PARUL UNIVERSITY - FACULTY OF ENGINEERING &

TECHNOLOGY
Department of Applied Science & Humanities
3rd Semester B. Tech (CSE, IT)
Discrete Mathematics (303191202)
UNIT-4 Algebraic Structures & Morphisms

Introduction:
In mathematics and abstract algebra, group theory studies the algebraic structures known as groups.
The concept of a group is central to abstract algebra: other well-known algebraic structures, such as
rings, fields, and vector spaces, can all be seen as groups endowed with additional operations and
axioms. Groups recur throughout mathematics, and the methods of group theory have influenced
many parts of algebra. Linear algebraic groups and Lie groups are two branches of group theory that
have experienced advances and have become subject areas in their own right.
Prerequisites:
• Basic familiarity with the concept of sets, functions
• Reasonable comfort with the use of symbols to denote sets, elements and operations.
• An ability to manipulate algebraic expressions based on fixed rules.
• An ability to carry out logical reasoning in the mind and on paper, and follow reasoning carried
out by others.
Application:
Group theory, the ultimate theory for symmetry, is a powerful tool that has a direct impact on research in
robotics, computer vision, computer graphics and medical image analysis.
In theoretical computer science:
• Minimizing space usage of algorithms • Mulmuley’s approach to P vs.NP
• Quantum algorithms • Babai’s algorithm for Graph Isomorphism
• Cryptography: Fully homomorphic encryption, • Derandomization
obfuscation,…
In puzzles and games:
• “15 Puzzle” • Rubik’s cube • Tangles…
In Physics:
• Predicting the existence of elementary particles before they are discovered
In Chemistry
• The structure and behaviour of molecules and crystals depends on their different symmetries.
Overview:
• Semigroup; Monoid; Group • Rings; Integral domain & fields
• Congruence relation • Boolean algebra and Boolean ring
• Free & cyclic monoid & group • Identity of Boolean algebra
• Permutation groups • Duality
• Subgroups; Normal subgroup • Representation of Boolean function
• Disjunctive and Conjunctive Normal form
Weightage: 40%

Teaching Hours: 18
 SEMIGROUP; MONOID; GROUP

Binary operation:
Let 𝐴 be a set. A function 𝑓: 𝐴 × 𝐴 ⟶ 𝐴 is called a binary operator on the set A.

Algebraic structure:
An algebraic structure is an ordered tuple: (𝑆,∘1 ,∘2 , … ,∘𝑛 ) where 𝑆 is a set which has one or more
binary operations ∘1 ,∘2 , … ,∘𝑛 defined on all the elements of 𝑆 × 𝑆.
An algebraic structure with one (binary) operation is thus an ordered pair which can be denoted by
(𝑆,∘) or (𝑇,∗), and so on.

Definitions:
Let 𝐺 be a set and ∗ be an operation on G.
Consider the following properties on 𝐺 with the operation ∗.
(𝑖) Closure property: For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.
[𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐺 is closed under the operation ∗]
[𝑖. 𝑒.∗ is a binary operation on 𝐺.]
(𝑖𝑖) Associativity: For any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺; 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐.
[𝑖. 𝑒.∗ is associative on 𝐺.]

(𝑖𝑖𝑖) Identity Element: There exists an element 𝑒 𝒊𝒏 𝐺 such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎 for every 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺.
𝑒 is called the identity element of 𝐺 under the operation ∗

(𝑖𝑣) Inverse element: Let 𝑒 be the identity element of 𝐺 under the operation ∗
For any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, there exists an element 𝑏 𝒊𝒏 𝐺 such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒.
𝑏 is called the inverse element of 𝑎 under the operation ∗. It is denoted by
𝑎−1 .
(𝑣) Commutative property: For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎.

(𝑮,∗) is said to be a 𝑺𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑 if it satisfies the properties (𝒊), (𝒊𝒊).

(𝑮,∗) is said to be a 𝑴𝒐𝒏𝒐𝒊𝒅 if it satisfies the properties (𝒊), (𝒊𝒊), (𝒊𝒊𝒊).
(𝑮,∗) is said to be a 𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑 if it satisfies the properties (𝒊), (𝒊𝒊), (𝒊𝒊𝒊), (𝒊𝒗).
(𝑮,∗) is said to be an 𝑨𝒃𝒆𝒍𝒊𝒂𝒏 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑 if it satisfies the properties (𝒊), (𝒊𝒊), (𝒊𝒊𝒊), (𝒊𝒗), (𝒗).

A group is said to be a finite group if it has finite number of elements. The cardinality of the set is
known as the order of that group.
If a group is not finite, it is said to be an infinite group.
 Problem.1. Prove that ℤ, the set of integers is an abelian group under the operation of the usual
addition of integers. [Summer_2023-24]
Solution:
(𝑖) Closure property: Clearly, addition of two integers is an integer.
𝑖. 𝑒. For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ, 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∈ ℤ.
Hence, ℤ is closed under the operation +
(𝑖𝑖) Associativity: For any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℤ; 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐) = (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐.
Hence, + is associative on ℤ

(𝑖𝑖𝑖) Identity Element: We know that 0 ∈ ℤ such that 𝑎 + 0 = 0 + 𝑎 = 𝑎 for every 𝑎 ∈ ℤ.

Hence, 0 is called the identity element of ℤ under the operation +

(𝑖𝑣) Inverse element: For any 𝑎 ∈ ℤ, there exists an element −𝑎 𝒊𝒏 ℤ such that
𝑎 + (−𝑎) = (−𝑎) + 𝑎 = 0.
Therefore, every element 𝑎 in ℤ has an inverse element – 𝑎 in ℤ.
(𝑣) Commutative For any integers 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ, 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎.
property:
Since, all the five properties are satisfied, ℤ is an abelian group under +.

Problem.2.
Check if the set of all real 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrices is an abelian group under the usual addition of matrices.
Solution:
Let 𝑀𝑚×𝑛 be the set of all real 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrices and let + denote the usual addition of matrices.
(𝑖) Closure property: Clearly, addition of 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrices is an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix.
𝑖. 𝑒. For any 𝐴, 𝐵 ∈ 𝑀𝑚×𝑛 , 𝐴 + 𝐵 ∈ 𝑀𝑚×𝑛 .
Hence, 𝑀𝑚×𝑛 is closed under the operation +
(𝑖𝑖) Associativity: For any 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ], 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ], 𝐶 = [𝑐𝑖𝑗 ] in 𝑀𝑚×𝑛
𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶) = [aij + (bij + cij )]
= [(aij + bij ) + cij ] [∵ 𝑎𝑖𝑗 , 𝑏𝑖𝑗 , 𝑐𝑖𝑗 ∈ ℝ]
= (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶
Hence, + is associative on 𝑀𝑚×𝑛 .
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) Identity Element: Let 0𝑚×𝑛 ∈ 𝑀𝑚×𝑛 be an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix with all entries to be 0.
Then for any 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] in 𝑀𝑚×𝑛 ,
𝐴 + 0𝑚×𝑛 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] + [0] = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 0] = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] = 𝐴
0𝑚×𝑛 + 𝐴 = [0] + [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] = [0 + 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] = 𝐴
Hence, 0𝑚×𝑛 is the identity element of 𝑀𝑚×𝑛 under the operation +
(𝑖𝑣) Inverse element: For any 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] ∈ 𝑀𝑚×𝑛 , consider the 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix −𝐴 = [−𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]
Then 𝐴 + (−𝐴) = [𝑎𝑗 + (−𝑎𝑖𝑗 )] = [0] = 0𝑚×𝑛 and (−𝐴) + 𝐴 = 0𝑚×𝑛
Therefore, every element 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] in 𝑀𝑚×𝑛 has an inverse element −𝐴 =
[−𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] in 𝑀𝑚×𝑛 .
(𝑣) Commutative property: For any 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrices 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ], 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ] ∈ 𝑀𝑚×𝑛 ,
𝐴 + 𝐵 = [aij + bij ]
= [bij + aij ] [∵ 𝑎𝑖𝑗 , 𝑏𝑖𝑗 , 𝑐𝑖𝑗 ∈ ℝ]
=𝐵+𝐴
Hence, 𝑀𝑚×𝑛 is an abelian group under the operation of matrix addition.
 Problem.3.
Check if the set of all non-negative integers is an abelian group under usual addition of integers.

Solution:
Consider the set ℕ ∪ {0} of all non-negative integers.
(𝑖) Closure property: Clearly, addition of two non-negative integers is a non-negative integer.
𝑖. 𝑒. For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℕ ∪ {0}, 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∈ ℕ ∪ {0}.
Hence, ℕ ∪ {0} is closed under the operation +
(𝑖𝑖) Associativity: For any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℕ ∪ {0}; 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐) = (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐.
Hence, + is associative on ℕ ∪ {0}
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) Identity Element: We know that 𝑎 + 0 = 0 + 𝑎 = 𝑎 for every 𝑎 ∈ ℕ ∪ {0}.
Hence, 0 is called the identity element of ℕ ∪ {0} under the operation +
(𝑖𝑣) Inverse element: For 1 ∈ ℕ ∪ {0}, −1 is the only integer that gives 1 + (−1) = (−1) + 1 = 0
But −1 ∉ ℕ ∪ {0}.
Thus, there is an element in ℕ ∪ {0} which does not have an inverse element
in ℕ ∪ {0} under +.
Hence, this property is not satisfied.
(𝑣) Commutative property: For any non-negative integers 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℕ ∪ {0}, 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎.
Since, all the five properties are not satisfied, ℕ ∪ {0} is not an abelian group under +.
But, since properties (𝑖), (𝑖𝑖), (𝑖𝑖𝑖) and (𝑣) are satisfied it is an abelian monoid.

Problem.4.
Check if the set of all natural numbers is an abelian group under usual addition of integers.
Solution:
Consider the set ℕ of all natural numbers.
(𝑖) Closure property: Clearly, addition of two natural numbers is a natural number.
𝑖. 𝑒. For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℕ, 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∈ ℕ.
Hence, ℕ is closed under the operation +
(𝑖𝑖) Associativity: For any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℕ; 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐) = (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐.
Hence, + is associative on ℕ
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) Identity Element: 0 is the only integer such that 𝑎 + 0 = 0 + 𝑎 = 𝑎 for every 𝑎 ∈ ℕ.
But 0 ∉ ℕ.
Hence, ℕ has no identity element under the operation +
(𝑖𝑣) Inverse element: For 1 ∈ ℕ, −1 is the only integer that gives 1 + (−1) = (−1) + 1 = 0
But −1 ∉ ℕ.
Thus, there is an element in ℕ which does not have an inverse element in ℕ
under +. Hence, this property is not satisfied.
(𝑣) Commutative property: For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℕ, 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎.
Since, properties (𝑖𝑖𝑖) &(𝑖𝑣) are not satisfied, ℕ is not an abelian group under +.
But, since properties (𝑖), (𝑖𝑖) and (𝑣) are satisfied it is an abelian semigroup.
Note that it is neither a monoid nor a group.
 Problem.5.
Check if the set of integers ℤ is an abelian semigroup under the operation of the usual subtraction of
integers. Also check for the identity element and the commutative property.
Solution:
(𝑖) Closure property: Clearly, subtraction of two integers is an integer.
𝑖. 𝑒. For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ, 𝑎 − 𝑏 ∈ ℤ.
Hence, ℤ is closed under the subtraction ⋅
(𝑖𝑖) Associativity: For 1,2,3 ∈ ℤ,
1 − (2 − 3) = 1 − (−1) = 2 and (1 − 2) − 3 = (−1) − 3 = −4
𝑖. 𝑒. for some 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℤ, 𝑎 − (𝑏 − 𝑐) ≠ (𝑎 − 𝑏) − 𝑐.
Hence, this property is not satisfied.
Since, property (𝒊𝒊) is not satisfied, ℤ is not a semigroup.
Identity Element: We know that for any 𝑒 ∈ ℤ , 𝑎 − 𝑒 ≠ 𝑒 − 𝑎 = 𝑎 for every non-zero 𝑎 ∈ ℤ.
𝑖. 𝑒. there exists no 𝑒 ∈ ℤ such that 𝑎 − 𝑒 = 𝑒 − 𝑎 = 𝑎, for all 𝑎 ∈ ℤ
Hence, ℤ has no identity element of under the operation subtraction.
Commutative property: For any non-zero integers 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ, 𝑎 − 𝑏 ≠ 𝑏 − 𝑎.
Hence, this property is not satisfied.

Problem.6.
Check if the set of integers ℤ is an abelian group under the operation of the usual multiplication
Solution:
(𝑖) Closure property: Clearly, multiplication of two integers is an integer.
𝑖. 𝑒. For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ, 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 ∈ ℤ.
Hence, ℤ is closed under the operation ⋅
(𝑖𝑖) Associativity: For any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℤ; 𝑎 ⋅ (𝑏 ⋅ 𝑐) = (𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏) ⋅ 𝑐.
Hence, ⋅ is associative on ℤ.
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) Identity Element: We know that 1 ∈ ℤ such that 𝑎 ⋅ 1 = 1 ⋅ 𝑎 = 𝑎 for every 𝑎 ∈ ℤ.
Hence, 1 is called the identity element of ℤ under the operation ⋅
(𝑖𝑣) Inverse element: For 0 ∈ ℤ, there exists no integer b 𝒊𝒏 ℤ such that 0 ⋅ b = b ⋅ 0 = 1.
Therefore, 0 ∈ ℤ does not have an inverse element in ℤ.
Thus, there is an element in ℤ which does not have an inverse element under ⋅
Hence, this property is not satisfied.
(𝑣) Commutative property: For any integers 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ, 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑎.
Since, property (𝒊𝒗) is not satisfied, ℤ is not an abelian group under multiplication.
But, it is an abelian monoid under multiplication.

Exercise
1. Check if the set of all real numbers is commutative group under usual addition.
2. Check if the set of all real numbers is commutative group under usual multiplication.
3. Check if the set of all non-zero real numbers is commutative group under usual
addition.
4. Check if the set of all real numbers is commutative group under usual subtraction.
5. Check if division is a binary operation on the set of all real numbers.
6. Prove that the set of all non-zero real numbers is not a semigroup under usual division.
Do the other properties hold to make it an abelian group?
 7. If * is defined on ℤ such that a*b = a+b+2 ,Prove that (ℤ, * ) is an abelian Group.
[Summer_2018-19]

Definition:
If for an element 𝑎 in an algebraic structure(𝐺,∗), 𝑎2 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎 then 𝑎 is said to be the idempotent
element in (𝐺,∗).

For example:
Show that the following are idempotent elements under the given operations.
(i) ∅ for union and intersection of two sets
(ii) 0 for + on ℤ
(iii) 1 for multiplication on ℝ
Solution:
(i) Since ∅ ∪ ∅ = ∅, ∅ is idempotent under union.
Since ∅ ∩ ∅ = ∅, ∅ is idempotent under intersection.
(ii) Since 0 + 0 =, 0 is idempotent under + on ℤ.
(iii) Since 1 ⋅ 1 = 1, 1 is idempotent under multiplication on ℝ.

Problem.1.
In each of the following cases, prove that ℤ under the operation ∗ is not an abelian group.
[Winter_2022-23, Winter_2019-20]
𝑎
(a) 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 (b) 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 20 (c) 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 2𝑎 − 𝑏 (d) 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = |𝑎 + 𝑏|
Solution:
𝒂
(a) 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒃 over ℤ (b) 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝟐𝟎 over ℤ
𝑎 1 For any 𝑎 ∈ ℤ there is no element 𝑒 in ℤ
For 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 2, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 = 2 ∉ ℤ.
such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎
Hence, closure property is not satisfied. Hence, identity element does not exist.
It does not form a group. It does not form a group.

(c) 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝟐𝒂 − 𝒃 over ℤ
For 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 2, 𝑐 = 3,
𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) = 1 ∗ (2 ∗ 3) = 1 ∗ (2(2) − 3) = 1 ∗ 1 = 2(1) − 1 = 1
(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = (1 ∗ 2) ∗ 3 = (2(1) − 2) ∗ 3 = 0 ∗ 3 = 2(0) − 3 = −3
Thus, 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) ≠ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐
Hence, associative property is not satisfied.
It does not form a group
(d) 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = |𝒂 + 𝒃| over ℤ
For 𝑎 = −1, 𝑏 = −2, 𝑐 = −3
𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) = (−1) ∗ (−2 ∗ −3) = (−1) ∗ (|−2 − 3|) = (−1) ∗ 5 = |−1 + 5| = 4
(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = (−1 ∗ −2) ∗ (−3) = (|−1 − 2|) ∗ (−3) = 3 ∗ (−3) = |3 + (−3)| = 0
Thus, 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) ≠ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐
Hence, associative property is not satisfied.
It does not form a group
Problem.2.
Identify the identity element in ℤ under the operation ∗ given as 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 2, for any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ.
Also identify the inverse element of any member 𝑎 ∈ ℤ [Winter_2022-23]
Solution:
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 2 = 𝑏 + 𝑎 − 2 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎, for any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ.
Identity Element:
Let 𝑒 be such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑎 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎
Now, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑎 ⟹ 𝑎 + 𝑒 − 2 = 𝑎 ⟹ 𝑒 = 2 which belongs to ℤ.
Hence, 𝑒 = 2 is the identity element in ℤ under the given operation.
Inverse element:
Let 𝑎 ∈ ℤ.and 𝑏 be such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑒 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎.
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑒 ⟹ 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 2 = 2 ⟹ 𝑏 = 4 − 𝑎 which belongs to ℤ
Hence, 4 − 𝑎 is the inverse of any element 𝑎 in ℤ under the given operation.

Problem.3
If 𝑓: ℤ × ℤ → ℤ where ℤ is the set of integers and 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 – 𝑥𝑦,
Show that the binary operation ∗ is commutative and associative.
Find the identity element and inverse of each element. [Summer_2023-24]
Solution.
• Commutative property :
Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℤ
𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑦 + 𝑥 − 𝑦𝑥 = 𝑦 ∗ 𝑥
• Associative property:
Let 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℤ
(𝑥 ∗ 𝑦) ∗ 𝑧 = (𝑥 ∗ 𝑦) + 𝑧 − (𝑥 ∗ 𝑦)𝑧
= (𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦) + 𝑧 − (𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦)𝑧
= 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 − 𝑥𝑧 − 𝑦𝑧 + 𝑥𝑦𝑧
= 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 − 𝑦𝑧 − 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥𝑧 + 𝑥𝑦𝑧
= 𝑥 + (𝑦 + 𝑧 − 𝑦𝑧) − 𝑥(𝑦 + 𝑧 − 𝑦𝑧)
= 𝑥 + (𝑦 ∗ 𝑧) − 𝑥(𝑦 ∗ 𝑧)
= 𝑥 ∗ (𝑦 ∗ 𝑧)
• Identity element:
Suppose 𝑒 ∈ ℤ is an identity element, then by definition
𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑎 ⟹ 𝑎 + 𝑒 − 𝑎𝑒 = 𝑎 ⟹ (1 − 𝑎) = 0
Either 𝑒 = 0 𝑜𝑟 1 − 𝑎 = 0
But 1 − 𝑎 ≠ 0 because a is arbitrary element
Therefore 𝑒 = 0 is the identity element.
• Inverse element:
Let 𝑎 ∈ ℤ be any arbitrary element, and let 𝑏 ∈ ℤ be the inverse of 𝑎.
Then by definition, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑒 ⟹ 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏 = 0
⟹ 𝑎 + 𝑏(1 − 𝑎) = 0
⟹ 𝑏(1 − 𝑎) = −𝑎
−𝑎
⟹ 𝑏 = ,𝑎 ≠ 1
1 − 𝑎
𝑎
⟹ 𝑏 = ,𝑎 ≠ 1
𝑎
𝑎 − 1
But 𝑎 − 1 ∈ ℤ , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = 0,2
But, for 𝑎 ≠ 0,2, 𝑎−1 does not exist under ∗
Problem.4
If ∗ is a binary operation on ℤ+ of positive integers, defined by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑙𝑐𝑚(𝑎, 𝑏)
1. Show that ∗ is commutative and associative
2. Which element of ℤ+ are idempotent
3. Find the identity element of ℤ+ 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 ∗
4. Which elements of ℤ+ have inverse?
Solution
1. Commutative property :
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑙𝑐𝑚(𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑙𝑐𝑚(𝑏, 𝑎) = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎
i.e ∗ is commutative.
Associative property:
𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑙𝑐𝑚(𝑏, 𝑐)
= 𝑙𝑐𝑚(𝑎, 𝑙𝑐𝑚(𝑏, 𝑐))
= 𝑙𝑐𝑚(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐)
= 𝑙𝑐𝑚(𝑙𝑐𝑚(𝑎, 𝑏), 𝑐)
= 𝑙𝑐𝑚(𝑎, 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐
= (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐
Hence, ∗ is associative.
2. For any element 𝒂 ∈ ℤ+, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 = (𝑎, 𝑎) = 𝑎. Hence, every element is idempotent.
3. For any element 𝒂 ∈ ℤ+, 𝑎 ∗ 1 = (𝑎, 1) = 𝑎 Hence, 1 is the identity element.
4. If 𝑏 is inverse of an element 𝑎, then 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 1. i.e. (𝑎, 𝑏) = 1
But 𝑙𝑐𝑚(𝑎, 𝑏) = 1 if and only if 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 1
Hence, only 1 ∈ ℤ+ has an inverse.
No other element has an inverse in ℤ+ under the given operation.

Problem.5
Show that the binary operation on the set of natural numbers given by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 is not commutative but is
associative.
Solution
For commutative property: For associative property:
Consider two natural numbers 1𝑎𝑛𝑑 2. Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 be any natural numbers. Then
Then 1 ∗ 2 = 1 and 2 ∗ 1 = 2 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 and (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎
Thus, 1 ∗ 2 ≠ 2 ∗ 1. Hence, 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐
Hence, ∗ is not commutative. Therefore, ∗ is associative.

Problem.6.
The identity element in ℤ under the operation ∗ given as 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 4, for any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ. is ___
[Summer_2023-24]

Problem.7.
Which of the flowing set is not an abelian semi-group under given operations? [Summer_2023-24]
(a) (Q − {0},×) (b) (Z, +) (c) (Z, −) (d) (R, +)

1.R is not a Group under usual multiplication × because [Winter_2022-23]

(a) × is not associative on R
(b)Identity element does not exists in R with respect to ×
(c) Inversion property is not satisfied
(d) R is not closed under ×.
2. If a group satisfies the Closure , Associative and identity property then it is known as
[Winter_2022-23]
(a) Abelian Group
(b) Symmetric group
(c) Semigroup
(d) Monoid

Exercise:
1) Verify whether the usual multiplication on the set 𝑆 = {−1, 1} is a binary operation.
𝑎+𝑏
2) Determine whether the operation ∗ on the set of natural numbers given 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = is a binary
𝑎𝑏
operation. [Winter_20121-22]
3) Show that the binary operation ∗ defined on ℝ by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑎, 𝑏) is associative
𝑎𝑏
4) Show that the binary operation ∗ defined on the set of rational numbers Q defined as 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 2 is
both commutative and associative.
0 𝑎
5) Examine whether matrix multiplication on the set 𝑀 = {[ ] : 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ} of matrices is a binary
𝑏 0
operation.

Theorem: Uniqueness of identity element in an algebraic structure (𝑮,∗).

Statement: If an algebraic structure (𝐺,∗) has an identity element then it is unique.
Proof: Let 𝑒1 and 𝑒2 be two identity elements of (𝐺,∗).
𝑒1 is an identity element, therefore for every 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒1 = 𝑎 = 𝑒1 ∗ 𝑎 ----------(𝑖)
Since 𝑒2 ∈ 𝐺, using (𝑖), 𝑒2 ∗ 𝑒1 = 𝑒2 = 𝑒1 ∗ 𝑒2 . ----------(𝑖𝑖)
𝑒2 is an identity element, therefore for every 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒2 = 𝑎 = 𝑒2 ∗ 𝑎 ----------(𝑖𝑖𝑖)
Since 𝑒1 ∈ 𝐺, using (𝑖𝑖𝑖), 𝑒1 ∗ 𝑒2 = 𝑒1 = 𝑒2 ∗ 𝑒1 ----------(𝑖𝑣)
From (𝑖𝑖) and (𝑖𝑣), 𝑒2 = 𝑒1 ∗ 𝑒2 = 𝑒1
Hence, proved.

Theorem: Uniqueness of inverse element in a group (𝑮,∗).

Statement: If (𝐺,∗) is a group then every 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 has a unique inverse.
Proof:
Let (𝐺,∗) be a group with identity element 𝑒.
Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 be any element of 𝐺.
Let 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺 be inverse elements of 𝑎.
Then by definition,
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒 and 𝑎 ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑐 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒.
Now,𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑒 [∵ 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡]
= 𝑏 ∗ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑐) [∵ 𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎]
= (𝑏 ∗ 𝑎) ∗ 𝑐 [∵ 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠]
=𝑒∗𝑐 [∵ 𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎]
=𝑐 [∵ 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡]
Hence, proved.
Theorem: Left cancellation law for Groups.
Statement : Let (𝐺,∗) be a group and 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 be elements of 𝐺. If 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎𝑐 then 𝑏 = 𝑐.
Proof : Since (𝐺,∗) is a group 𝑎−1 exists in 𝐺. Let 𝑒 be the identity element of 𝐺.
𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎𝑐 ⟹ 𝑎−1 (𝑎𝑏) = 𝑎−1 (𝑎𝑐) [𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝑎−1 ]
⟹ (𝑎−1 𝑎)𝑏 = (𝑎−1 𝑎)𝑐 [𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦]
⟹ 𝑒𝑏 = 𝑒𝑐 [𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡]
⟹𝑏=𝑐 [𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡]
Hence, proved.

Theorem: Right cancellation law for Groups.

Statement : Let (𝐺,∗) be a group and 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 be elements of 𝐺. If 𝑏𝑎 = 𝑐𝑎 then 𝑏 = 𝑐.
Proof : Since (𝐺,∗) is a group 𝑎−1 exists in 𝐺. Let 𝑒 be the identity element of 𝐺.
𝑏𝑎 = 𝑐𝑎 ⟹ (𝑏𝑎)𝑎−1 = (𝑐𝑎)𝑎−1 [𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝑎−1 ]
⟹ 𝑏(𝑎𝑎−1 ) = 𝑐(𝑎𝑎−1 ) [𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦]
⟹ 𝑏𝑒 = 𝑐𝑒 [𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡]
⟹𝑏=𝑐 [𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡]

Theorem: If 𝐺 is a group, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 then (𝑖)(𝑎−1 )−1 = 𝑎 and

(𝑖𝑖)(𝑎𝑏)−1 = 𝑏 −1 𝑎−1 .
Proof:
(𝑖) Clearly, for any ∈ 𝐺 , by definition 𝑎𝑎−1 = 𝑎−1 𝑎 = 𝑒. Hence, (𝑎−1 )−1 = 𝑎
(𝑖𝑖) (𝑎𝑏)(𝑏 −1𝑎−1 ) = 𝑎(𝑏𝑏 −1 )𝑎−1 = 𝑎(𝑒)𝑎−1 = 𝑎𝑎−1 = 𝑒
Similarly, (𝑏 −1 𝑎−1 )(𝑎𝑏) = 𝑏 −1 (𝑎−1 𝑎)𝑏 = 𝑏 −1 (𝑒)𝑏 = 𝑏 −1 𝑏 = 𝑒.
Hence, (𝑎𝑏)−1 = 𝑏 −1 𝑎−1.
 Congruence relation

When an integer𝑨 is divided by an integer 𝑩, it gives an equation that looks like

𝑨 = 𝑸(𝑩) + 𝑹
𝐴 is the dividend
𝐵 is the divisor
𝑄 is the quotient
𝑅 is the remainder
Focusing on the remainder only, and using the modulo operator (abbreviated as mod), it can be
written as 𝐴 ≡ 𝑅 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝐵).

Definition:
Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑚 be integers.
If 𝑎 − 𝑏 is divisible by 𝑚 then 𝑎 and 𝑏 are said to be 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑟𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑜 𝑚”.
It is written as 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚).
For example,
16 − 4 = 12 is divisible by 3 therefore we write 16 ≡ 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3).
227 − 2 is divisible by 3 therefore we write 227 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3).
227 − 2 is not divisible by 4 therefore we write 227 ≢ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 4)
Note:
𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) ⟺ 𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑚
⟺ 𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 (𝑎 − 𝑏)
⟺ 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑘𝑚, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑘
𝑎−𝑏
⟺ 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
𝑚

Problem.1. Prove that the relation “𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑟𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑜 𝑚” is an equivalence relation.

Solution.
We say that 𝑎𝑅𝑏 if 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) for some fixed integer 𝑚.
(i) Reflexive 𝑎 − 𝑎 = 0 is divisible by 𝑚, because 0 = 0 · 𝑚.
Hence, 𝑎 ≡ 𝑎 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚), 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑎𝑅𝑎.
So 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑟𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑜 𝑚 is reflexive
(ii) Transitive For any integers 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, let 𝑎𝑅𝑏, 𝑏𝑅𝑐
∴ 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) and 𝑏 ≡ 𝑐(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚)
∴ 𝑚 divides 𝑎 − 𝑏 and 𝑚 divides 𝑏 − 𝑐.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑘𝑚 and 𝑏 − 𝑐 = 𝑙𝑚, for some integers 𝑘, 𝑙.
Now, 𝑎 − 𝑐 = (𝑎 − 𝑏) + (𝑏 − 𝑐) = 𝑘𝑚 + 𝑙𝑚 = (𝑘 + 𝑙)𝑚.
∴ 𝑚 divides 𝑎 − 𝑐.
Hence, 𝑎 ≡ 𝑐(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚)
Thus, 𝑎𝑅𝑏, 𝑏𝑅𝑐 ⟹ 𝑎𝑅𝑐.
Hence, 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑟𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑜 𝑚 is transitive.
(iii) Symmetric For any integers 𝑎, 𝑏,
𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) ⟹ 𝑚 divides (𝑎 − 𝑏)
⟹ 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑘𝑚, for some integer 𝑘
⟹ 𝑏 − 𝑎 = (−𝑘)𝑚, for some integer −𝑘
⟹ 𝑚 divides (𝑏 − 𝑎)
⟹ 𝑏 ≡ 𝑎(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚)
Hence, 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑟𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑜 𝑚 is symmetric.
Hence, proved.
Properties of the relation “𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒓𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒐 𝒎” :
• If 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚)and 𝑐 ≡ 𝑑(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) then the following are true for any integers 𝑙, 𝑘 and 𝑛.
(i) 𝑎 ± 𝑐 ≡ (𝑏 ± 𝑑)(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚)
(ii) 𝑎𝑐 ≡ (𝑏𝑑)(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚)
(iii) 𝑘𝑎 ≡ 𝑘𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚)

Quotient Structure

Consider an algebraic structure (𝐺,∗) with an equivalence relation say 𝑅.

Two elements 𝑎, 𝑏 are said to be equivalent to each other if (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅.
A collection of all equivalent elements is called Equivalence class. Thus, elements 𝑎 and 𝑏 belong
to the same equivalence class if and only if 𝑎 and 𝑏 are equivalent.
Thus, the equivalence class of an element 𝑎 in 𝐺 is the set {𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 |𝑥𝑅𝑎}
Every element of 𝐺 will be a member of some unique equivalence class.
Thus, the set of all equivalence classes gives a partition of 𝐺.
This partition is known as quotient structure of 𝐺. It is denoted by 𝐺/𝑅.

Definition:
Let (𝐺,∗) be an algebraic structure and 𝑅 be an equivalence relation on it. The set of all
equivalence classes of 𝐺 given by 𝑅 is known as the quotient structure of 𝐺.

For example, consider the group of integers (ℤ, +) with the relation “𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑟𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑜 4”.
Let 𝑎̅ denote the equivalence class of the integer 𝑎. Then
𝑎̅ = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|𝑥 ≡ 𝑎 (𝑚𝑜𝑑4)} = {𝑥|𝑥 − 𝑎 = 4𝑘, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑘} = {𝑥 = 𝑎 + 4𝑘|𝑘 ∈ ℤ}
Which gives, 0̅ = {𝑥 = 0 + 4𝑘|𝑘 ∈ ℤ} = {… , −8, −4,0,4,8, … }
1̅ = {𝑥 = 1 + 4𝑘|𝑘 ∈ ℤ} = {… , −7, −3,1,5,9, … }
2̅ = {𝑥 = 2 + 4𝑘|𝑘 ∈ ℤ} = {… , −6, −2,2,6,10, … }
3̅ = {𝑥 = 3 + 4𝑘|𝑘 ∈ ℤ} = {… , −5, −1,3,7,11, … }.
Thus, {0̅, 1̅, 2̅, 3̅} is a partition of (ℤ, +) by the relation “𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑟𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑜 4”.
Hence, it is the quotient structure of (ℤ, +) given by the relation “𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑟𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑜 4”.
It is generally denoted ℤ4 .
𝑖. 𝑒. ℤ4 = {0̅, 1̅, 2̅, 3̅}.
In general, ℤ𝑛 = {0̅, 1̅, 2̅, … , ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑛 − 1} is the quotient structure of (ℤ, +) given by the relation
“𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑟𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑜 𝑛”, where each 𝑎̅ ∈ ℤ𝑛 represents the equivalence class of 𝑎 ∈ ℤ.

Note:
Let (𝐺,∗) be an algebraic structure and 𝑅 be an equivalence relation on it. For any two equivalence
classes [𝑎], [𝑏], [𝑎] ∗ [𝑏] = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ | 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏)} = [𝑎 ∗ 𝑏].

Note:
• Consider a binary operation +𝑛 on ℤ𝑛 ,known as “+ 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑜 𝑛” defined as
𝑎̅+𝑛 𝑏̅ = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ | 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 (𝑎 + 𝑏)} = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑘̅, for some 0 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 𝑛 − 1
Thus, for 𝑎̅, 𝑏̅ ∈ ℤ𝑛 , 𝑎̅+𝑛 𝑏̅ = 𝑘̅ , if 𝑎 + 𝑏 ≡ 𝑘(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) for some 0 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 𝑛 − 1
• The members of the set ℤ𝑛 = {0,1,2, … , 𝑛 − 1} are also called residue classes modulo 𝑛.
 Problem.1. Prove that (ℤ𝑚 , +𝑚 ) is an abelian group, where 𝑎̅+𝑚 𝑏̅ = 𝑘̅ if 𝑎 + 𝑏 ≡ 𝑘(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚), for
some 0 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 𝑚 − 1.
Solution.
(𝑖) Closure property: For any 𝑎̅, 𝑏̅ ∈ ℤ𝑚 ; if 𝑎 + 𝑏 ≡ 𝑘(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) with 0 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 𝑚 − 1then
𝑎̅+𝑚 𝑏̅ = 𝑘̅ and it belongs to ℤ𝑚 because 0 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 𝑚 − 1.
Hence, ℤ𝑚 is closed under the operation +𝑚
(𝑖𝑖) Associativity: Clearly, associativity of +𝑚 depends of associativity of +, and we know that +
is associative on ℤ.
Therefore, +𝑚 is associative on ℤ𝑚 .
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) Identity Element: For 0̅ ∈ ℤ𝑚 , and for any 𝑎̅ ∈ ℤ𝑚 , 𝑎 + 0 ≡ 𝑘(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) gives 𝑎̅+𝑚 0̅ = 𝑎̅
and 0 + 𝑎 ≡ 𝑘(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) gives 0̅+𝑚 𝑎̅ = 𝑎̅.
Hence, 0̅ is the identity element in ℤ𝑚 .
(𝑖𝑣) Inverse element: For 𝑎̅ ∈ ℤ𝑚 , ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑚 − 𝑎 ∈ ℤ𝑚 , for 0 ≤ 𝑎 ≤ 𝑚 − 1.
Further,𝑎̅+𝑚 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
(𝑚 − 𝑎) = 0̅ because 𝑎 + (𝑚 − 𝑎) = 𝑚 ≡ 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚)
Similarly, ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
(𝑚 − 𝑎)+𝑚 𝑎̅ = 0̅
Thus, ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
(𝑚 − 𝑎) the inverse element of [𝑎] in ℤ𝑚 .
(𝑣) Commutative For any 𝑎̅, 𝑏̅ ∈ ℤ𝑚 ; let 𝑎 + 𝑏 ≡ 𝑘(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) for some 0 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 𝑚 − 1 then
property: 𝑎̅+𝑛 𝑏̅ = 𝑘
Also, 𝑏 + 𝑎 ≡ 𝑘(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) ⟹ 𝑏̅+𝑚 𝑎̅ = 𝑘.
Therefore 𝑎̅+𝑛 𝑏̅ = 𝑏̅+𝑚 𝑎̅
Hence, +𝑚 is commutative on ℤ𝑚 .
Thus (ℤ𝑚 , +𝑚 ) is an abelian group.

Problem.2. Prove that ℤ𝟑 is an abelian group under the addition modulo 3.

Solution.
Consider the set ℤ3 = {0,1,2}.
In the following table, each cell denotes the product of the corresponding elements under the given
operation.
+𝟑 𝟎 𝟏 𝟐

𝟎 0 1 2
𝟏 1 2 0
𝟐 2 0 1
From the table, closure property and associative property are obvious.
Further, symmetricity about the diagonal shows the commutative property.
Also, 0 is the identity element.
Also, the cell containing 0 gives the pair of inverse elements. And every element has an inverse.
Hence, (ℤ3 , +3 ) is an abelian group.
all the properties of abelian group can be verified. Hence, it is an abelian group.

Problem.3. Let the multiplication modulo 𝑛 be defined as 𝑎̅ ⋅𝑛 𝑏̅ = 𝑘̅, if 𝑎𝑏 ≡ 𝑘(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛) for some
0 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 𝑛 − 1. Check if ℤ∗4 = {1̅, 2̅, 3̅} is an abelian group under the multiplication modulo 4.
Solution. Consider the set ℤ∗4 = {1̅, 2̅, 3̅}.
For 2̅ ∈ ℤ∗4 , 2 × 2 = 4 ≡ 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 4). Therefore, 2 ⋅4 2 = 0 which does not belong to ℤ4∗ .
Hence, ℤ4∗ is not closed under multiplication modulo 4 and hence it is not a group.
Problem.4
Prove that (ℤ∗5 ,⋅5 ) is an abelian group.
Solution:
Consider the set ℤ5∗ = {1,2,3,4}.
In the following table, each cell denotes the product of the corresponding elements under the given
operation.

⋅5 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒

𝟏 1 2 3 4

𝟐 2 4 1 3

𝟑 3 1 4 2

𝟒 4 3 2 1

From the table, closure property and associative property are obvious.
Further, symmetricity about the diagonal shows the commutative property.
Also, 1 is the identity element.
Also, the cell containing 1 gives the pair of inverse elements. And every element has an inverse.
Hence, (ℤ∗5 ,⋅5 ) is an abelian group.

Problem.5
Inverse of 2 in (ℤ5 , +5 ) is_________. [Winter_2022-23]
Problem.6
Prove that (ℤ∗5 ,⋅5 ) is an abelian group. [Winter_2019-20]

Exercise:
1. Prove that (ℤ4 , +4 ) is an abelian group.
2. Prove that (ℤ∗3 ,⋅3 ) is an abelian group.
 Permutation Groups

Definition:
Permutation on a set 𝐴 is a bijective function from 𝐴 to 𝐴.
The set of all permutation on 𝐴 is denoted by 𝑆𝐴 . It forms a group under the operation of composition
of functions. This group is known as symmetric group on 𝐴.

Symmetric group :
Let 𝐴 = {1,2, … , 𝑛}. The corresponding symmetric group is denoted by 𝑆𝑛 , it is known as the
symmetric group on 𝑛
Thus, 𝑆𝑛 is the set of all bijective functions from the set {1,2, … , 𝑛} on to itself.
1 2 3 … 𝑛
An element 𝜎 ∈ 𝑆𝑛 is written as 𝜎 = ( ).
𝜎(1) 𝜎(2) 𝜎(3) … 𝜎(𝑛)
1 2 3 4 5
For example, consider 𝜎 = ( ) ∈ 𝑆5
2 3 5 1 4
Then. 𝜎(1) = 2, 𝜎(2) = 3, 𝜎(3) = 5, 𝜎(4) = 1, 𝜎(5) = 4.
This gives 𝜎 −1 (2) = 1, 𝜎 −1 (3) = 2, 𝜎 −1 (5) = 3, 𝜎 −1 (1) = 4, 𝜎 −1 (4) = 5
1 2 3 4 5
∴ 𝜎 −1 can be written as 𝜎 −1 = ( ).
4 1 2 5 3
1 2 3 4 5
Further, if 𝜏 = ( ) ∈ 𝑆5 then the products 𝜏𝜎 can be obtained as the following:
1 4 2 5 3
𝜏𝜎(1) = 𝜏(𝜎(1)) = 𝜏(2) = 4; 𝜏𝜎(2) = 𝜏(𝜎(2)) = 𝜏(3) = 2; and so on
Which gives
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
𝜏𝜎 = ( )( )=( )
1 4 2 5 3 2 3 5 1 4 4 2 3 1 5
Similarly,
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
𝜎𝜏 = ( )( )=( )
2 3 5 1 4 1 4 2 5 3 2 1 3 4 5
Thus, 𝜎𝜏 need not be equal to 𝜏𝜎.
Hence, 𝑆5 (and in general 𝑆𝑛 , for 𝑛 > 2) is not a commutative group.
Note: 𝑆𝑛 is a finite group of order 𝒏!.

Definition:
An element 𝜎 ∈ 𝑆𝑛 is called a cycle of order 𝑟 if there exist symbols (numbers) 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … 𝑥𝑟 such that
𝜎(𝑥1 ) = 𝑥2 , 𝜎(𝑥2 ) = 𝑥3 , … , 𝜎(𝑥𝑟−1 ) = 𝑥𝑟 , 𝜎(𝑥𝑟 ) = 𝑥1 and 𝜎(𝑥) = 𝑥 for all symbols other than
𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … 𝑥𝑟 .
This cycle is denoted by (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … , 𝑥𝑟 ). It is a cycle of length 𝑟. Further the order of a cycle of
length 𝑟 is 𝑟.
1 2 3 4 5
For example, ( ) in 𝑆5 can be represented as a cycle of length 3 as (2 4 5).
1 4 3 5 2
1 2 3 4 5
Further, (2 4 5)3 = ( ) which shows that the order of (2 4 5) is 3.
1 2 3 4 5
Definition:
A transposition is a permutation that swaps two elements and leaves everything else fixed.
𝑖. 𝑒. A cycle of length 2 is called a transposition.
Note: Every permutation 𝜎 ∈ 𝑆𝑛 can be expressed as a product of disjoint cycles.
1 2 3 4 5
For example, ( ) = (1 2 4)(3 5)
2 4 5 1 3

Problem.1 Write the following in permutation form

(i)(2 3 4 6) in 𝑆7 (ii) (2 3 5)(4 7) in 𝑠7
Problem.2 Find the inverse of the cycle (4 6 2 7 3)
Solution. (4 6 2 7 3)−1 = (3 7 2 6 4)
Problem.3 Find the inverse of the cycle (1 2 5 3 4) [Summer_2023-24]
Problem.4. Solve the equation for 𝑥: (1 4 2)2 𝑥 = (2 3 4)−1
Solution.
(𝟏 𝟒 𝟐) 𝟐 = ( 𝟏 𝟐 𝟒) and (𝟐 𝟑 𝟒)−𝟏 = (𝟒 𝟑 𝟐)
∴ (𝟏 𝟒 𝟐) 𝟐 𝒙 = ( 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒)−𝟏 ⟹ (𝟏 𝟐 𝟒)𝒙 = (𝟒 𝟑 𝟐)
⟹ (𝟏 𝟐 𝟒)−𝟏 (𝟏 𝟐 𝟒)𝒙 = (𝟏 𝟐 𝟒)−𝟏 (𝟒 𝟑 𝟐)
⟹ 𝒙 = (𝟏 𝟐 𝟒)−𝟏 (𝟒 𝟑 𝟐)
⟹ 𝒙 = (𝟒 𝟐 𝟏)(𝟒 𝟑 𝟐)
⟹ 𝒙 = (𝟏 𝟒 𝟑)
Problem.5
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
𝜏=( ),𝜎 = ( ) , Find τσ and στ [Summer_2023-24]
1 4 2 5 3 2 3 5 1 4

Que 1.) What is the Order of the Group 𝑠4 [Summer_2018-19]

Que 2.) Consider the following elements of 𝑠5 [Summer_2018-19, Winter_2017-18]
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
𝛼=( ), 𝛽=( ),
2 3 1 4 5 1 2 3 5 4
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
𝛾=( ), 𝛿=( )
5 4 3 1 2 3 2 1 5 4

i.) Find 𝛼𝛽𝛿𝛾 , 𝛼𝛾𝛿𝛽, 𝛼𝛽𝛾𝛿

ii.) Find 𝛾 −1
iii.) Find the Order of 𝛼
iv.) Solve hr equation 𝛿𝑥 = 𝛽
v.) What is the order of 𝑠5
Note: Every permutation is a product of transpositions.
For example (1 2 3 … 𝑛) = (1 𝑛) … (1 3)(1 2)
Note: Expression of a permutation as a product of transpositions is not unique.
For example, (2 7 4 5) = (2 5)(2 4)(2 7)
And (2 7 4 5) = (2 5)(2 4)(2 7)(3 6)(3 6)

Definition:
A permutation is even if it can be written as a product of an even number of transpositions; a
permutation is odd if it can be written as a product of an odd number of transpositions.

Note:
• A cycle of length 𝑛 is odd if 𝑛 is even, and it is even if 𝑛 is odd.
• The set 𝐴𝑛 of all even permutations forms a group under function composition. Hence, it is a
subgroup of 𝑆𝑛

Problem.1.
Check if the following permutations are even or odd.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(i) ( )
2 7 4 1 5 3 6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(ii) ( )
2 7 4 6 5 3 1
Solution:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(i) ( ) = (1 2 7 6)(3 4) = (1 6)(1 7)(1 2)(3 4)
2 7 4 3 5 1 6
Since, it is a product of 4 transpositions, it is an even permutation.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(ii) ( ) = (1 2 7 6) = (1 6)(1 7)(1 2)
2 7 3 4 5 1 6
Since, it is a product of 3 transpositions, it is an odd permutation.

Problem.2
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Let 𝜏 = ( ),𝜎 = ( ) , Then check whether 𝜏 and 𝜎 are
1 4 2 5 3 2 3 5 1 4
i.)commutative ii.) even or odd. [Winter_2019-20]
 Subgroup

Substructure: Let (𝑆,∗) be an algebraic structure and let 𝑆1 ⊆ 𝑆 such that (𝑆1 ,∗) is also an algebraic
structure. Then 𝑆1 is called a substructure of 𝑆.

Subgroup:
Let (𝐺,∗) be a group with the identity element 𝑒 and 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺.
𝐻 is called a subgroup of 𝐺 if (i) for every 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻
(ii) 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻
(iii) for every 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 its inverse 𝑎−1 in 𝐺 also belongs to 𝐻.

Notes:
• 𝑯 ≤ 𝑮 denotes that 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺.
• A non-empty subset 𝐻 of a group 𝐺 is a subgroup if and only if 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻 for every 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻.
• A non-empty subset 𝐻 of a group (𝐺,∗) is a subgroup if and only if If (𝐻,∗) is also a group.
• For any group 𝐺, 𝐺 is a subgroup of 𝐺. Any other subgroup is called a proper subgroup of 𝐺.
• 𝑯 < 𝑮 denotes that 𝐻 is a proper subgroup of 𝐺.
• For any group 𝐺, {𝑒} is a subgroup of 𝐺. Any other subgroup is called non-trivial subgroup of 𝐺.

Problem.1.
Show that set 2ℤ of all even integers is a subgroup of (ℤ, +).
Solution:
Let 2𝑘, 2𝑙 be any two even integers with 𝑘, 𝑙 ∈ ℤ.
Then −2𝑙 = 2(−𝑙) also belongs to 2ℤ.
Further, 2𝑘 + (−2𝑙) = 2𝑘 + 2(−𝑙) = 2(𝑘 + (−𝑙)) = 2(𝑘 − 𝑙) ∈ 2ℤ for 𝑘 − 𝑙 ∈ ℤ.
Hence, 2ℤ is a subgroup of (ℤ, +).

Problem.2. Let 𝐺 be a group and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺. Then prove that 𝐻 = {𝑎𝑛 |𝑛 ∈ ℤ} is a subgroup of 𝐺. Futher
it is the smallest subgroup of 𝐺 containing 𝑎.
Solution:
Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻.
Then 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑚 for some 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ.
𝑥𝑦 −1 = (𝑎𝑛 )(𝑎𝑚 )−1 = 𝑎𝑛 (𝑎−1 )𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑎−𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛−𝑚 ∈ 𝐻 because 𝑛 − 𝑚 ∈ ℤ.
Hence, 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺
Now, let 𝐾 be a subgroup of 𝐺 and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐾.
Then, clearly 𝑎𝑛 ∈ 𝐾 for all 𝑛 ∈ ℤ.
Thus 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐾.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐻 is the smallest subgroup of 𝐺 containing 𝑎.

Exercise:
1. Prove that ℤ is a subgroup of (ℝ, +).
2. Prove that 3ℤ is a subgroup of (ℤ, +).
 Normal Subgroup
Let 𝐺 be a group and 𝐴 and 𝐵 be any two subsets of 𝐺. Then the following definitions:
(i) 𝐴𝐵 = {𝑎𝑏|𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵}
(ii) 𝐴−1 = {𝑎−1 |𝑎 ∈ 𝐴}
(iii) 𝑎𝐵 = {𝑎𝑏|𝑏 ∈ 𝐵} for any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺.
(iv) 𝐴𝑏 = {𝑎𝑏|𝑎 ∈ 𝐴} for any 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.
Definition:
Let 𝐺 be a group and 𝐻 be a subgroup of 𝐺. For any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑎𝐻 is called a left coset of 𝐻 in 𝐺.
And 𝐻𝑎 is called a right coset of 𝐻 in 𝐺.
For example,
• Consider the group (ℤ, +) and its subgroup 𝐻 = 3ℤ.
Then the left coset 1 + 𝐻 = 1 + 3ℤ = 1 + {3𝑥|𝑥 ∈ ℤ} = {1 + 3𝑥|𝑥 ∈ ℤ}
The right coset 𝐻 + 1 = 3ℤ + 1 = {3𝑥|𝑥 ∈ ℤ} + 1 = {3𝑥 + 1|𝑥 ∈ ℤ}
Clearly, 1 + 𝐻 = 𝐻 + 1
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
• Consider 𝐺 = 𝑆3 . Denote 𝑒 = ( ),𝛼 = ( ) and 𝛽 = ( ).
1 2 3 1 3 2 2 3 1
Then 𝛼 2 = 𝑒 = 𝛽 2 and the six elements can be written as 𝐺 = {𝑒, 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛽 2 , 𝛼𝛽, 𝛽𝛼}.
𝐻 = {𝑒, 𝛼} is a subgroup of 𝐺.
Then left coset 𝛽𝐻 = {𝛽, 𝛽𝛼} and right coset 𝐻𝛽 = {𝛽, 𝛼𝛽}.
Here, 𝛽𝐻 ≠ 𝐻𝛽

Problem.1.Definition:
A subgroup 𝐻 of a group 𝐺 is said to be normal in 𝐺 if 𝑥𝑎𝑥 −1 ∈ 𝐺 for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺,𝑥 ∈ 𝐺. It is denoted
by 𝐻 ⊴ 𝐺.
Note:
• A subgroup 𝐻 of a group 𝐺 is said to be normal in 𝐺 if and only if 𝑥𝐻 = 𝐻𝑥 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺.
• 𝐻 ⊲ 𝐺 denotes that 𝐻 is a proper normal subgroup of 𝐺.

Exercise:
1. Prove that 2ℤ is a normal subgroup of (ℤ, +).
 Cyclic Group

Definition:
Let 𝐺 be a group. For any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, the subgroup 𝐻 = {𝑎𝑛 |𝑛 ∈ ℤ} is called the cyclic group generated
by 𝑎. It is denoted by (𝑎) or < 𝑎 >.

Definition:
A group 𝐺 is called a cyclic group, if for some 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, 𝐺 = (𝑎).
In this case, 𝑎 is called the generator of 𝐺.

Note:
• A cyclic group can have more than one generators. For example, ℤ = (1) = (−1).

Problem.1.
Prove that 𝐺 = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖} is a cyclic group. What are the generators of it? [Winter_2021-22]
Solution.
We know that 𝐺 = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖} is a group.
Clearly, 1 = 𝑖 4 , −1 = 𝑖 2 , 𝑖 = 𝑖 1 , −𝑖 = 𝑖 3. Hence, 𝑔 = (𝑖)
Similarly, 1 = (−𝑖)4 , −1 = (−𝑖)2 , 𝑖 = (−𝑖)3 , −𝑖 = (−𝑖)1. Hence, 𝑔 = (−𝑖)

Exercise:
1 1 1
• Prove that 𝐺 = {… , 8 , 4 , 2 , 1,2,4,8,16, … } is a cyclic group with Usual Multiplication and
1
generator 2.
• Prove that ℤ𝑛 with addition modulo 𝑛 is cyclic.

Theorem
If 𝐺 is a cyclic group then 𝐺 is abelian.
Proof
Let 𝐺 = (𝑎) and let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺.
Then 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑚 , 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑛 for some integers 𝑚, 𝑛
Now, 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛+𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑦𝑥
Hence, 𝐺 is abelian.

Note:
• Any subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.

Definition:
If 𝐺 is a group with the identity element 𝑒. Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺.
Len 𝑛 be the smallest positive integer such that 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒. Then 𝑛 is called the order 𝑎.
If no such 𝑛 exists then order of 𝑎 is defined to be infinite.
It is denoted by 𝑜(𝑎).
Problem.1.
Find the order of 𝑖 in ℂ∗ under the multiplication. [Winter_2022-23]
Solution:
1 is the identity element.
Further, 𝑖 1 = 𝑖 ≠ 1, 𝑖 2 = −1 ≠ 1, 𝑖 3 = −𝑖 ≠ 1, 𝑖 4 = 1.
𝑖. 𝑒. 4 is the smallest positive integer such that 𝑖 4 = 1. Hence, 𝑜(𝑖) = 4

Problem.2
If G={-1,1} order of (-1) is _______________. [Winter_2022-23]

Problem.3
If 𝐺 = {𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑎4 , 𝑎5 , 𝑎6 = 𝑒} is a Group under Multiplication, then Find the order of the all the
element of G. [Summer_2018-19, Winter_2017-18, Winter_2021-22]

Exercise:
1. Find the order of 3̅ in ℤ5 and ℤ6 .
2. 𝑆3 is cyclic ? Justify your ans.
 GROUP HOMOMORPHISM & GROUP ISOMORPHISM

Group Homomorphism:
Let (𝐺,∗) and (𝐺 ′ ,⋅) be two groups. A function 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺′ is said to be a group homomorphism if
𝑓(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑎) ⋅ 𝑓(𝑏), for every 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.

Group Isomorphism:
Let (𝐺,∗) and (𝐺 ′ ,⋅) be two groups. A bijective homomorphism 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺′ is said to be a group
isomorphism.
Note:
• If 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺′ is an onto group homomorphism and if 𝐺 is abelian then 𝐺′ is also abelian.
𝑖. 𝑒. An onto homorphism maps an abelian group to an abelian group.
• If 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺′ is an onto group homomorphism and if 𝐺 is cyclic then 𝐺′ is also cyclic.
𝑖. 𝑒. An onto homorphism maps a cyclic group to a cyclic group.
−1
• If 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ is a group homomorphism then (i) 𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑒 ′ and (ii)𝑓(𝑎−1 ) = (𝑓(𝑎))
𝑖. 𝑒. A group homomorphism maps identity to identity and inverse of an image is image of the
inverse.
• If 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ is a group homomorphism then the set 𝑘𝑒𝑟(𝑓) = {𝑎 ∈ 𝐺|𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑒 ′ } is a normal
subgroup of 𝐺. It is known as kernel of 𝑓.

Problem.1.
Prove that 𝐺 ′ = {1, −1} forms a group under the multiplication.
Also prove that 𝑓: ℤ → 𝐺′ defined as 𝑓(𝑎) = 1 if 𝑎 is even, otherwise 𝑓(𝑎) = −1,is a group
homomorphism.
Solution:
Clearly, multiplication is closed and associative on 𝐺′. Further 1 is the identity element. And both
elements are self-inverse. Hence, 𝐺 ′ = {1, −1} forms a group under the multiplication.
Let 𝑚, 𝑛 be any integers such that 𝑚𝑛 ≥ 0.
If both 𝑚 and 𝑛 are even then 𝑚 + 𝑛 is also even.
Further, 𝑓(𝑚) = 𝑓(𝑛) = 1 and 𝑓(𝑚 + 𝑛) = 1 = 𝑓(𝑚)𝑓(𝑛)
If both 𝑚 and 𝑛 are odd then 𝑚 + 𝑛 is even.
Further, 𝑓(𝑚) = 𝑓(𝑛) = −1 and 𝑓(𝑚 + 𝑛) = 1 = (−1)(−1) = 𝑓(𝑚)𝑓(𝑛)
If one of them (say 𝑚) is odd and other (𝑠𝑎𝑦 𝑛) is even then 𝑚 + 𝑛 is odd.
Further, 𝑓(𝑚) = −1, 𝑓(𝑛) = 1and 𝑓(𝑚 + 𝑛) = −1 = (−1)(1) = 𝑓(𝑚)𝑓(𝑛)
Thus, in any case, 𝑓(𝑚 + 𝑛) = 𝑓(𝑚)𝑓(𝑛).
Hence, 𝑓 is a group homomorphism.

Problem.2.
Let ℝ+ be the group of positive real numbers under multiplication. Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ+ be defined as
𝑓(𝑎) = 2𝑎 , for all 𝑎 ∈ ℝ. Then prove that 𝑓 is a group homomorphism.
Solution
For any , 𝑏 ∈ ℝ ,𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 2𝑎+𝑏 = 2𝑎 2𝑏 = 𝑓(𝑎)𝑓(𝑏).
Hence, proved.
 Rings

Definition:
A ring (𝑅, +,⋅) is a non-empty set 𝑅 with two binary operations denoted by + and ⋅ subject to the
following conditions:
(i) (𝑅, +) is an abelian group.
(ii) (𝑅,⋅) is a semi-group.
(iii) 𝑎 ⋅ (𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 + 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑐 and (𝑎 + 𝑏) ⋅ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑐 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑐
𝑖. 𝑒. ⋅ is distributive over +.

Definition:
A ring (𝑅, +,⋅) is said to be a ring with unit element (identity) if there exists an element
𝑒 ∈ 𝑅 such that 𝑒 ⋅ 𝑎 = 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑒 = 𝑎 for every 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅.

Definition:
A ring (𝑅, +,⋅) is said to be a commutative if 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑎 for every 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅.

Note:
• In a ring (𝑅, +,⋅) the identity element under + is known as a zero element. Similarly, unit
element is the identity element under the second operation.

Problem.1. Prove that 𝑅 = 2ℤ is a ring under usual addition and multiplication.

Problem.2. Prove that 𝑅 = ℝ is a ring under usual addition and multiplication.

𝑎 𝑏
Problem.3. Prove that 𝑅 = {[ ] | 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠} with usual matrix addition is
𝑐 𝑑
an abelian group. Let the matrix multiplication be distributive over addition to make it a ring.
Find the unit element of this ring. Is it a commutative ring? [Winter_2019-20]

Integral domain

Definition:
Let 𝑅 be a ring and 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅, both being non-zero.
Then 𝑎 is called a zero divisor if ∃ 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 ϶ 𝑎𝑏 = 0.
Definition:
A commutative ring which has no zero divisor is called an integral domain.

Problem.1. Prove that the ring of 2 × 2 real matrices is not an integral domain.
Solution:
0 0
We know that [ ] is the zero element of the ring.
0 0
 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
Consider, [ ] and [ ] then [ ][ ]=[ ].
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0
Hence, [ ] and [ ] are zero divisors in the ring. Hence, it is not an integral domain.
0 0 0 1

Problem.2. Check if 𝑅 = 2ℤ is an integral domain under usual addition and multiplication.

Problem.3. Prove that 𝑅 = ℝ is an integral domain under usual addition and multiplication
.
Problem.4. Prove that 𝑅 = ℤ5 is an integral domain under addition and multiplication modulo 5.

Problem.5. Check if 𝑅 = ℤ4 is an integral domain under addition and multiplication modulo 5.

Problem.6. A commutative ring which has no zero divisor is called ____ [Winter_2019-20]

Field

Definition:
A commutative ring 𝑅 with unit element 1 ≠ 0 in which every non-zero element has an inverse with
respect to multiplication is called a field.

Definition:
A ring 𝑅 with unit element 1 ≠ 0 in which every non-zero element has an inverse with respect to
multiplication is called a skew-field.
Note:
By definition, every field is a skew-field.

Problem.1.
Prove that ring of real numbers is a field.

Problem.2.
Prove that ring of rational numbers is a field

Problem.3.
Prove that ℤ3 is a field.
 Boolean algebra and Boolean ring

Boolean algebra provides the operations and the rules for working with the set {0, 1}.
Electronic and optical switches can be studied using this set and the rules of Boolean algebra.
Operations in Boolean algebra:
Operation Notation Definition (Result)

Complementation 𝑎̅ 0̅ = 1 and 1̅ = 0
1+1=1 1+0 =1
Boolean sum + or 𝑂𝑅
0+1=1 0+0 =0
1⋅1=1 1⋅0= 0
Boolean product ⋅ or 𝐴𝑁𝐷
0⋅1=0 0⋅0= 0
Note:
• When there is no danger of confusion, the symbol ・ can be deleted, just as in writing algebraic
products.
• Unless parentheses are used, the rules of precedence for Boolean operators are:
first all complements are computed, followed by all Boolean products, followed by all Boolean
sums.
• The complement, Boolean sum, and Boolean product correspond to the logical operators, ￢,∨,
and ∧, respectively, where 0 corresponds to F (false) and 1 corresponds toT (true).
• Equalities in Boolean algebra can be directly translated into equivalences of compound
propositions. Conversely, equivalences of compound propositions can be translated into
equalities in Boolean algebra
Problem.1. Find the value of the following.
(i) 1 ・ 0 + ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
(0 + 1) (ii) 1 + 0 ⋅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
0+1⋅0
Problem.2. Translate the following into a logical equivalence.
(i) 1 ・ 0 + ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
(0 + 1) (ii) 1 + 0 ⋅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
0+1⋅0
Problem.3. Translate the logical equivalence (𝐓 ∧ 𝐓) ∨￢F ≡ T into an identity in Boolean
algebra.
Solution: 1 ⋅ 1 + 0̅ = 1

Boolean expression and Boolean function

Let B = {0, 1}. Then 𝐵 𝑛 = {(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 )𝑥𝑖 ∈ 𝐵 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛} is the set of all possible
𝑛 − 𝑡𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠 of 0𝑠 and 1𝑠.
The variable x is called a Boolean variable if it assumes values only from B, that is, if its only
possible values are 0 and 1.
A function from 𝐵 𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝐵 is called a Boolean function of degree n.
Boolean functions can be represented using expressions made up from variables and Boolean
operations.
If 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 are Boolean expressions, then 𝐸1 , (𝐸1 𝐸2 ), and (𝐸1 + 𝐸2 ) are Boolean expressions.
Each Boolean expression represents a Boolean function.
The values of this function are obtained by substituting 0 and 1 for the variables in the expression.
Problem.1. Find the values of the Boolean function represented by 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧̅
Solution. The values of this function are displayed in the following table.
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑥𝑦 𝑧̅ 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧
1 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 1

Boolean functions 𝐹 and 𝐺 of 𝑛 variables are equal if and only if 𝐹(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 ) =

𝐺(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 ) whenever 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 belong to 𝐵.
Two different Boolean expressions that represent the same function are called equivalent.
For instance, the Boolean expressions 𝑥𝑦, 𝑥𝑦 + 0, and 𝑥𝑦 ⋅ 1 are equivalent.
The complement of the Boolean function 𝐹 is the function 𝐹̅ , where
𝐹̅ (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 ) = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐹(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 )
Let 𝐹 and 𝐺 be Boolean functions of degree 𝑛. The Boolean sum 𝐹 + 𝐺 and the Boolean product
𝐹𝐺 are defined by
(𝐹 + 𝐺)(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 ) = 𝐹(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 ) + 𝐺(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 ),
(𝐹𝐺)(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 ) = 𝐹(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 )𝐺(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 ).

Problem.1. How many different Boolean functions of degree n are there?

Solution: From the product rule for counting, it follows that there are 2𝑛 different 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠 of
0𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1𝑠. Because a Boolean function is an assignment of 0 𝑜𝑟 1 to each of these 2𝑛 different 𝑛 −
𝑛
𝑡𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠, the product rule shows that there are 22 different Boolean functions of degree 𝑛.
 Identity of Boolean algebra
There are many identities in Boolean algebra. The most important of these are displayed the
following table. These identities are particularly useful in simplifying the design of circuits. Each of
the identities in table below can be proved using a table.

Problem.1.Prove that 𝑥(𝑦 + 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥𝑧

Solution.
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑦 + 𝑧 𝑥(𝑦 + 𝑧) 𝑥𝑦 𝑥𝑧 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥𝑧
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Since, both the expressions have same values they are same(equivalent).
Exercise:
• Prove the associative law for Boolean sum.
 Duality
The dual of Boolean expression is obtained by interchanging Boolean Sums and Boolean Products,
and interchanging 0𝑠 and 1𝑠.
For example, the dual of 𝑥 ⋅ (𝑦 + 0) is 𝑥 + (𝑦 ⋅ 1) and the dual of 𝑥 ⋅ 1 + (𝑦̅ + 𝑧) is (𝑥 + 0) ⋅ (𝑦̅ ⋅ 𝑧)

Disjunctive and Conjunctive Normal Form

Definition.
A literal is a Boolean variable or its complement.
A minterm of the Boolean variables 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 is a Boolean product 𝑦1 𝑦2 . . . 𝑦𝑛 where 𝑦𝑖 =
𝑥𝑖 𝑜𝑟 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑥̅𝑖 . Hence, a minterm is a Boolean product of n literals, with one literal for each
variable.
A minterm is the standard product.
Note:
A minterm has the value 1 for one and only one combination of values of its variables.
More precisely, the minterm 𝑦1 𝑦2 . . . 𝑦𝑛 is 1 if and only if each 𝑦𝑖 is 1, and this occurs if and only
if 𝑥𝑖 = 1 when 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖 and 𝑥𝑖 = 0 when 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑥̅𝑖 .
Problem.1. Find a minterm that equals 1 if 𝑥1 = 𝑥3 = 0 and 𝑥2 = 𝑥4 = 𝑥5 = 1, and equals 0
otherwise.
Solution. The minterm ̅̅̅𝑥 𝑥3 4 𝑥5 has the correct set of values.
𝑥1 2 ̅̅̅𝑥

Disjunctive Normal Form

By taking Boolean sums of distinct minterms we can build up a Boolean expression with a specified
set of values. In particular, a Boolean sum of minterms has the value 1 when exactly one of the
minterms in the sum has the value 1.
It has the value 0 for all other combinations of values of the variables.
Consequently, given a Boolean function, a Boolean sum of minterms can be formed that has the
value 1 when this Boolean function has the value 1, and has the value 0 when the function has the
value 0.
The minterms in this Boolean sum correspond to those combinations of values for which the function
has the value 1.
Definition.
The sum of minterms that represents the function is called the sum-of-products expansion or the
disjunctive normal form of the Boolean function.
Problem.1. Find the sum-of-products expansion for the function 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑧̅ using the
Boolean identities.
Solution.
𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑧̅
= 𝑥𝑧̅ + 𝑦𝑧̅ Distributive law
= 𝑥1𝑧̅ + 1𝑦𝑧̅ Identity law
= 𝑥(𝑦 + 𝑦̅)𝑧̅ + (𝑥 + 𝑥̅ )𝑦𝑧̅ Unit property
= 𝑥𝑦𝑧̅ + 𝑥𝑦̅𝑧̅ + 𝑥𝑦𝑧̅ + 𝑥̅ 𝑦𝑧̅ Distributive law
= 𝑥𝑦𝑧̅ + 𝑥𝑦̅𝑧̅ + 𝑥̅ 𝑦𝑧̅ Idempotent law
Problem.2. Find the sum-of-products expansion for the function 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑧̅ using the
table of values.
Solution.
Consider the following table of values of the function 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑧̅.
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑥+𝑦 𝑧̅ (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑧̅
1 1 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 𝟏
1 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 𝟏
0 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 1 𝟏
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0

The sum-of products expansion of 𝐹 is the Boolean sum of three minterms corresponding to the three
rows of this table that give the value 1 for the function. This gives
𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑦𝑧̅ + 𝑥𝑦̅𝑧̅ + 𝑥̅ 𝑦𝑧̅

Conjunctive Normal Form

It is also possible to find a Boolean expression that represents a Boolean function by taking a
Boolean product of Boolean sums. The resulting expansion is called the conjunctive normal form
or product-of-sums expansion of the function. These expansions can be found from sum-of-
products expansions by taking duals.
Problem.1. Find the product-of-sums expansion for the function 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑧̅ using the
table of values. [Winter 2019-20]
Solution.
Consider the following table of values of the function 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑧̅.
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑥+𝑦 𝑧̅ (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑧̅
1 1 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 𝟏
1 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 𝟏
0 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 1 𝟏
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0

The sum-of products expansion of 𝐹 is the Boolean sum of three minterms corresponding to the three
rows of this table that give the value 1 for the function. This gives the sum-of-product expression as
𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑦𝑧̅ + 𝑥𝑦̅𝑧̅ + 𝑥̅ 𝑦𝑧̅
Taking the dual of this,
𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧̅)(𝑥 + 𝑦̅ + 𝑧̅)(𝑥̅ + 𝑦 + 𝑧̅)
Which is the required product-of-sums expansion.
 Boolean ring
Let 𝐵 = {0,1}. Define 𝑥 ⨁ 𝑦 = (𝑥 ∧ ¬ 𝑦) ∨ (¬ 𝑥 ∧ 𝑦) for the ring sum of 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦, and
use 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 for their product. Prove that (𝐵, ⨁,⋅) forms a ring.
Solution:
Consider the table for the ring sum on 𝐵 = {0,1}.
⨁ 0 1
Which shows that the ring sum satisfies both the closure
property and associative property.
Further 0 is the zero element. And both the elements are self- 0 0 1
inverse.
Hence, 𝐵 is a group under ring sum. 1 1 0
Further, Boolean product satisfies closure property.
Further 𝑥 ⋅ (𝑦⨁𝑧) = (𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦)⨁(𝑥 ⋅ 𝑧) can be verified by the following table as product of both the
sides are same in each case.

𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑦⨁𝑧 𝑥 ⋅ (𝑦⨁𝑧) (𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦) (𝑥 ⋅ 𝑧) (𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦)⨁(𝑥 ⋅ 𝑧)

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0

Thus, it forms a ring.