Optics

In this topic, we learn to:

 Define the terms luminous & non-luminous

 Give properties of light
 Explain how reflection occurs & give the laws of reflection
 How to locate an image behind a mirror & give properties of such an image.
 Describe and draw refraction of light
 Calculate the refractive index of a medium
 Define the term real depth & apparent depth in relation to refraction
 Define the term dispersion & explain why it happens
 Define the term critical angle & draw its diagram
 Define the term total internal reflection & give conditions needed for it to
occur
 Give uses of total internal reflection
 Describe the difference between convex & concave lenses
 Define the terms principal focus & focal length
 Drawing convex lens diagrams
 Calculate the magnification of images obtained

Optics Ms C. Izzo Page 1 of 21

In this chapter we will be dealing with the visible light part of the electromagnetic
spectrum.

o Sources of visible light

For an object to be seen, the object has to:

1) Give off/ reflect light rays

2) These rays should enter our eyes

Luminous objects: these are bodies that emit (give off) their own light e.g. the sun,
a lamp, glow-worms, anglerfish

Non – luminous objects: these are bodies that reflect light off their surface e.g. the
moon, a desk, a table, planets, clothes

o Features of visible light

o It travels as waves and so transfers energy.

o It can pass through both a vacuum and a medium.

This is why the sun and the planets are visible from Earth.

o It travels at a speed of 3 x 108 m/s.

This is the fastest speed of anything and it is common to all waves of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

o It travels in straight lines.

Optics Ms C. Izzo Page 2 of 21

 This is observed when there are sun’s rays and when light
enters a room. It is also the reason why shadows are
created: light passes round the object but cannot pass
through the object.

o Reflection of light

When light hits a plane (flat) mirror, it is reflected as shown below:

Definition of terms:

• Incident ray: the ray which hits the surface of the mirror
• Reflected ray: the ray which is reflected from the surface of the mirror
• Normal: this is an imaginary line which is drawn as a dotted line at 90o to the
surface of the mirror and is used to measure the angles from
• Angle of incidence (i): the angle between the normal and the incident ray
• Angle of reflection (r): the angle between the normal and the reflected ray

When drawing a simple ray diagram, it is important that:

1) Straight lines are drawn in pencil to represent the rays.

2) The direction of the travel is shown on the lines using arrows.
3) The ‘normal’ line is drawn in pencil as a dotted line.
4) Angles are measured using a protractor with the 0o placed on the ‘normal’.

Optics Ms C. Izzo Page 3 of 21

Laws of reflection:

1) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

2) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie on the same side of
the mirror.

In the case when a ray of light hits perpendicular to the

mirror, the ray is reflected back along the normal as shown.

Locating an image behind the mirror

Light from the object hits the mirror and is reflected according to the law of reflection
(angle of incidence = angle of reflection). The reflected ray can be traced back, using a
dotted line, forming a virtual ray. This can be repeated for another ray travelling in a
slightly different direction. Thousands of rays could have been drawn but, for simplicity,
only two are shown. An image of the object will appear where these two virtual rays
intersect. The type of image formed in the mirror is called a virtual image.

Optics Ms C. Izzo Page 4 of 21

 Terms used to describe images:

Upright: image is in the same orientation as the object

Inverted: image is in the upside-down position relative to (when compared to) the
object

Laterally inverted: image is turned left to right relative to the object

Magnified: image is larger than the object

Diminished: image is smaller than the object

Real: image can be seen on a screen and the actual light rays meet to form it

Virtual: image cannot be seen on a screen and light rays have to be extrapolated to
locate it

Optics Ms C. Izzo Page 5 of 21

Properties of an image formed behind a mirror:

1. As far behind the mirror as the object is in front.

2. The same size as the object
3. Virtual
4. Laterally inverted

Mirror periscope

A very good use of mirrors is in the mirror

periscope. This optical instrument is useful
in submarines so that people below the
surface can see what is happening above
the surface. They are also used in
birdwatching so that a person stays hidden
during observations. The mirrors are
placed at a 45o angle. When the light enters
the periscope, it is turned through 90o at
each reflection. This causes the image to
enter upright into the person’s eyes.

Worked example:

A girl is standing 2m away from the mirror. How far towards the mirror must she walk to
be 1m away from her image?

At the moment, the girl is 4m away from her image. To be 1m away from her
image, she has to be 0.5m in front of the mirror. So she must walk 1.5m towards
the mirror. (2m – 0.5m).

Optics Ms C. Izzo Page 6 of 21

 o Refraction of light

As in all waves, light experiences a change in speed when it is passing from one medium
to another. This change in speed can also cause a change in the direction of travel.

Light passing from a less optically dense to a

more optically dense medium

When an incident ray hits an optically denser

medium, it slows down. This causes the ray
to bend inwards, towards the normal and the
angle of incidence is larger than the angle of
refraction.

Light passing from a more optically dense

to a less optically dense medium

When an incident ray hits an optically less

dense medium, it speeds up. This causes
the ray to bend outward, away from the
normal and the angle of incidence is
smaller than the angle of refraction.

Light passing through a parallel sided block

When light passes through such a block, the refraction experienced causes the ray to
exit the block parallel to the incident ray. Angle of incidence = Angle of emergence

Optics Ms C. Izzo Page 7 of 21

Light hitting perpendicular to a medium

The light is passing along the normal so a change

in direction is not observed. However, the speed
of light would still decrease when passing through
the block and speed up when the light exits the
block.

Refraction summary of points:

• Light changes speed when travelling from one medium to another.

• Light slows down & bends towards the normal when entering an optically
denser medium.
• Light speeds up & bends away from the normal when entering an optically less
dense medium.
• Light travels straight through when travelling along the normal.
• In a parallel sided block, the emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray.

o Refractive index

In air, the speed of light is 3 x 10 8m/s. However, in glass for example, light slows down
to 2 x 108m/s. The refractive index (𝜂) is a ratio which is used to compare the speed of
light in a vacuum or in air and the speed of light in a particular medium:

speed of light in air

𝜂=
speed of light in medium

Refractive index has no SI unit since it is a ratio.

The larger the value of the refractive index of a material, the more the light bends when
light travels from air into it.

Optics Ms C. Izzo Page 8 of 21

Worked example:

A light ray is travelling from air into an ice cube. The speed of light in air is 3 x 10 8m/s
and the refractive index of the ice cube is 1.31. Calculate the speed of the light ray when
travelling through the ice cube.

𝜂 = 1.31 speed of light in air

η=
vair = 3 x 108m/s speed of light in ice cube

vice cube = ?
3 x 108
1.31 =
speed of light in ice cube

3 x 108
speed of light in ice cube =
1.31

Speed of light through the ice cube = 2.29 x 108m/s

o Refraction: Real & apparent depth

When looking through water, objects appear closer to the surface. This occurs when
viewing the object from a less dense medium. The light coming from the bottom bends
away from the normal when travelling into the air.

Real depth: the depth at which the object is really

Apparent depth: the depth at which the object is appearing

Optics Ms C. Izzo Page 9 of 21

The apparent depth is less than the real depth because
when the light rays are received by our eyes, they appear
to come from the point where the refracted rays meet if
they are extended backwards.

The equation used when the depths are known is:

real depth
η=
apparent depth

Examples in everyday life:

Why is a person not able to see the coin in the first case, but is able to see it in the
second case?

Light entering into the person’s eyes is When water is added, this causes the light

not coming from the coin, so the person rays coming from the coin to refract into

cannot see it. the person’s eyes. Now, the person can
see that there is a coin in the cup.
However, the coin will appear at a higher
position compared to where it really is.

Optics Ms C. Izzo Page 10 of 21

 o Dispersion

After various experiments Newton concluded that white light is made up of 7 colours.
When white light passes through an equilateral prism, it emerges as a spectrum of
colour. The different colours have different wavelengths (and different frequencies), so
when passing through the prism they are slowed down differently. This is known as
dispersion.

Violet is slowed down and bent the most because it has the shortest wavelength. Red is
slowed down and bent the least because it has the longest wavelength.

In order of decreasing wavelength, the colours obtained are: red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, indigo and violet. So that the colours are clearly visible, a lens can be inserted
between the raybox and prism.

A good example of dispersion is the

rainbow. It forms when rain and
sunlight combine. The sun’s rays pass
through the water droplets. Because of
the droplets’ shape, dispersion is
caused.

Optics Ms C. Izzo Page 11 of 21

 o Critical angle

When light passes from a more dense to a less dense medium, the angle of refraction is
larger than the angle of incidence.

As the angle of incidence at such a boundary is increased, the angle of refraction also
increases until it becomes 90o. At this point the emergent ray is travelling along the
boundary of the two media and the angle of incidence is known as the critical angle.

Critical angle: the angle of incidence that provides an angle of refraction of 90 o

when light is travelling from a denser to a less dense medium.

The value of the critical angle is different depending on the medium. For example, the
critical angle of glass is 42o and the critical angle of water is 49 o.

o Total internal reflection

If the angle of incidence is larger

than the value of the critical angle,
there would be no refracted ray
and only a strong reflected ray is
obtained. This is known as total
internal reflection. The laws of
reflection now apply.

Optics Ms C. Izzo Page 12 of 21

 Conditions necessary for total internal reflection:

1) The light is travelling from a denser to a less dense medium

2) The value of the angle of incidence is greater than the value of the critical
angle

o Uses of totally internally reflecting prisms

o Totally internally reflecting prisms: by using an isosceles right angled prism light
can be made to bend by 90o or 180o. Depending on the position of the prism, the
following happens:

Uses of totally internally reflecting prisms

Cat eye reflectors Prism binoculars

Optics Ms C. Izzo Page 13 of 21

Prism periscope Bike reflectors

These are generally preferred to mirror

periscopes because the reflection is better
and the image will be brighter. The
mirrors in mirror periscopes can oxidize
over time leading to tarnishing.

o Optical fibres: these are very thin flexible rods

made of special glass or transparent material.
The light enters through one end and is totally
internally reflected till it reaches the other end.
The fibres are not hollow but are made in such a
way that the cladding (outer part of the fibre) is
of a less optically dense material than the core
(inner part of the fibre) and the core has a small
critical angle. So constant total internal
reflection takes place on the inside.

Optics Ms C. Izzo Page 14 of 21

 Uses of optical fibres:

- Bundled up fibres in endoscopes

- Used to light hidden spots in machinery for inspection
- Light and decorations
- Telecommunications for data transmission in internet, computer networking,
telephones, television and military & space applications.

Advantages of optical fibres over copper wires in telecommunication:

- Since the signals are in the form of light, the signals can travel longer distances
without needing a signal boost.
- The signals can travel at a very high speed.
- The signals are not affected by magnetic fields, temperature, moisture & weather.
- The optic fibres are much stronger and lighter when compared to copper cables.
- A lot of data can be transferred at one go using different frequencies.

• Lenses

Lenses are used in a variety of situations e.g. cameras, projectors and spectacles. The
main two types of lenses are:

• Converging/convex lenses: these

cause a parallel beam of light to
converge (bend inwards) to one
particular point.

• Diverging/concave lenses: these

cause a parallel beam of light to
diverge away (spread out) in
such a way that they appear to
come from a point behind the
lens.

Optics Ms C. Izzo Page 15 of 21

In diagrams, the following symbols can be used to represent each type of lens:

Definition of terms related to lenses:

Optical centre (O): the centre of the lens

Principal axis: an imaginary line passing through the centre of a lens horizontally

Principal focus (F): the point at which all the rays converge to in a convex lens or
the point from where all the rays in a concave lens seem to diverge. This can also
be referred to as the focal point.

Focal length: the distance between the optical centre and the principal focus

Convex lens Concave lens

From now on, we will be focusing on convex lenses only. The lenses used have two
principle foci as they are biconvex lenses, meaning that they are curved on each side.

• Drawing lens ray diagrams

Using ray diagrams, one can locate the position of an image after rays pass through a
convex lens. For simplicity, rays are only drawn from the tip of the object. A ray diagram
is made of any 2 of the following 3 rays:

Optics Ms C. Izzo Page 16 of 21

 1) A ray passing through the centre of the lens passes straight through

2) A ray travelling parallel to the principal axis passes through the principal focus (F)
after leaving the lens

3) A ray passing through the principal focus (F) leaves the lens parallel to the
principal axis

When put together the following is obtained:

Optics Ms C. Izzo Page 17 of 21

 Drawing a lens diagram:

1) The object is drawn in the form of an arrow.

2) The object is placed on the principal axis.
3) Rays are drawn from the tip of the arrow.
4) The tip of the image arrow should be where the rays meet.
5) The image arrow should end at the principal axis.

• Lens diagrams with object at different distances

o Object between optical centre and principal focus (F)

Properties of the image: Virtual

Upright
Magnified
Uses of such a setup: Magnifying glass
Long-sighted glasses

Optics Ms C. Izzo Page 18 of 21

 o Object placed between F and 2F

Properties of the image: Real

Inverted
Magnified
Uses of such a setup: Overhead projector
Transparency projector

o Object on 2F

Properties of the image: Real

Inverted
Same size as the object
Object distance = image distance
Uses of such a setup: Finding the value of the focal length of a lens
Same size photocopiers

Optics Ms C. Izzo Page 19 of 21

 o Object beyond 2F

Properties of the image: Real

Inverted
Diminished (smaller than the object)
Uses of such a setup: Camera
Human eye

o Object at infinity

Properties of the image: Real

Inverted
Diminished
Formed on the principal focus
Uses of such a setup: Object lens of a telescope
Finding an approximation of the focal length of
the lens

Optics Ms C. Izzo Page 20 of 21

 • Finding the focal length of the lens – rough method

1) A convex lens is held in front of a window to have an object at infinity.

2) A screen is placed behind the convex lens.
3) The lens is moved until a sharp, inverted image is obtained on the screen.
4) The distance between the lens and the screen is measured – this is the
approximate focal length of the lens.

• Magnification

This is a comparison between the size of the image and the size of the object. It is a way
of showing how much bigger or smaller the image is compared to the object.

The equations used are:

height of the image image distance

Magnification = =
height of the object object distance

Object distance can be represented as u.

Image distance can be represented as v.

Optics Ms C. Izzo Page 21 of 21