer
 Laser Raman Spectrometer
 UV-VIS-NIR Spectrophotometer
 X-Ray:
 Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy
 Microscope:
 Scanning Electron Microscope

A comparitive look at the advanced techniques

Excitation
Instrument Targeted Area Application
Source
Infra Red Molecules and
FT-IR Spectrometery Molecular Analysis
Beams Atomic Groups
LRS Laser Beams Structural Bonding Molecular Analysis
UV-VIS-NIR UV and Visible Electrons in the Colouring agents and
Spectroscopy Light outer most shell Chromophores
EDXRF Spectroscopy X-Rays Inner Electrons Chemical Identification
SEM Electrons Specimen Surface Composition

FOURIER TRANSFORM INFRARED SPECTROMETER

The more convenient technique to identify gemstone is that of the Fourier
- FTIR. In the Nicolet avatar 360 E.S.P. model, the spectrometer collects
spectra from mid and near infra red region.

 The FTIRspectrometer consists of two parts:

 Michelson interferometer: This combines all the incoming Infra Red radiation into one interferogram.
  A mathematical program that operates on the Fourier transform principle - i.e. converts an interferogram
back into a spectrum (first into a transmission spectrum and finally into an absorption spectrum.

The infra red region is a broad region divided into three portions:

1. Near Infra Red = 750nm - 2500nm (13300 - 4000cm−1)

2. Mid Infra Red = 2500nm - 25000nm (4000 - 400cm−1)
3. Far Infra Red = 25000nm - 300000nm (400 - 33cm−1)

Procedure:

 Light is split into two halves by a semi-transparent mirror called a beam splitter.
 These two beams are then reflected back toward one another by two additional mirrors, one fixed, the other
moving, so that the two beams interfere when they come back together at the beam splitter, giving rise to an
interferogram.
 The interferogram then goes through the sample and some of the wavelengths are absorbed.
 The transmitted wavelengths, still in the form of an interferogram, reach the detector.
 The data is digitized and processed using a Fourier Transform program, which through a sequence of many
steps, transforms the final interferogram into an absorption spectrum.
 The Nicolet model is monitored by a computer that not only does the mathematics of the Fourier Transform but
also provides considerable flexibility to plot, display, and store and manipulates spectra.
 Absorption in the Infra Red region is due to vibrations; in far Infra Red from rotations of molecular and structural
components of the crystal.
 To vibrate, the atoms must get energy from some source, (in this case Infra Red) giving rise to an absorption
band.
 Bands are generally sharper for organic materials.
 Carbon in diamond and water in gem materials when present have specific signals in the Infra red region.

Sampling Technique:

 Transmission method
 Diffused Reflectance method

Applications of Infra Red Spectra: Absorption associated with vibrations

in the crystal structure, are characteristic of the given combination of atoms
constituting the gem.

Identification of gemstones:

1. Natural Turquoise = CuAl6(PO4)4 (OH)8 (H2O) from Gilson Synthetic Turquoise - Smoother pattern because of a
difference of aggregation.
2. Jadeite from Nephrite - sharper peaks in 4000cm−1 region are observed in Nephrite.
3. Identification of natural diamond from synthetic moissanite and synthetic cubic zirconia.
 Presence of H2O, (molecular) or (OH) group. Various forms of water have
characteristic patterns in mid infra red region due to structure, origin or
treatment. For H2O molecules, the symmetric and asymmetric vibrations
occur in the 3800 - 3600cm−1 region.

1. Synthetic amethyst & natural amethyst - different types of water absorption.

2. Heat treatment - water leaves the mineral first.
3. Natural emerald from synthetic emerald (hydrothermal) - Absence of Type II water molecule and presence of
chlorine in the synthetic. Absence of water molecule in synthetic flux emerald.

Types of diamond - la, Ib, lla, llb, nitrogen and boron have different
absorption patterns in the mid infra red.
Detection of Treatments through FTIR
1. Presence of 4941 and 5165cm −1 means that the diamond has been irradiated and heat treated to produce or
enhance yellow to brown coloration.
2. Detection of gem impregnations and also the type of agent (polymer, oil, etc.) or material used on the stone,
e.g.: polymer - impregnation of opal / turquoise.

Advantages:

 The entire spectrum is recorded at the same time in the form of an interferogram.
 100 or even 1000 spectra of the same sample can be done in a very short time so that an average can be
taken.
 Reduced heating of the sample and consequent spectral perturbations are avoided.
 FTIR concept uses a laser, both to check the moving mirror displacements, as well as an internal reference for
wavelengths.
 FTIR is both fast and accurate.
 FTIR spectrometers are available with a microscope which is attached directly to the spectrometer. This
provides a fast and non-destructive microanalysis of specific regions such as the filler material within a surface
reaching fracture.

LASER RAMAN SPECTROMETER

In recent years LRS has assumed significance as a very useful technique in
gemology. The Raman microscope can be focused to observe very small
inclusions and provides a quick spectral analysis in a non-destructive
manner.

The LRS consists of:

 A classical microscope
 Laser excitation source
 Spectrometer for detecting the scattered light energy
 Computer for data collection and analysis Procedure

Procedure:

 An Argon laser beam is impinged on the sample being tested.

 A small fraction of this incident light interacts with the vibrational modes of the surface being examined.
 The energy differences of the scattered light are detected by a spectrometer and than analysed by comparison
with the database.
 Absorption regions define the vibrational modes of the molecular groups and structural bonding thereby making
it a useful tool for elemental analysis.
 It is a quick and accurate technique.

Applications:

 Gem Identification - unknown gem stones; Natural / synthetic identification

 Study of inclusions and internal structure helps in:
1. Identification of geological environment and origin of gemstone.
2. Identification of exact nature of fracture fillers i.e. resin, oil etc.
3. Identification of the treatment i.e. heat, irradiation etc.
4. Identification of the enhancement by impregnation of opal, jade etc.
 Studded Jewellery.

Disadvantages:

 In identification of organic gemstones; fluorescence spectra of some inclusions are quite common and hence
can give misleading results.

UV-VIS-NIR SPECTROPHOTOMETER
This instrument is important since it measures the absorption features due to
electron defects or chromophore trace elements (colour causing elements).
The energies of the bonding electrons are responsible for the absorption
features.

 The UV-VIS-NIR (ultra violet - visible - near infrared) spectrum is expressed in nanometers and covers the
region from 200 to 2500nm.
 Absorption features are due to electron defects.
 While taking a spectrum, defined orientation directions should be maintained for better results. In isotropic
gemstones, any direction is considered. In anisotropic gemstones, the samples should be oriented using
specific crystallographic orientations.
 This is important in the identification of the transitions responsible for colour and pleochroism.

These spectra help in detecting:

 Gem Identification - unknown gem material; Natural / synthetic identification.
 Identification of geological environment and origin of gemstone.
 Identification of the treatment i.e. heat, irradiation etc.
 Type classification of diamonds.

ENERGY DISPERSIVE X-RAY FLUORESCENCE

SPECTROSCOPY
 EDXRF is purely a surface analysis and is used to determine the bulk chemical composition of the sample
surface area seen only in the X-ray region.
 Different energy sources maybe used an X-ray tube or an electron beam.
 A multi-channel analyser is used which gives a complete spread and separation of the wavelengths which is
observed as a definite line spectra and expressed as kev / counts.
 Depending on the element to be measured, different filters are utilized.
 Elemental percentages are calculated using compatible software.
 The spectrometer analyses elements which have a higher atomic number than 11. The lighter elements i.e.
below Sodium (atomic number 11) cannot be detected. Since beryllium cannot be measured, a distinction
between corundum and chrysoberyl cannot be made.
X-rays and Their Uses

X-rays have a wide application in gemstone identification.

 X-rays are high frequency electromagnetic rays.

 They possess the ability to pass through a substance which is normally opaque to ordinary light.
 The greater the atomic mass of a substance, the greater is its opacity to the rays. E.g. carbon, oxygen, nitrogen
have low atomic masses and are more transparent to X- rays while iron, calcium, zirconium which have higher
atomic masses are less transparent to the rays.

X-rays are used in gemstone identification as follows:

 Fluorescence: Gemstones exhibit fluorescent effects. E.g. Diamonds exhibit varying luminescence;
Natural Pearl is generally inert while cultured pearls give a greenish yellow fluorescence, due to the presence of
manganese. This is also observed in all freshwater and some Australian natural pearls and is therefore not
conclusive.
 Transparency: This is useful while examining complete pieces of jewellery e.g. in a pearl, transparency of
conchiolin differs from the calcium carbonate pearl structure and therefore presents a distinctive appearance.
Gemstones with heavier elements will be more opaque to X-rays, as is seen in synthetic cubic zirconia when
compared to the transparency of diamond. Composite stones would present varying transparencies in the
different portions.
 Diffraction: X-ray diffraction is useful in identifying crystal structure (powder diffraction) and the analysis of the
Laue diffraction patterns (spot pattern) in identifying the gemstone. Diffraction patterns are distinctly different for
natural and cultured pearls. Natural pearls have a radial structure made up of aragonite crystallites while
cultured pearls contain a bead nucleus surrounded by aragonite crystallites. A narrow X-ray beam is passed
through the pearl in at least two directions. A hexagonal spot pattern in all directions is seen in natural while a
hexagon and a square pattern in two different directions (90° to each other) is seen in cultured pearl.
 SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
SEM is highly sophisticated equipment and only a few gemmological
laboratories in the world have access to it. This technique is surface oriented
and provides a very high magnification of the surface topography. With
additional attachments, elemental analysis can be obtained.

 The basic features include a fine stream of electrons which are focused at a particular angle on the specimen
which is scanned in a series of parallel lines.
 In this technique, secondary electrons are emitted from the specimen due to collision with the high energy
incident beam.
 High energy backscattered electrons are emitted. These are electrons from the incident rays which have
interacted with the specimen and then reflected out.
 The intensity of both emissions is collected, and converted with compatible software to a visible image.
 Polished specimens give a better result, since in rough specimens the variations are due to surface rather than
the actual structure.
 In most cases the samples have to be coated with a layer of silver or gold for more accurate results.
 This is useful in the identification of gemstones, their origin and treatments such as the glass fillings
in ruby (since ruby fluorescence masks these peaks in all the other mentioned techniques).

SYNTHESIS & SYNTHETIC

The International Confederation of Jewellery, Silverware, Diamonds, Pearls
and Gemstones (CIBJO) define synthetics, imitations and composite
gemstones as follows:

1. Synthetic Stones are crystallised or recrystallized products whose manufacture, by which ever method, has
been caused completely or partially by man. Their physical and chemical properties and/or their crystal structure
essentially correspond to their naturally occurring counterparts.
2. Imitation Stones are simulations of natural or synthetic stones, products made entirely or partially by man.
These stones imitate the effect, colour and appearance of natural gemstones or synthetic stones without
possessing their chemical composition and/or their properties and/or their crystal structure.
3. Composite Stones are crystalline or amorphous bodies composed of two or more parts assembled not by
nature, but by cementing of the pieces or by other artificial methods. Their components may be either natural
gemstones or other minerals, or synthetic stones or a chemical product.
4. Reconstructed stones are artificial products, manufactured by melting, bonding, or fusing materials to form a
coherent whole. Natural and synthetic chips or waste materials are commonly bonded, as is seen in turquoise,
coral etc.
5. Synthetic Overgrowth: In 1960, Johann Lechleitner of Austria synthesized a hydrothermal overgrowth emerald
on a natural beryl seed. These emeralds were often referred to as Lechleitner emeralds or as sandwich
emeralds (in the case of synthetic emerald overgrowth on a colourless seed). Over the years Lechleitner
synthesized a number of different overgrowth stones with the finished products having various colours.
 Overgrowth is a process by which feed material is allowed to grow on a seed crystal by a man made process.
The seed crystal may be natural or synthetic.
 In this process, a layer by layer growth takes place on the seed crystal. In the case of overgrowth emerald, this
results in:
 parallel lines along the length of the stone
 a chess board pattern of fine fingerprint like inclusion or fractures which are observed in the synthetic
overgrowth portion only.
 Euclase or phenakite crystals can occur at the junction within the synthetic overgrowth.
 In the case of Lechleitner corundum (overgrowth ruby, blue & yellow sapphire), the internal pattern exhibited:
 wispy veil - like fingerprint inclusions
 flux fingerprint inclusions or sometimes curved growth lines in the synthetic portion
 characteristic square and rectangular appearance of the fingerprints (Lechleitner-design)
 Some examples are:
1. Synthetic Pink Corundum over Verneuil Colourless corundum.
2. Synthetic Ruby over Verneuil Ruby
3. Synthetic Ruby over Natural Corundum

Synthesis of Gemstones: In the earliest recorded attempts to synthesis

gems, natural stones were buried in the ground in the hope that they would
reproduce or grow large over the years. Experiments by scientists have tried
to simulate the natural growth conditions which exist at the time of crystal
formation. In recent years, research in crystal growth has led to many
important advances in gem synthesis.

There are three major methods which are employed in the commercial
productions of synthetic gemstones.

 Flame Fusion Process (Verneuil)

 Flux Fusion Process
 Hydrothermal Process

Some other methods employed to produce sythetic gemstones are:

 Czochralski Process (Crystal Pulling Technique)

 Skull Melting Process
 Gel Growth Process
 Ceramic Techniques (not true sythetics)

HOW SYNTHETIC DIAMONDS ARE MADE?

Diamond Synthesis was authenticated by General Electric in 1955. Today
there are a number of laboratories which synthesizes diamonds, though
 largely of industrial quality. Since 1970, gem quality diamonds have been
synthesized and with the growth of type la yellow diamonds for heat sinks
and other industrial uses by Sumitomo Electric Co., it will not be too long
before they are available easily.

The Reaction Cell (Flux)

 The reaction cell is made of pyrophyllite and is inside a carbon tube heater, which is heated by an electric
current.
 Industrial grade synthetic diamond is used as the source of carbon.
 On each side of this carbon source is a catalyst, such as iron or nickel, which becomes molten on applying
high heat and pressure.
 A temperature differential of about 10-15°C is maintained between the centre and the ends of the cell.
 The pressure applied to the reaction cell is 60,000 atmospheric pressure (approx. 900,000 psi).
 The carbon dissolves in the hotter part (1455°C) of the cell, moves through the metallic flux and recrystallises
on the seed crystal where temperature is lower (1425°C).
 These conditions are maintained for several days at 60,000 atmospheric pressure.
 The pressure is applied in two different ways:
1. Bert Apparatus Process
2. Split Sphere Process
1. Belt Apparatus Process:
 It consists of giant steel / bars or belts that apply pressure.
 Reaction cell is placed m a die and swung into a space between two anvils.
 The pressure is applied from top and bottom while heat is applied from sides.
 The anvils and die are supported by multiple rings.
2. Split Sphere Process:
 It consists of two sets of anvils, on which the pressure is applied.
 The outer set consists of eight anvils forming a cavity in octahedron form.
 Inside this set lies a set of six additional anvils.
 These anvils form a cube shaped central cavity, in which the reaction cell is placed.
 The pressure is applied by injecting liquid of unknown nature into the compression barrel which applies
pressure onto the anvils.
Identification of synthetic diamond
 Magnification: The characteristic inclusions seen are:
 Colour zoning in the form of a square or rectangle, the central area being surrounded by darker coloured
areas.
 Graining - Rectangular or octagonal shaped internal graining lines projecting outward from each corner.
 Metallic Inclusions - Large rounded or elongated inclusions with a metallic lustre, numerous pinpoint
inclusions.
 Ultra Violet Lamp: Green / Yellow Luminescence in both the waves.
 Spectroscopy - Moderate absorption band between 450 and 500nm, weak bands between 470 and 600nm.
SUBLIMATION PROCESS (SYNTHESIZING SYNTHETIC
MOISSANITE)
The process is used to synthesize synthetic moissanite, comparatively a
newer and best diamond simulant after synthetic diamonds. Synthetic
moissanite was launched in the market in 1997 by C3 Inc. Initially synthetic
moissanite was available in colorless to near colorless shades, but now fancy
colored synthetic moissanites are also being developed.
How synthetic moissanite is manufactured?
 In the process, feed material (silicon carbide) vaporizes and recrystallizes on the seed crystal without being
passing through the liquid stage.
 Feed material is placed in one part of the crucible that dissolves on heating, and diffuses through the graphite
and gets deposit on the seed crystal.
 The exact details of the process have not been released.

Identification of synthetic moissanite:

 Colourless, Yellow, Green, Pink, Brown

 Strong doubling, reflecting needles parallel to optic axis and crystals (hexagonal).
 Strong dispersion of 0.105.
 Moissanite tester being introduced by C3 Inc. for separating diamond from moissanite, may be misleading,
room temperature affects the results.
 Thermal probe used for diamonds cannot differentiate moissanite because of high thermal conductivity.

VERNEUIL OR FLAME FUSION PROCESS

Developed in the 1890's by the French scientist A. Verneuil, this is one of the
first methods used to produce synthetic gemstones, initially for corundum,
thereafter for a number of other gemstones.

How gemstones are synthesized by flame fusion process?

This method is based on the melting of very finely pulverized alumina in an
oxy-hydrogen blowpipe type burner. This requires a highly purified alumina
which is prepared by repeated crystallization and later calcination of
ammonium alum.

 The alumina is placed in a container or hopper which is tapped from above by a hammer at regular pre-selected
intervals and regulates the flow of powder.
 This powder drops through the oxy-hydrogen flame, melts and falls on a rotating pedestal, where it solidifies.
 This pedestal is lowered slowly to allow cooling and crystallization of the corundum boule.
 The flame temperature generally ranges from about 1000°C to 2400°C since the melting point of corundum is
approximately 2050°C.
 Both the growing crystal and the flame are protected from temperature variations by a circular ceramic heat
resistant walled area.
 Boules are generally up to twelve inches, in size.
 The different varieties of corundum are obtained by adding various metallic oxides to the alum before it is
calcined. Examples:

Ruby 1% to 2% chromium oxide

Dark brownish red
chromium oxide + iron oxide
ruby
Blue sapphire 2% iron oxide + 1% titanium oxide
iron oxide + nickel oxide + uranium oxide + titanium oxide
Yellow sapphire
+ thallium oxide
Purple / violet
iron oxide + chromium oxide + titanium oxide
sapphire

The one major disadvantage of this method is that a great deal of internal
strain is developed as a result of which there is a tendency for the stone to
crack.

Gemstones synthesized by flame fusion with its identification.

 Synthetic corundum (synthetic ruby, synthetic sapphire (all colours) synthetic star ruby, synthetic star
sapphire)
 Synthetic corundum has similar physical and optical properties as the natural counterparts.
 Under magnification - Gas bubbles, curved lines, curved colour bands in synthetic blue sapphire, unmelted
powder in various forms are seen.
 Synthetic star stones (Linde) contain fine silk at the surface along with gas bubbles and curved lines /
bands.
 Plato lines in light coloured corundum. (This is seen when the stone is immersed in methylene iodide
liquid and observed along the optic axis direction using cross polarised light. Dark lines appear at angles
to the optic axis direction along the polysynthetic twinning planes in the crystal).
 Some varieties give a chalky fluorescence under short wave ultra violet light.
 Synthetic Spinel:
 All colours except red
 Synthetic spinel in general is synthesized with higher aluminium content and as a result generally
exhibits A.D.R. (S.R.) reaction under the polariscope.
 The R.I. is 1.73 +
 The S.G. is 3.64
 Spectrums as per the colour.
  Synthetic red spinel boules tend to crack due to the internal strain and are therefore not commonly
synthesized by this method.
 Synthetic Rutile:
 Various colours.
 Yellowish body colour is common.
 Highly birefringent stone - D.R. 0.287, strong doubling.
 High dispersion of 0.290
 The S.G. is 4.20
 Gas bubbles under magnification.
 Strontium Titanate:
 In all colors.
 Colourless when pure, without any dopants, - diamond simulant.
 Isotropic character.
 The S.G. is 5.13
 High dispersion of 0.190
 Gas bubbles under magnification.
 Phenakite
 Phosphophyllite
 Prehnite
 Pyrite
 Quartz
 Rhodochrosite
 Rhodonite
 Sapphirine
 Scapolite
 Scheelite
 Serpentine
 Sillimanite
 Sinhalite
 Smithsonite
 Sodalite
 Sphalerite
 Sphene
 Spinel
 Spodumene
 Staurolite
 Strontium Titanate
 Sugilite
 Synthetic Cubic Zirconia
 Synthetic Moissanite
 Synthetic Rutile
 Taaffeite
 Topaz
 Tourmaline
 Tugtupite
 Turquoise
 Y.A.G.
  Zircon
 Zoisite
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FLUX FUSION PROCESS

This method was developed only in the late 1930's and has since been
perfected to a great extent.

 A flux is a material that lowers the melting point of a substance with which it is mixed.
 Some materials are quite insoluble in high temperature water, but are soluble in a flux.
 The common fluxes used are lead fluoride, lithium molybdate and boron oxide.
 Flux materials have fairly toxic fumes and are also very reactive materials.
How gemstones are synthesized by flux fusion process?

 In most cases the crucibles are made of platinum, but iridium and graphite are also used.
 Powdered ingredients are mixed with the flux in a platinum crucible.
 On heating, the flux melts and becomes a powerful solvent for the other ingredients which also melts.
 Cooling and evaporation causes crystallization of the molten material with or without the use of seed
crystals.
 As the growth is slow and equipment costs are high, these synthetics are expensive when compared with
those by the methods discussed earlier.

Gemstones synthesized by flux fusion with its identification.

 Synthetic Emerald:
 The characteristic inclusions seen are flux fingerprints in the form veils and droplets or globules,
hexagonal and / or triangular platelets, parallel growth structures or venetian blind effect, seed plate,
spicules and included crystals.
 Earlier flux emeralds have a lower R.I. = 1.56 - 1.565, D.R. 0.005. Recently available flux emeralds
tend to have similar R.I.'s as the natural counterparts.
 Earlier flux emeralds have a lower S.G. = 2.66. Recently available flux emeralds tend to have
similar S.G.'s as the natural counterparts.
 Flux emerald with high chromium content exhibit a strong red transmission to light, appear strong red
through the Chelsea filter, and appear strong red under ultra violet light.
 A few of the well known producers of these emerald are P. Gilson (France), G.F. Chatham (U.S.A),
Zerfass, Lennix, Seiko and Russia.
 Synthetic Corundum (Synthetic Ruby / Synthetic Sapphire):
 Synthetic corundum has similar physical and optical properties as the natural counterparts.
 Under magnification - flux fingerprints in the form veils and droplets or globules, flux droplets maybe
whitish or orange (Ramaura) in colour, hexagonal and / or triangular platelets, parallel growth
structures, zoning characterised by process, seed plate, spicules and included crystals.
 A few of the well known producers of these rubies are Kashan (U.S.A), Chatham, \/ocera (Japan),
Lechleitner (Austria), Ramaura, Knischka, Duoros (Greece), Tairus, Russia etc.
 Synthetic Spinel:
 Synthetic spinel has similar physical and optical properties as the natural counterparts.
 Synthesized in red and recently blue varieties.
 Under magnification flux droplets and veil like flux fingerprints are seen.
 Y.A.G.:
 Colourless when pure (without any dopants) - diamond simulant.
 Isotropic character.
 The S.G. is 4.55 - 4.60
 Dispersion - 0.028
 Flux veils under magnification.
 Synthetic Chrysoberyl:
 Synthetic chrysoberyl has similar physical and optical properties as the natural counterparts.
 Synthetic alexandrite and synthetic chrysoberyl cat's eye have been synthesized.
 Flux fingerprints, fine dust like pinpoint inclusions and droplets are seen under magnification.
 Synthesized by Creative Crystals, Ramaura, Seiko, Kyocera (Inamori), Russia.
HYDROTHERMAL SYNTHESIS
This method is closest to that of nature. This process was first used for the
synthesis of Quartz for use in industry. In 1960, the first hydrothermal
emerald was brought by Lechleitner. Over the years this process has
advanced to such an extent as to almost completely simulate natural
emeralds. The major differences still lie in the study of inclusions and
structural differences.

How gemstones are synthesized by hydrothermal process?

 A steel autoclave or bomb (in effect, a pressure cooker) is used.

 Crystals are grown in a sealed environment at very high temperatures and pressures.
 Seed crystal wafers (plates) of the desired material are hung in the upper portion of the vessel and lumps of
powder of the desired material (nutrient) are placed in the bottom.
 The vessel is partially filled with water and sealed.
 Heat is applied from the base and the material dissolves in the water, forms as a supersaturated solution, rises
to the top of the autoclave until all the available material has been deposited on the seed crystal wafers.
 Large well formed crystals are produced. Quartz crystals in excess of eighteen inches in length and 1.5 to 2
inches in diameter are produced.
 The size of the end product depends mainly upon the seed water, the amount of feed solution, and the length of
time involved.

Gemstones synthesized by hydrothermal with its identification.

 Synthetic Quartz:
 Synthetic quartz has similar physical and optical properties as the natural counterparts.
 Synthesized in colourless, smoky, amethyst, citrine, parti-coloured (ametrine), blue and green varieties.
 Most synthetic quartz is untwined and therefore exhibits circular interference colours when viewed under
cross polars along the optic axis direction.
 Synthetic quartz produced using natural twinned quartz seed crystals tend to exhibit partial Brazil law
twinning in a flame like manner when viewed under cross polars along the optic axis direction.
 Under magnification color zoning, whitish pinpoint inclusions - bread-crumb inclusions and seed plate
inclusions are seen.
 Synthesized by Sawyer Research Products (U.S.A), Russia etc.
 Synthetic Emerald:
 Synthetic emerald has similar physical and optical properties as the natural counterparts.
 Under magnification veil-like inclusions, nail head spicules, parallel growth structures, chevron (growth
features), hound's tooth structures, seed crystal, phenakite crystals, hexagonal and triangular platelets are
seen.
 Synthesized by Linde / Regency, Biron, Russia, Lechleitner, Agee, Tairus and Malossi.
 Synthetic Ruby / Sapphire:
 Synthetic ruby / sapphire have similar physical and optical properties as their natural counterparts.
  Under magnification veil-like inclusions, nail head spicules, growth zoning, chevron (growth features -
Christmas tree-like effect), seed crystal, hexagonal and triangular platelets are seen.
 Synthetic Beryl:
 Synthetic beryl has similar physical and optical properties as the natural counterparts.
 Synthesized in a number of different colours - blue, pink, yellow, violet etc.
 Under magnification veil-like inclusions, nail head spicules, parallel growth structures, chevron (growth
features), hound's tooth structures, seed crystal, phenakite crystals, hexagonal and triangular platelets are
seen.
 Synthesized by Russia, Crystal Research Co. (Australia), etc.

CZOCHRALSKI PROCESS (CRYSTAL PULLING

TECHNIQUE)
Also known as the crystal pulling technique has a number of technical
applications, since large crystals of good purity and optical homogeneity are
obtained.

How gemstones are synthesized by czochralski process?

 The source material is melted in a container (usually made of iridium) in an inert-gas atmosphere.
 A rotating rod with a seed crystal is lowered until it touches the melt.
 It is then slowly raised, allowing the molten source material, to solidify as the seed is slowly pulled from the melt.
 The product obtained is a tabular boule which is virtually flawless.
 Crystals which have lower melting points can be synthesized in the open, while high melting materials require a
shield to control heat loss.

Gemstones synthesized by this method are:

1. Synthetic Corundum (Synthetic Ruby and Synthetic Sapphire)

2. Synthetic Alexandrite
3. Yttrium Aluminium Garnet (various colours)
4. Gadolinium Gallium Garnet (various colours)

Identification:
When present characteristic inclusions include gas bubbles, curved lines and
curved colour banding. Y.A.G. and G.G.G. have characteristic properties.

SKULL MELTING PROCESS (SYNTHESIZING

SYNTHETIC CUBIC ZIRCONIA)
This process was perfected in USSR specifically for crystallizing synthetic
cubic zirconia, for uses in optical, electronic and laser equipment. Cubic
 zirconium oxide has a very high melting point and is a very reactive material.
No container can hold this melt since cubic zirconia has a melting point of
2750°C, and hence a cold crucible or skull is used.

How gemstones are synthesized by skull melting process?

 A container is filled with powdered zirconia, stabilizer and some pieces of zirconium metal.
 These are rapidly heated by a radio frequency field (similar to a microwave oven).
 The zirconium oxide powder is used as its own insulation and container as the temperature at the core is raised
to extreme levels.
 The metal reacts with the oxygen and melts, with the exception of a skin of about 1/15 inches thick at the
outside, which is kept solid by contact with the liquid - cooled copper tubes around - the skull.
 Zirconia and the stabilizer contents are kept molten for several hours to provide uniformity.
 The power is reduced and the skull is slowly lowered out of the coil.
 Crystal growth begins at the bottom of the skull and columnar crystals grow upwards until the entire melt
solidifies.
 The individual single crystal columns that are readily available are generally 2 inches in diameter.
 Light tapping will separate the crystal columns.
 Dopants are used to produce various colours.

Identification:

 Colourless when pure (without any dopants) - diamond simulant.

 The S.G. ranges from 5.60 to 6.20 (as per dopants used)
 Isotropic character.
 The dispersion is 0.060
 Some varieties exhibit a strong yellow fluorescence under ultra violet light.
 The characteristic inclusions seen are negative crystals, streams of zirconium oxide powder which appear as
tiny white spherical bubbles.

GEL GROWTH PROCESS (SYNTHESIZING SYNTHETIC

OPAL)
This method is used in producing synthetic opal. There are three basic
stages:
1. Formation of suspension of uniform silica spheres of the desired size / colour by carefully controlled mixing of
the chemical ingredients.
2. Sedimentation of the spheres to produce an orderly packing.
3. Consolidation, hardening and removal of excess water, probably by some combination of heat and pressure.
The process requires about one year with most of this time being spent in stage 2.

Gemstones produced by this method are:

 Synthetic Opal:
 Synthetic opal has similar physical and optical properties as the natural counterparts. In some cases can
be lower.
 Under magnification synthetic opals exhibit characteristic inclusions:
1. Lizard skin effect - a regular pattern of the silica gel.
2. Columnar growth patterns, when viewed from the side.
 Play of colour effects which are regular and in the same position when the stone is rotated.
 Synthesized by P. Gilson, Russia etc.

CERAMIC TECHNIQUE
A ceramic is basically:

 A finely ground inorganic powder.

 Which maybe heated, fired or sintered.
 Sometimes compressed to produce a polycrystalline solid.
 In some cases, a binding agent with a low melting point is used to hold the particles together.
 The surface maybe glazed.
 In all there are three main stages - grinding, precipitation and / or compressing.
 Most of the ceramic products are not true synthetics since they do not have the exact chemical composition of
the natural product which they simulate.
 Constituents used might be powders of the natural substance itself (reconstructed) or totally different chemicals.

Gemstones made by this method are:

1. Lapis Lazuli: (Gilson) Available with or without pyrite, lower S.G. of 2.46 and lower hardness of 4.5. Very even
surface texture.
2. Turquoise: (Gilson) Available with or without matrix, slightly porous, under magnification dark blue particles
observed in a white background.
3. Coral: (Gilson) Smooth texture, lack of pores and tree ring structure, lower S.G.
4. Jade: (General Electric) Initially made in 1984, but has not been commercially produced.
5. Yttralox: Used as a diamond simulant, is transparent, hardness is 6.5, R.I. of 1.92, dispersion of 0.039.

MAN-MADE GLASS
 Man-made Glass

The manufacturing of glass consists of mixing the raw materials, including

any colouring agent needed, to produce a mixture known as the batch and
melting them together in special crucibles called pots. The liquid glass
produced by this melting, known as a pot metal by the glass workers is then
used as required. To obtain coloured glasses traces of colouring agent is
mixed with the batch. Such colouring agents are usually, but not always,
metallic oxides.

Glass is divided into two main types:

 Crown Glass: consisting of silicon, potash, soda, lime. This type of glass is used in making moulded imitation
gems used in costume jewellery.
 Flint Glass: consisting of silicon, potash, lead oxide. These are the most important so far as gemstone
imitations are concerned. The presence of lead increases the dispersion and brilliance.

Glass imitation stones may be made:

 from sheets or rods (lapidary cut stone),

 by moulding. The mould used is of iron; one half having the impressions of the crowns of the stones and the
other half the pavilion. The mould is first oiled and then a layer of molten glass is spread upon the lower half and
the mould closed. On cooling the mould is opened and the moulded stones removed.

Gemstones commonly imitated by glass:

1. Transparent gemstones: All coloured as well as colourless
(e.g., diamond, ruby, sapphire, emerald, alexandrite, peridot, rhodolite, etc.).
2. Translucent to opaque gemstones: All coloured e.g., jadeite - "imori stone", nephrite, turquoise, coral, lapis
lazuli, shell, varieties of chalcedony.
3. Phenomenal gemstones:
 Chatoyant: produced in many colours. Cat's eye or cathaystone - contains long optical fibers that are
packed with a hexagonal cross-section, producing a honeycomb effect. In cut stones this is commonly
seen along the girdle.
 Aventurescent: Goldstone glass. Colourless glass containing brownish triangular or octagonal copper
crystals producing a glittery effect and an overall brown to orange body colour; also made in a variety of
colours.
 Play-of-Color: Slocum stone - glass with coloured foils producing the play of colour. Opal Imitation glass -
iridescent metal foil irregularly sandwiched between two layers of glass causing play of color effect.
 Adularescent: glass with a satiny texture, resembling moonstone.
 Orient: various types of glass beads are produced, with or without iridescent coatings to imitate pearls.

Foil backed glass (Chatons / Rhinestone): Glass imitations are backed by

metal foil in order to give a better reflection and brightness.

 The pavilion facets of the stone are backed by a mirror in a similar way as are ordinary glass mirrors.
 This is produced by a mercury amalgam which is then coated with a gold-coloured lacquer to keep the mirror
surface from damage. Such foiled stones are called chatons.
 A vacuum sputtering process has been experimented with in an endeavor to replace the mercury amalgamation
for foiling.

Paste: The significance of the world paste should be discussed. It is derived

from the Italian pasta which means dough or food, and was formerly used
exclusively for the cheapest types of glass imitation gems. Nowadays, it is
indiscriminately used for all glass imitations of gems, and often for imitations
in plastic.

The key to identifying both glass and plastic is being aware that these two
materials are always possibilities. They may imitate any gem materials and
have the same R.I. and S.G. as that material, yet they will not duplicate all of
its optical, physical and chemical properties.

Properties of Glass
Color / Variety All colors. / Phenomenal varieties.
Transparency Transparent to Opaque.
Hardness 5-6
Optic Character Amorphous, shows A.D.R., S.R. or A.G.G.
 S.G. 2.30 - 4.50
Common Range: 1.48 - 1.70
Higher Range: 1.70 - 1.90
R.I.
In general (not compulsory), a stone which is S.R. and has
an R.I. within the range of 1.50 - 1.70 is a glass.
Dispersion Variable. In some glasses strong dispersive fire is seen.
Gas bubbles (spherical, oval, elongated, tubular); hemispherical
Magnification / cavities on the surface; flow lines (swirl marks); concave facets -
Identification orange peel effect (slightly pitted and uneven on surface); rounded
face junctions (also seen in gemstones).
Variable, often chalky under ultra violet rays in both long wave and
Luminescence
short wave.
Hot Point No reaction, generally.

COMPOSITE GEMSTONES
Composite or assembled stones are made by cementing two or three pieces
together to produce a single stone. In general, when two pieces are
cemented together, they are known as doublets and when three pieces are
used, they are known as triplets. Irrespective of whether the stone is a
doublet or a triplet, it is essential to be aware of their existence and also to
know the means to identify them.

Composite stones are made for the following reasons:

 To improve colour and appearance.

 To improve phenomena.
 To improve durability (surface lustre or base support).
 To gain weight.
 To imitate any other gemstone.

Identification: Certain standard guidelines must be maintained while

identifying composite stones.

 Lustre: Varying surface lustre in some cases.

 R.I. for two opposite surfaces i.e. table and pavilion facets.
 Immersion: Composites must be examined immersed in a liquid, preferable with additional magnification.
 Two or more distinct parts are visible i.e. varying relief.
 A separation junction plane is seen.
 Inclusions will vary in the two parts e.g. natural and synthetic inclusion.
 Flattened gas bubbles along the junction plane may be visible.
  Coloured cementing material when present.
 U.V.: Varying fluorescence in different portions.
 Polariscope: Optic axis direction in the two portions may vary.

Composite stones are classified into categories using different parameters.

One system employed, stresses the nature of the gemstones used as is seen
in the following examples.

1. True Doublets: Two pieces of the same species but of different qualities e.g. ruby on ruby, opal on opal.
2. Semi-Genuine Doublets: Here the crown portion is made of the natural gemstone being simulated while the
pavilion is generally a simulant, synthetic or imitation e.g. Diamond on synthetic white sapphire, opal on black
onyx.
3. False Doublets / Triplets: Here the crown and pavilion is generally colourless quartz or glass with a coloured
cementing material or glass in the middle. Such composites can simulate almost any natural gemstone.

Another form of classification makes use of any one specific optical property
such as R.I., as a standard. In this case a systematic grouping can be done
by considering the R.I. ranges for the crown or table or upper portion of the
composite stone.

Commonly observed composite stones.

1. Opal: Composites are generally made:

 To provide a support to thin slices of opal.
 To enhance the play of colour.
 To gain weight.
 Opal Doublet: Opal slice backed by black chalcedony, black glass or potch opal. The cementing material
may be black or a dark coloured substance.
 Opal Triplet: A thin opal slice is covered by a rock crystal dome & backed by black chalcedony. The opal
slice may be natural or synthetic.

Identification is easier if the stone is immersed in water to observe the

junction plane. Care should be taken not to mistake a layer of natural
opal matrix which is left while cutting, for a doublet or triplet.

2. Quartz: Since quartz is widely available this is commonly used in composites. Originally, rock crystal on rock
crystal cemented with a green coloured gelatine was popularly sold as soude emerald (from the French -
soldered emerald) as an emerald imitation. Nowadays, both quartz doublets and triplets are available and serve
to simulate most gemstones.
3. Beryl: Composites are made using either colourless or light coloured beryl with or without coloured cement.
Commonly they are made to simulate aquamarine and emerald.
4. Jade: Triplets are made from three pieces of translucent white jadeite. The top portion is a hollow cabochon, the
middle is a dyed green jadeite cabochon which fits into the hollow cabochon and the base is an oval cabochon.
 The entire piece is then re-polished to eliminate traces of the joining planes. In set jewellery these cabochons
are not very easy to identify.
5. Spinel: Triplets are made using colourless synthetic spinel for the crown and pavilion, and a coloured gelatine
layer or coloured glass cemented in the middle. A wide range of colours is produced and therefore most
gemstones can be simulated.
6. Garnet: Garnettopped doublets are some of the oldest known doublets.
 Almandine garnet has the ability to fuse with glass which eliminates the need for a cementing material.
 Though the almandine slice is red, all possible colours can be got by using different coloured glasses.
 These doublets can be deceptive since the junction plane can be in any orientation and not always as the
conventional plane parallel to the table facet.
 An additional identification technique is the red-ring test, which is observed by placing the stone table
down on a white background.
 A white light source is held directly above the culet and a shadow or a red ring falls on the white surface.
 This may not be visible in the case of red or violet stones. The red flag effect may be observed while
an R.I. is taken on the table facet and is seen as a shadow on the refractometer scale.
7. Corundum: These are some of the most common doublets which are available. Some possible combinations
are listed below:

Crown Natural Green Sapphire

Overall color is blue.
Pavilion Synthetic Blue Sapphire
Crown Natural Green Sapphire
Overall color is red.
Pavilion Synthetic Ruby
Crown Synthetic White Sapphire
Overall effect is colorless.
Pavilion Strontium Titanate
8. Foil Backed Stones (Chatons / Rhinestones etc.): These are stones which have a coating on the back
facets. The coating may be a foil or a non-transparent material which basically improves the brilliance, colour
and / or phenomena in a stone
 E.g. rhinestones are foil backed glasses made to imitate diamond.
 In gold jewellery, stones are foiled to project a better colour.
 Star forms are engraved on a foiled base of a cabochon to appear as star gemstones.
 Multi-colored backing on a glass is done to imitate the play of colour in an opal.

GEMSTONE TREATMENTS (ENHANCEMENT)

 Enhancement and treatments are done on gemstones to improve their appearance, properties and
consequently their value. This is generally practiced on lower grade goods so as to increase their salability.
 In actual terms, improvements in a gem material may be specifically related to improvement in Colour and / or
Clarity and / or Phenomenon and / or Durability. In some cases a stone is subjected to more than one form of
treatment.
 A number of classifications have been put forward by ICA, GIA, CIBJO, jewelers associations in different
countries etc. As yet no single classification is considered as a standard.
 The terms enhancement and / or treatment are used ambiguously by members of the trade, though there is a
general concept that the acceptable ones such as oiling may be considered as an enhancement while glass
fillings, irradiation etc. as a treatment. The technical concept remains that - whether you call it enhancement or
treatment - they basically mean the same.
 The important factor is that total disclosure of whatever has been done to the stones is absolutely necessary
and is the general attitude of most jewelers these days.

Basic definitions of possible enhancements / treatments are as follows:

1. Bleaching: The use of chemicals or other agents to lighten or remove the colour of a gemstone.
2. Coating: The use of such surface enhancements as lacquering, enameling, inking, foiling or sputtering of films
to improve appearance, provide colour or add other special effects.
3. Colourless impregnation:
 The filling of surface breaking cavities or fractures usually with colourless oil, wax, plastic, natural or
synthetic resin (with or without hardeners), other man-made materials and glass, to improve durability and
appearance.
 The use of a colourless bonding agent (wax, polymers, plastic etc.) within a porous gemstone to give it
durability and improve appearance.
4. Coloured impregnation (Dyeing): The use of colouring matter to improve the colour by darkening the original
colour or improve colour uniformity in stones containing surface reaching fractures and cavities, or in porous
gemstones.
5. Lasering or Laser drilling: The use of a laser and chemicals to reach and alter inclusions in diamonds.
6. High Pressure High Temperature (HPHT): The use of a variety of high-temperature annealing techniques at
different pressures to enhance optical properties such as the colour and brilliance of certain types of diamonds.
7. Graphitization: The use of high temperature on poor quality yellow to brown diamonds to change the colour to
black.
8. Heating: The use of heat to effect desired alteration of colour, clarity and / or phenomena.
9. Irradiation:
 The use of gamma and / or electron bombardment to alter a gemstones color may be followed by a
heating process.
 The use of neutron bombardment, with the combination of any other bombardment and /or heat treatment
to alter a gemstone's colour (In U.S.A. such stones require an environmental safety release from the
Nuclear Regulatory Commission).
10. Diffusion: The use of chemicals in conjunction with high temperatures to produce colour and / or asterism -
producing inclusions.

The techniques are explained with respect to the nature of the gemstone
being enhanced, the materials used, the possible effects and the general
identification of the enhancement.

BLEACHING
 Nature of gemstone: Stones such as Ivory, Pearl, Tiger's Eye, Coral, Jade.
 Materials used: Hydrogen peroxide or any other bleaching agent.
 Possible effects: Generally used to remove colour discrepancies and provide a uniform coloration. In the case
of Tiger's eye the dark brown shade is bleached to a pleasing yellow.
 Identification: This is generally not easy to detect.

COATING, SPRAYING AND FOILING

 Nature of gemstone: Coating is done on almost any gem stone. Coating can be performed both on rough and
cut stones.
 Materials used: Wax, plastic, paints, resins, reflecting coloured papers and metallic foils, sputtering techniques
etc. are used.
 Possible effects:
1. In diamond, a special coating is performed known as Carbon Vapor Deposition (CVD) where a thin layer of
synthetic diamond is deposited over a colourless stone to imitate diamond. One the latest coated colours
are the black and green coated diamonds. The black diamonds appear opaque black but may actually be
dark browns which are semi transparent in transmitted light. The coating is probably due to a layer of
diamond - like carbon (DLC).
2. In the case of colourless topaz or quartz a thin layer of gold is deposited over the colourless topaz or
quartz to produce a blue colour. This has been marketed under the trade name aqua aura. A variety of
metallic elements are currently being used to produce different colours which are subsequently marketed
as red aura etc.
3. A coloured paper or metallic foil is pasted on the pavilion facets of cut gemstones or the base of the
cabochon to enhance the colour as well as the quality of light reflected from the stone.
 Identification:
1. Detection in loose stones can be done by boiling with acids or using a hot point or by scratching the stone
with a pointed fragment.
2. In the case of mounted stones, with the help of a lens, examine the back portion of the stone through the
table. Some form of crinkling or wrinkling of the coating or foiling is visible.
3. Identification is also possible by a careful examination of the unevenness of colour on the surface.

COLORLESS IMPREGNATION
For simplification, enhancement of a gemstone using any colourless material
in the filling of fractures, cavities or voids and for the compaction of porous
materials is considered under a single heading.

 Nature of gemstone:
 Any stone which contains surface reaching fractures.
 Porous stones.
 Materials used: Oil (cedar wood oil, linseed oil etc.), Canada balsam, wax, plastic, polymers, resins, glass etc.
 Possible effects:
1. Usage of fracture filler having a similar refractive index as that of the stone reduces the visibility of the
fractures and thereby improves the clarity of the stone.
2. In the case of porous stones, the internal pores and those on the surface are sealed, thus improving the
overall durability of the stone as well as its surface lustre.
3. Porous stones which exhibit a phenomenon can be stabilized by bonding as a result of which the
phenomenal effect is also enhanced.
 Stones enhanced: Almost any stone can be enhanced in this manner. For convenience, only a few of the most
routine stones are considered with respect to the materials used.
 Colourless oil: As per CIBJO regulations, the colourless oiling
of emerald, aquamarine, ruby, sapphire etc. is an accepted trade practice and does not require to be
disclosed. Most of the oils used are those which are not affected by temperature changes i.e. they do not
freeze and solidify in cold weather.
  Colourless Resin: Organic resins, such as epoxy resins are being used more often as they are more
stable as fracture fillers. Emerald, Aquamarine, Iolite, Amethyst, Peridot and Tourmaline are some of the
stones whose fractures are filled with resin. The brand name of opticon has inadvertently got linked up
with resin filling, and it is not uncommon to hear the term opticon treated stone among traders.
 Mixtures of colourless oils and resins.
 Polymers/wax/plastic: These are basically used as bonding materials for porous stones such
as turquoise, coral, opal, jade etc.
 Glass: Lead glass is currently used as fracture filler for diamond and ruby. The lead glass fracture filling
in diamond was originally promoted by Mr.Yehuda and the term Yehuda Diamond is often met with
among traders. Glass filling in ruby is done to fill fractures as well as surface pits, twin planes and cavities.

A large variety of fillers are being made available in the market on a daily
basis and identification of each and every one is outside the scope of this
book. Needless to say, a student must be aware of the developments in
this field. E.g. fillers which harden within a fracture when exposed to ultra
violet radiations.

 Identification: The criteria used to identify impregnations is quite distinct for fracture filled stones and porous
stones.
 Fracture filled:
 First locate the surface break of the fracture. It appears as a thin line on the surface and can be
better observed by reflecting light off the surface of the stone.
 Locate the direction in which the fracture is oriented within the stone.
 Reflect light off the fracture surface and observe any or all of the following:
 Trapped gas bubbles in the fracture due to incorrect filling.
 A single colour flash is seen which changes when the stone is rotated 90°. Common colour
flashes seen are yellow / orange to blue, or violet to pink.
 Lumpy and unequal patches within the fracture indicate incorrect filling.
 U.V. Fluorescence: Some filler may fluoresce distinctly different from the body colour of the stone.
 Hot Point: This may help to identify a filling in a fracture, but is a destructive test and should be used
as a last resort.
 Surface Lustre: In some cases, a distinct lustre difference is observed between the stone and the
filled fracture.
 Porous stones:
 Magnification: Under low magnification the impregnated porous stones may show a speckled or
slightly sugary appearance.
 U.V. Fluorescence: Some filler may show distinctly different fluorescence from the body colour of the
stone.
 Hot Point: This may help to identify different impregnating material - polymer, wax and plastic will
give a peculiar and distinct odour and may melt where the hot point is applied.
 Surface luster: Porous stones impregnated with wax generally have a waxy lustre.
 Other techniques: To conclusively detect the exact nature of impregnated materials (whether oil,
resin or wax) it is necessary to resort to Infra-Red and / or, Raman Spectroscopy, X-ray Diffraction or
SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope).
The need for identification of the exact nature of the filler material is of
prime importance these days and as a result sophisticated equipment are a
compulsory feature in laboratories.

DYEING (COLORED IMPREGNATION)

For simplification, enhancement of a gemstone using any coloured material
in the filling of fractures, cavities or voids and for the compaction of porous
gemstones, is considered under a single heading. This category also includes
techniques which involve a chemical reaction within the stone which may or
may not be formed as a result of heating.

 Nature of gemstones:
 Any stone which contains surface reaching fractures.
 Porous stones.
 Materials used: Oil (cedar wood oil, linseed oil) Canada balsam, wax, plastic, polymer, resin, glass etc. along
with additional colour, is introduced as filler.
 Possible effects: An overall enhancement of colour which is localized at fractures in fracture filled stones and
in pores in porous stones. The process can involve an additional treatment such as heating and chemical
reactions to stabilize the coloured impregnation.
 Stones enhanced: Almost any stone can be enhanced in this manner. For convenience, only a few of the most
routine stones are considered with respect to the materials used.
 Coloured oil / resin/ wax / polymers: The traditional technique of using natural vegetable oils with colour
known as Jhoban, as fracture filler for emeralds, rubies, quartz etc. is a major issue in the international
markets. This has assumed importance due to the fact that the materials are being used as fracture fillers
these days, also includes chemical dyes, paints, inks etc. which in most cases are not the natural
vegetable colours. Coloured wax and polymers are commonly used to improve the colour of coral, jade,
turquoise, etc.
 Colour as a result of chemical reactions & / or heating: This category includes stones said to be dyed.
A dyed stone is one in which the solvent evaporates and leaves the dye or pigment within pores, cracks or
gets attached chemically to the dyed material (Ref: Gem Enhancement by K. Nassau) The most common
examples include dyed chalcedony (in almost all colours) dyed quartzite, dyed corundum, sugar / smoke
treated opals etc.
 Identification: The criteria used to identify coloured impregnations are very similar to that for colourless
impregnation.
 Fracture filled:
 First locate the surface break which appears as a thin line on the surface.
 Locate the direction in which the fracture is oriented within the stone.
 Reflect light off the fracture surface and observe any or all of the following.
 Trapped gas bubbles and lumpy fillings in the fracture due to incorrect filling.
 Colour concentrations in fractures.
 Porous stones:
  Magnification: Under low magnification the impregnated porous stones may show a speckled or
slightly sugary appearance along with colour concentrations.
 U.V. Fluorescence: Some filler may fluoresce distinctly different from the body colour of the stone.
 Hot Point: This may help to identify different impregnating material - polymer, wax and plastic will
give a peculiar and distinct odour and may melt where the hot point is applied.
 Other techniques: To conclusively detect the exact nature of the impregnated coloured materials it is
necessary to resort to Infra-Red and / or, Raman Spectroscopy, X-ray Diffraction or SEM (Scanning
Electron Microscope).

Some specific examples of gemstones:

 Turquoise: Often porous and is sealed with wax or plastic to stabilize and improve the durability and colour. A
new treatment is that known as the Zachary treatment.
 Coral: Often porous and is impregnated with wax or resin to stabilize and improve the durability and colour.
 Black Onyx: Mostly agate which has been impregnated with sugar, which is then carbonized by acid treatment.
Similarly green onyx, blue onyx etc. are mostly agates which have been dyed using specific chemicals.
 Lapis lazuli: Very commonly dyed to obtain a uniform deep blue colour, maybe coated with a fine layer of wax,
maybe heated to stabilize the chemical reaction.
 Jade: A specific example is that of B-Jade. This is low quality jadeite which is initially bleached and then
polymer treated to produce a more uniformly coloured and durable material. Jadeite is dyed in many shades,
green and lavender being the most common.
 Opal: Two well know techniques - sugar and smoke treatment improve the phenomenon of play of colour by
giving a darker background to the opal. Opals are polymer impregnated to enhance the colour and also the
durability of the stone. Sugar treatment is identified by the presence of black peppery effect just below the
surface of the stone, while smoke treatment is identified by the presence of cloudy effect.
 Corundum - ruby / sapphire: Glassy fillings in ruby are of two types. Smooth fillings in fractures, twin planes
and cavities which exhibit a high mirror like reflection and a difference in the lustre at the surface break. During
the heating process, ruby is coated with borax powder. This powder goes into a melt form and enters into any
surface reaching fractures. This has the appearance of flux like fingerprint inclusions with higher reflections.

LASER DRILLING
 Nature of gemstone: This technique is usually applied to diamonds.
 Materials used: A strong and thin laser beam for the drilling process, a vacuum furnace for cleaning & lead
glass for final filling.
 Possible effects: Generally used to remove coloured impurities in diamonds and thereby improve the clarity.
 Identification:
 Under magnification a difference in the lustre of lead glass and the diamond on the surface is noticeable.
 Colour flashes along the drill hole is seen on rotating the stones at varying angles namely yellow, orange
and blue colour flashes.
 Discoloration along the drill hole
 The drill hole maybe a single channel drill hole or a series of laser drill holes in a single plane giving a fan
like pattern and a surface break which appears as a thin rectangular depression.

KM treatment: Recently a newer technique has been introduced in

2000 A.D. known as KM treatment. This treatment is used on black inclusions
accompanied by internal fractures. One or more pulsed laser beams are
focused on the inclusion itself with the resulting heat creating an internal
fracture. The point of focus of beam is then moved towards the closest
surface of diamond at the same time creating a continuous fracture from the
inclusion to the surface. After this, diamond is boiled in strong acid with
pressure, to allow the solution to bleach out the inclusion. Identification of
treatment is almost impossible.

HIGH PRESSURE HIGH TEMPERATURE

 Nature of gemstone: This technique is applied to diamonds.
 Possible changes: Type 2a high colour (brown) diamonds to colourless or near colourless. Type 1a brownish
colour diamonds to yellowish green.
 Conditions: High temperatures (1600°C - 2000°C) and high pressures up to 70,000 atmospheric pressure) for
several hours to days. These are the conditions required for diamond to crystallize whether naturally or
synthetically.
 Cause: The cause of colour in diamond is the vacancies and defects. When diamond is exposed
to HPHT conditions, the crystal lattice undergoes through the process of reconfiguration, which results in the
destruction of vacancies thereby changing the colour of the stone.
 Identification: The conclusive identification of these treated stones is very difficult or even impossible with
classical instruments. Sometimes, identification can be made if internal features like graining and strain patterns
are observed. Graphitization along cleavage cracks or feathers, melted crystals and burst halos are some other
features that may be encountered in HPHT treated stones. A conclusive identification can be made with
photoluminescence or cathodoluminescence spectra. They contain an almost negligible nitrogen percentage
which is observed in the spectra.

These treated diamonds were launched in 1999 A.D. by Lazare Kaplan

International (LKI) and General Electric (GE). These diamonds were marketed
with a branding on the girdle GEPOL to represent General Electric and
Pegasus Overseas Ltd. (the marketing firm). In 2000 A.D., they were
marketed under the name of Bellataire diamonds.

GRAPHITIZATION
 Nature of gemstone: This technique is applied on diamonds.
 Possible changes: Poor quality yellow or brown coloured diamonds changes to black.
 Conditions: Exposure of diamonds to high temperature ranging from 900°C - 1650°C in a vacuum, for a period
ranging from few minutes to several hours.
 Cause: Due to increase in temperature, without the application of pressure, diamond starts turning into graphite,
especially where there is some spaces in the stone like cleavage or feather.
 Identification: Concentration of black to gray graphite along the fractures and cleavages, sometimes form black
lines along the edges of fractures or cleavages.

HEAT TREATMENT
Some common terms used for heat treatment are baking, annealing,
heating, browning, combusting, cooking, firing, toasting and roasting.

 Nature of gemstone: Almost any gem material can be heated, except those that are affected by heat such
as emerald and opal.
 Materials used: Equipment can be a cooker, furnace, kiln, muffle, pot, oven, roaster, brazier etc. The heating
agents used include gases, oils, charcoal, wood, coal, heating coils etc.
 Possible effects: It is the process that causes alteration in physical and chemical structure of the gemstone by
the use of heat thereby changing the optical properties like colour or clarity. A wide range of changes are being
induced today by heat treatment.

Among them a few important ones are as follows.

S.No
Change Example
.
1. Darken Color Light blue sapphire to dark blue sapphire
2. Lighten Color Dark pink tourmaline to light pink tourmaline
3. Color Change Amethyst to Citrine
Removal of Secondary Removal of purplish hue from ruby, green color
4.
Color from aquamarine
Development of
5. Corundum
Asterism
6. Removal of Asterism Corundum
7. Structural Change Low zircon to high type zircon
8. Crackling Iris quartz, synthetic ruby
 Conditions: The effects induce depends upon the following:
1. The maximum temperature reached.
2. The time for which the maximum temperature is maintained.
3. The rate of heating.
4. The rate of cooling.
5. The chemical nature of the atmosphere
6. The pressure of the atmosphere
7. The nature of the material in contact with the gemstone.
8. The quality of gemstone used.
 Identification:
 Magnification: The most useful and valuable data is obtained from inclusions and surface features. These
are more clearly observed in corundum. The following features are seen:
  Pock marked girdle.
 Chatter marks or burn marks.
 Diffused silk.
 Partially melted inclusions.
 Burst halos around certain inclusions.
 Healed fingerprints.
 U.V. Lamp: Some heat treated gemstones show fluorescence characteristics which are different and
distinct from their unheated natural counter parts. Unless strong evidence from other sources suggests
otherwise, such observations in ultraviolet lamp should be considered an additional clue, though not
conclusive proof, of heat treatment.
 Characteristic spectrums are seen in heated stones using U.V. or Infrared Spectroscopy.
 Some gemstones show weak dichroism when compared with untreated natural counter parts.
Heat Treated Gemstones
 Amber
 Possible Changes: Darkening, Clarification, Sun-Spangled cracks.
 Conditions: Temperature: 175 ± 25°C, Chemicals: Rapeseed oil.
 Environment: Long but slow heating in sand.
 Stability: Quite stable till heated again.
 Beryl
 Possible changes:
1. Change yellow green to blue (aqua); yellow to colourless; orange to pink.
2. Change pink to colourless.
3. Remove maxixe blue; blue to pink, green to yellow.
 Conditions: Temperature: 450°C ± 50°C; Environment: oxidizing atmosphere.
 Causes: Iron is present within berylin two types of locations.
1. One type is located on an aluminum site and gives a yellow colour if present as Fe 3+. Heating
produces the change from Fe3+ to Fe2+ and hence the colour changes from yellow to deeper yellow.
2. The other type of iron is situated in a channel site and gives a blue colour that is unaffected by
heating. If both types are present, heating changes green aquamarine to blue aquamarine.
3. Heat also bleaches the colour due to a colour center in maxixe beryl.
 Stability: All treatments are stable.
 Chalcedony
 Possible changes:
1. Pale colors to brown and red.
2. Pale colors to milky white.
 Conditions: Ordinary temperature pressure conditions.
 Causes: Basically hydration alteration, usually limonite to hematite.
 Stability: Stable.
 Corundum
 Possible changes & Conditions:
S.No. Change Temperature Atmosphere Time
1. Lightening of dark blue. 1700°C Oxidizing 20hrs
2. Darkening of light blue. 1770°C Reducing 6hrs
Reduction of color zoning /
3. 1800°C Oxidizing 3hrs
yellow patch.
 S.No. Change Temperature Atmosphere Time
4. Reduction of blue patch. 1800°C Oxidizing 4hrs
5. Development of pink. 1800°C Reducing 3hrs
6. Intensification of yellow. 1800°C Oxidizing 2hrs
7. Development of blue. 1600°C Reducing 2hrs
8. Removal of silk. 1650°C Oxidizing 2hrs
9. Development of silk. 1500°C Oxidizing 2hrs
 Stability: All are stable to ordinary temperature but a few fade in months.
 Causes: The typical cause of most blue sapphires is caused by (Fe +2 - O - Ti+4) inter valence charge
transfer (IVCT) process. Varying ratios of Fe +3, with Fe+2/Ti+4produce - blue / green, green / blue, to green
and similarly appearing colours.

Certain types of corundums contain in their crystals lattice

 Various amounts of Titanium oxide (silk) and Iron.

 When these corundums are heated at elevated temperatures under reducing atmospheric conditions,
the Ti+4 atoms from the rutile are dissolved into the corundum crystal lattice, where the Fe +3 ions are
already in solution.
 As result pairs of ions form and produce blue colour.
 In case of yellow sapphire the change is due to Fe +2 / Fe+3 pairs of unstable colour centres or traces
of Fe+3 and colour centers.
 Diamond
 Possible changes:
1. Alter the surface by burning.
2. Change colour in chameleon diamond.
3. Modify natural yellow colour.
4. Modify irradiation colours to produce green, brown, orange, yellow, pink, red, purple etc.
 Conditions:
1. Warmed slightly with an alcohol flame or on exposure to light in case of chameleon diamond.
2. High temperature and high pressure to convert type 1a to 1b or vice-versa (yellow colours).
 Causes: Change in platelet structure, converts to bright yellow (Type 1a)
 Stability:
1. Chameleon diamonds very unstable even at room temperature.
2. Yellow colour is stable.
 Jade
 Possible changes:
1. Lightening green colour.
2. Darkening yellow and brown colours.
 Conditions: Varying.
 Cause: Yellow / brown inclusions on heating get oxidized and become more dark.
 Stability: All are stable.
 Quartz
 Possible changes:
1. Amethyst (violet) to Citrine (yellow) or bicolor amethyst-citrine (ametrine).
2. Amethyst to colourless to green.
 3. Smoky to paler to greenish yellow to green to colourless.
4. Rose to lighter to colourless.
5. Blue to modified or colourless.
6. Yellow or brown to red-brown or red.
7. Crackled for Iris quartz.
 Conditions:

S.No. Change Temperature Atmosphere

1. Smoky to pale brown 280°C Oxidizing
2. Smoky to blue green 280°C Oxidizing
3. Smoky to colorless 400°C Oxidizing
4. Amethyst to Citrine 450°C ± 50°C Oxidizing
5. Amethyst to Colorless 600°C Oxidizing
6. Pink to light pink 450°C Oxidizing
7. Pink to colorless 550°C Oxidizing
8. Deep blue to light blue 300°C Oxidizing
9. Colorless to Iris quartz 300°C Oxidizing
 Causes:
 The cause of colour in smoky quartz is colour centre, equivalent to Al3+. On heating, the electrons
are displaced and destroy the whole colour centers as all the electrons get paired with each other.
 In case of amethyst, the cause of colour is somewhat similar. A transition metal ion (Iron) is the
defect and can be removed on heating partially or completely.
 In deep blue the colour is again due to a colour centre.
 In pink quartz the cause of colour is due to Mn as an impurity. A change of valence state of Mn gives
a light pink.
 Topaz
 Possible changes:
1. Brown or orange to pink
2. Yellow or green to colourless.
3. Brown (Irradiated) to blue.
4. Blue to brown.
 Conditions:

S.N
Change Temperature Atmosphere Time
o
Brown or orange to Minutes to
1. 500°C Ordinary
pink Hours
Yellow or green to Minutes to
2. 400°C Ordinary
colorless Hours
Brown (Irradiated) to Minutes to
3. 200°C ± 50°C Ordinary
blue Hours
Minutes to
4. Blue to brown 450°C Ordinary
Hours
  Causes: All colors, except pink, the color is due to color centers. There are two types of color
centres. BFCC (brown fading color center) and BSCC (brown stable color center). In case of pink / orange
topaz, the color is due to chromium as an impurity.
 Stability: When BFCC topaz is exposed to sunlight for a few days, the color of the treated topaz fades,
while others are stable to light.
 Tourmaline
 Possible changes:
1. Red/pink to lighter shades to colourless.
2. Purple to blue or dark green.
3. Dark blue to light blue.
4. Dark green to light green / yellow green.
 Conditions: Due to the complex structure of tourmaline, the temperature for some colours varies from
260°C to 1000°C.
 Causes: Complex, but most of the blue or green is due to Iron as an impurity, red or brown is due to iron
and manganese together as impurities. Heating alters the valence state.
 Stability: Stable to ordinary temperature / pressure conditions.
 Zoisite
 Possible changes: Yellowish brown / greenish brown to deep blue (tanzanite).
 Conditions: Oxidizing atmosphere, temperature between 350° and 600°.
 Causes: Heating alters the change of state.
 Stability: Stable to ordinary temperature / pressure conditions.

IRRADIATION
 Nature of gemstone: Almost any gem material.
 Material used: Radiations used can be produced in a gamma cell, a linear accelerator, cyclotron, synchrotrons
and nuclear reactors or from atomic piles.
 Possible effects: In general, when a gemstone is exposed to some form of radiation for a period of time, in
almost all the cases:
 There is a change of colour.
 After irradiation the stone is subjected to heating to either obtain the desired colour change or to stabilize
the colour center formed.
 High energy radiations which affect the nucleus giving a good coloration can induce radioactivity in the
stone.
 Stones enhanced:
 X-Rays: These produce a surface coloration which is short lived and tend to fade either immediately, or
within a few hours or when opposed to strong heat. E.g.
 Light yellow sapphire irradiated to orange yellow
 Lilac pink kunzite irradiated to green
 Colourless topaz irradiated to brown
 Gamma Rays: These rays produce a uniform coloration in a stone without any localized heat being
generated. These rays in general do not induce radioactivity and are thus safer. E.g.
 Rock crystal irradiated to brown smoky quartz
 Light pink tourmaline irradiated to dark pink/ red
 Diamond irradiated to a uniform blue-green colour, on annealing, it becomes dark green.
 Electrons (also known as cathode rays or beta rays): These radiations produce only a surface
coloration and tend to generate localized heat. E.g.
  Colourless topaz irradiated to blue
 In diamonds, changes obtained are blue, blue-green, green (after annealing to about 800) type 1a -
yellow / type 1b brownish red / type 2a - brown.
 Neutrons: These are highly energetic uncharged particles which produce a uniform coloration. They
induce radioactivity in the stone. E.g.
 colourless topaz irradiated to blue (some common trade names are cobalt blue, sky blue, London
blue, Swiss blue etc.)
 Diamond changes obtained are green (after annealing to about 800), type 1a - yellow / type 1b -
brownish red / type 2a - brown.
 Other Radiations: such as high energy fast moving protons, deutrons alpha particles (helium ions) etc.
are also used, though they may induce radioactivity.
 Identification: The identification of irradiated stones is not possible with conventional gem testing equipment.
 In the case of gemstones which have just been irradiated or those with residual radioactivity, it may be
possible to detect signs of activity with a Geiger Mueller counter (measures radioactivity).
 Structural imbalances which are caused as a result of irradiation can be identified in some cases with the
help of spectroscopy - infrared and Raman spectrums. In irradiated diamonds the characteristic absorption
spectrum for yellow to brown irradiated stones is 594nm, 498nm; Brown: 498nm, 504nm (both of equal
intensity); Green: 504nm, 741nm.
 In the case cyclotron treated diamonds, under magnification:
 Those irradiated from the crown, show a dark ring within the girdle.
 Those irradiated from the pavilion show an umbrella effect or a number of dark shadow lines around
the culet.
 Those irradiated through the side, there will be a zone of colour near the girdle.
 A destructive technique would be to heat the specimens and observe the color change. This is not always
reliable.

In most cases the stones are annealed and also allowed to cool before they
are used for trading. The legal release levels set by authorities in different
countries varies. Some are as follows:

Country Nanocuries/Gram
U.S.A. 1.0 nci/g
U.K. 2.7 nci/g
Asia 2.0 nci/g

DIFFUSION TREATMENT (SURFACE & BERYLLIUM)

Diffusion treatment is divided in two parts:

1. Surface Diffusion
2. Beryllium Diffusion (also known as Bulk Diffusion)
Surface Diffusion
 Nature of gemstone: This is applied basically on corundum. Experiments are also being conducted on other
stones such as topaz.
 Materials used: High temperature furnace along with relevant chemical agents.
 Possible effects: Involves the addition of colour-causing chemicals by diffusing them into the stone by heating.
This results in a thin layer of colour at the surface of colourless or light coloured corundum.
 Stones enhanced: Currently this treatment is applied to obtain blue sapphire and ruby, both natural and
synthetic.
 Identification:
 Magnification: The most effective means of detecting a diffusion treated stone is its appearance in
Methylene Iodide liquid or in glycerin.
1. Greater relief, as indicated by a concentration of colour along facet junctions and around the girdle,
uneven or patchy facet-to-facet coloration.
2. Healed fingerprints, burst halos, melted crystals, partially absorbed and dot like (diffused) silk
inclusions are typical.
3. Localization, blotchiness of colour (caused by uneven diffusion and repolishing) seen just below the
surface or as colour bleeding in surface reaching fractures or cavities.
4. Pock marked and burnt surfaces on facets or over the girdle.
5. Dense concentration of very small, white inclusions with colour spotting just below the surface and
covering entire facets.
 U.V. Lamp: It does not provide diagnostic information for the identification, but some times - weak to
moderate, chalky bluish, white to yellowish white under short wave is seen.
 Refractometer: In case of diffusion treated ruby, multiple readings on individual facets and readings over
the range are seen.
 Certification: Such diffusion treated gemstones are certified as per CIBJO rules and regulations.
 Natural sapphire as artificially coloured sapphire
 Natural ruby as artificially coloured corundum
 Synthetic sapphire as artificially coloured sapphire
 Synthetic ruby as artificially coloured corundum
 Procedure: Currently, this treatment is applied to obtain blue sapphire and ruby.
 The colour of corundum is due to transition elements Iron, Chromium, Titanium or Nickel.
 Diffusion treatment first brings the necessary colouring agents (chemicals) into contact with the stone's
surface.
 The stone is then heated to high temperature, causing the lattice structure to expand and allow the
energized transition ions to migrate within the surface and hence a thin layer of colour develops around
the stone.
 The higher the temperature and longer the time used, the greater the depth of colour penetration.
 Method: To get blue / red colour, commonly colourless or light coloured faceted corundum is embedded in a
powder.
 For blue colour this powder consists of a major amount of aluminium oxide, a minor amount of titanium
oxide, and lesser amount of iron oxide.
 In case of ruby 3 - 6% of chromium oxide and 22 - 24% titanium oxide is taken in powder form.
 The samples embedded in powder are kept in an alumina crucible. The crucible is then subjected to
extend heating in a furnace.
 Conditions:
 Temperature: The elevated temperature ranges from 1600°C to about 1850°C (almost near melting point
of corundum).
 At temperatures below 1600°C, the process becomes uneconomically slow and at high temperatures the
surface may be damaged.
 Time: Heating time can vary from 2 hours to 200 hours.
 Atmosphere: Oxidizing.
 Results:
 The thickness of the colour layer varies from 0.07mm, (weak colour) to 0.42mm, (deep color) in corundum.
 After this process, the stones become pockmarked, have a burnt and crazed surface and show some
melting.
 Light repolishing removes these features.
Beryllium Diffusion
 Nature of gemstone: This is applied basically on corundum.
 Materials used: High temperature furnace along with relevant chemical agents like beryllium, lithium,
magnesium, etc.
 Possible effects: Involves the addition of colour-causing chemicals by diffusing them into the stone by heating.
This results in a penetration of colouring elements upto the core of the stone.
 Stones enhanced: Initially the treatment performed on pink sapphires to turn into pinkish
orange "padparadscha" shade. Now this treatment is being performed on all the colours of corundum to get
different fancy shades.
 Causes: The lighter element penetrates into the crystal lattice and takes the position of aluminium, changing the
colour. When beryllium enters the crystal of corundum, it imparts yellow color to the stone. When this yellow
colour mixes with the pink already present, it gives a pink orange "padparadscha" shade.
 Identification: The identification of these stones is very difficult with the classical instruments or routine tests.
 Like in the case of simple surface diffusion of blue sapphires and rubies, this treatment does not show any
colour concentrations on girdle or patchy facets.
 If present, these stones might show an internal colour rim when immersed in bromoform or methylene
iodide liquid and viewed in diffused white light.
 The treatment can be detected by a highly sophisticated technique known as LA-ICP-MS stands for Laser
Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectroscopy.
 The other way if one can get features like the characteristic body colour of the stone and inclusions of heat
treatment like diffused silk, burst halos, healed fingerprints, then it may be possible to identify.

 Modifications: Both rough and cut gemstones are modified externally to imitate natural gemstones. Such
modified materials require careful examination under magnification.
 For e.g. a cheap quality green beryl is surface modified:
 First drilling a hole at the centre.
 A deep green coloured glass is inserted into the hole.
 It is then coated with mud to give appearance of natural rough emerald crystal.
 A synthetic ruby is cut into hexagonal form to imitate red beryl.