TANZANIA INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

CONTINUOUSPROFESSIONAL LEARNINGMODULE FOR

ORDINARYLEVEL SECONDARY SCHOOLTEACHERS

BIOLOGY

2021
©Tanzania Institute of Education, 2021

Revised Version 2024

ISBN:

Tanzania Institute of Education

P. O. Box 35094
Dar es Salaam

Telephone: +255 735041170/735041168

E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.tie.go.tz

This module should be cited as:

Tanzania Institute of Education (2021). Continuous Professional Development Learning
Module for Ordinary Level Secondary School Teachers: Biology. Dar es
salaam: Tanzania Institute of Education.

All rights reserved. No part of this module may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording,
or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the Tanzania Institute of Education.

Table of contents
Table of contents...................................................................................................................ii

Acknowledgments.................................................................................................................v

Abbreviations and acronyms..............................................................................................v

Preface......................................................................................................................................v

Symbols and their interpretations...................................................................................xii

Unit One: Preparation for teaching and learning Biology..........................................1

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1.1 Curriculum materials............................................................................................................1

1.2 Using Biology teaching and learning resources...................................................................3

1.3 Designing Context-based interactive learning activities......................................................5

Unit Two: Interactive teaching methods in Biology.....................................................9

2.1 Interactive learning activities...............................................................................................9

2.2 Interactive Teaching Methods............................................................................................11

2.3 Assessing interactive learning in Biology..........................................................................12

Unit Three: Competence-based assessment in Biology.............................................16

3.1 Competence-based assessment and evaluation..................................................................16

3.2 Construction of assessment tools.......................................................................................17

Unit Four: Intervention programs in teaching and learning Biology.....................24

4.1 Intervention Programmes in learning Biology...................................................................24

4.2 Apply intervention programmes when teaching Biology...................................................26

Unit Five: Basic biological skills....................................................................................30

5.1 Measurement of mass, temperature and volume................................................................31

5.2 Preparation of biological reagents......................................................................................35

5.3 Dissection of animals.........................................................................................................37

5.4 The use of light microscope...............................................................................................39

Unit Six: Classification of living things........................................................................42

6.1 Specimen collection...........................................................................................................42

6.2 Basic principles of classification of organisms..................................................................43

Unit Seven: Transport of materials in living organisms............................................46

7.1 Diffusion, osmosis and mass flow......................................................................................47

7.2 Blood circulatory and lymphatic systems..........................................................................50

Unit Eight: Reproduction in plants.................................................................................53

8.1 Asexual reproduction in plants...........................................................................................53

8.2 Sexual reproduction in plants.............................................................................................55

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Unit Nine: Growth in living organisms.........................................................................57
9.1 Activities on plant growth..................................................................................................58

9.2 Investigating effect of temperature on seedling growth.....................................................59

9.3 Investigating regions of growth in roots and shoots..........................................................62

9.4 Investigating effects of nutrients to animal growth............................................................64

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 Acknowledgments

The Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) recognizes and values the important contribution
of organizations and individuals who participated in the design and development of this
module. Specifically, TIE acknowledge the contribution of the following:

Writers: Ms. Saada Mbepera, Mr. Japhate J. Mwagumbo, Mr. Rabson Chambua, and Mr.
Sadiki Kaguo.

Editors:

Designer:

Illustrator:

Supervisor: Dr Joyce Kahembe & Ms. Fika B. Mwakabungu

Finally, TIE gives special thanks to the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
(MoEST) for supporting the entire writing process.

Dr. Aneth A. Komba

Director General Tanzania Institute of Education
Abbreviations and acronyms
TIE Tanzania Institute of Education

MoEVT Ministry of Education and Vocational Training

MoEST Ministry of Education, Science and Technology

ESR Education for Self-Reliance

CPDL Continuous Professional Development Learning

TRC Teachers Resource Centre

WEO Ward Education Officer

SQA School Quality Assurer

Po-RALG President’s office Regional Administration and Local Government

Preface

v
Background information
Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) is a public institution under the Ministry of Education,
Science and Technology (MoEST) which was established by the Act of Parliament No. 13 of
1975. The Institute is charged with the responsibility of interpreting government policies on
education to curriculum programmes and instructional materials in order to facilitate
provision of quality education at pre-primary, primary, secondary and teacher education
levels. The Act also gave TIE the mandate of designing and developing curriculum materials,
providing technical advice and conducting orientation trainings concerning the
implementation of curricula in pre-primary, primary, secondary and teacher education levels.
The orientation training sessions are attached to the continuous professional learning
modalities to support teachers in implementing curricula and other curricula materials
prepared.

In 2005, MoEVT under TIE reviewed the Curriculum for Ordinary Level Secondary
Education to be a competence-based curriculum. These changes moved from content-based
curriculum to competency-based curriculum. Competence based curriculum requires students
to be a centre of teaching and learning in order to support them in constructing knowledge.
The changes in curriculum means the transformation of teaching and learning methodologies
from teachers-centred to learner-centred methodologies.

Needs assessment
Since 2005, TIE was involved in delivering in-service training programmes to facilitate
teachers in implementing the curricula and other curricula materials (i.e., students’ textbooks,
teachers guide, syllabus, and other supplementary materials) for secondary school education
developed for implementing Competence based curricula. During the training sessions, TIE
revealed that, the implementation of competency-based secondary education curriculum in
science and mathematics was still a challenge. Some of the challenges identified were:
limited understanding of the concept of competency-based curriculum among teachers and
the use of competency-based teaching and assessment methods such as design and create
competence-based learning activities, use formative assessment practices and giving and use
of feedback to facilitate learning processes. Also, teachers reported to face difficult in
implementing competence-based curriculum in place of overcrowded classrooms. Further,
teachers had inadequate skills in performing the integration of practical work in Biology
subject.

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Similarly, in 2013 a report for the workshop for in-service training for science and
mathematics secondary school teachers organised by the Ministry of Education and
Vocational Training (MoEVT) at Usagara Secondary School in Tanga indicated a need for
using locally available resources in facilitating learning. The report also, indicated challenges
in assessment such as in test item construction using a table of specification, use of a table of
specification, preparation of rubrics. Further, the report indicates teachers to face challenges
in improvisation of learning resources, using project work to facilitate learning and in
enhancing practical work in teaching biology and other science lessons.

Also, the proceedings in 2018 the Africa Regional Congress of International Commission on
Mathematical Instruction (ICMI) sponsored the Fifth Africa Regional Congress of ICMI on
Mathematical Education (AFRICME 5) focusing on “Quality Mathematics Education for
All” at Aga Khan University campus in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania indicated the needs for
improving teachers’ skills and knowledge in science subjects so that they own knowledge, be
confidence and lover of subjects. This will be achieved through enhancing content and
pedagogical knowledge among mathematics and science teachers, more so in mathematics
which is the foundations of most science subjects.

The review of 2018/2019 national performance report also indicate low performance in
science and mathematics. For example, pass rates for Form 4 Examination (CSEE) in
Government and Non-Government Secondary School Candidates by Subject and Sex, in the
Year 2016 and 2017 indicated low performance in mathematics (2016 – 18.1% and
201719.2%). Factors influencing low performance in mathematics and science were found to
be related to shortages of teachers’ professional support; less use of communities of learning
opportunities; and less opportunity for enhancing classroom teaching and learning for
improved learning outcomes. The report called for more efforts to enhance the teaching and
learning of mathematics.

These findings call urgency for improving the implementation of competency-based

curriculum. Thus, this will be archived first through the creation of continuous professional
learning modules (i.e., Mathematics, Science, ICT and Laboratory Skills) for in-service
teachers for facilitating self-learning, peer learning and community of learning in order to
develop teachers’ ability of using Biology skills in different situations to implement the
curricula and associated curricula materials; Second, through in-service teachers orientation
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trainings for helping them to solve competence-based teaching and learning challenges and
third, through improving school infrastructure and instructional materials by made available.
The development of this module also is based on the Tanzania Philosophy of Education for
Self-Reliance (ESR) which emphasizes the provision of education that is in line with the
needs of the community. This philosophy places emphasis on fostering critical thinking and
inquiry learning, collaborative learning, education and work, school and community
partnerships, development of Literacy and Numeracy skills; and the development of science
and technology. In addition, the philosophy of ESR also emphasises teaching and learning
that is tailored to the needs of the students and in the 21st century. Accommodations of these
philosophies focuses at building a nation of educated and motivated people who will raise the
economy and meet the needs of the labour market and sustain competition.

This module is therefore prepared to equip you with necessary skills required to facilitate
teaching and learning of competence-based Biology syllabus for ordinary secondary schools.
Through this programme, you will improve your Biology teaching skills at the secondary
school level.

Aim of the module

This CPL module aims at:

(a) Developing your competency in teaching Biology
(b) Creating activities to facilitate teaching and learning of Biology
(c) Enhancing effective strategies of teaching/implementing the CBC for Biology
subject

Target group
This module is designed to be used by Biology teachers at Ordinary Level Secondary
Schools. The purpose is to develop the required competencies in teaching Biology for

improved learning outcomes and quality of education How to use this module

This module is designed for self-learning, peer learning and community of learning. You need
to read this module carefully at your own time, carry out all activities, and answer all
questions assigned to you. You will collaborate with your fellows in school in carrying out
some of the activities as instructed.
Along with your regular classroom teaching tasks, peer assessment, peer tutoring and self-
assessment will be conducted as demonstration lessons before classroom sessions to allow
you to accommodate comments and suggestions from peers for the purpose of improving
viii
your lesson. The process will be guided by classroom observation checklist (see Appendix)
which you will give to peers and the peers will use it to rate your process. Later, you are
supposed to prepare lesson reflection reports which you will include as among of the items in
the portfolio.

Besides, you need to share with your fellows any challenges you face in teaching and
learning Biology in order to discuss and come up with solutions, which will improve your
teaching. The use of this module will boost your confidence and competency in teaching
Biology as emphasised in the competency-based ordinary secondary school curriculum.

Structure of the module

This module is divided in two sections. The first section carries preliminary pages. You are
supposed to read this section to get insight of how to use this module. The second section
carries the content of the module. This section has nine units. Unit One exposes you to
preparation for teaching and learning; Units Two is about Interactive Methods; Unit Three is
on Assessing Biology; Unit Four is about Intervention programmes in schools and
communities; Unit Five deals with Basic Biological Skills; Unit Six is about Classification of
Living Things; Unit Seven is about Transport of materials in living organism; Unit Eight is
on the reproduction in plants and Unit Nine is about growth in plants and animals. There are
various activities you need to carry out and questions you need to attempt for each unit. In
addition, after carrying out all the activities and answering all the questions in each unit to
reflect on each unit and relating the knowledge you gained.

Teaching and learning materials/aids/tools

The proposed teaching and learning aids can be used with other improvised aids which you
may create from your environment according to the competency you expect to develop to
facilitate teaching and learning in process. You are advised to be creative and flexible to use
teaching and learning aids and tools according to their importance and availability in your
environment.

Mode of learning

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The duration of the training is nine months. You are expected to complete the module of the
programme. Apart from carrying out activities in the module, you need to use the knowledge
and skills you acquire to improve teaching and learning.

You will be provided with the module and you are expected to learn through self-study at
your work station. You need to read and carry out all the activities you have been assigned in
all the modules. You also need to plan and arrange time for studying the modules by
considering the duration of the programme. Before you start carrying out the activities in
each unit, you need to answer questions as assessment of your existing knowledge. After
carrying out the activities, you need also to answer questions as an assessment of what you
have achieved in the activities you have carried out.

There will be learning communities at school and ward levels where you and fellow Biology
teachers will meet at your school once a week and at TRCs once a month for sharing
experiences, achievements and challenges you face during self-learning. Therefore, in order
to make learning communities effective, you need to meet at least once a week at school
level, once a month in groups of teachers at your TRCs. Furthermore, TIE, LGA or
TAMISEMI education leaders will make a follow-up on how you perform in the training
twice a year. Therefore, you will have to write a report concerning your own progress prior to
their coming which you will use to discuss with them success stories and challenges you
encountered at TRCs, schools and during in self-study.

Programme assessment
CPL trainings for in-service teacher comprise of assessment in order to know whether the
intended competency is realized. Before carrying out activity you will have to answer the
assessment questions which intend to seek your prior knowledge about the competence you
are going to learn. After the activity you will also answer questions to assess yourself on how
those activities helped you to develop the intended competency.

Monitoring will be conducted three times within and outside classrooms throughout the
programme. It will be conducted by the school team, Ward Education Officer (WEO) and
School Quality Assurer (SQA). Tools for monitoring will come from the guideline on school
quality assurance.
The assessment of the programme will be conducted by the school team at school level and
the WEO at ward level. District SQA and educational officers will supervise the overall
process of learning and assessment to make sure that the programme offered is of the
x
expected quality. The outcome of this assessment will be followed by awarded a certificate of
completion. Therefore, you will be required to fulfill this requirement in order to be awarded
a certificate for completion in-service training programme. If you will not be able to meet this
requirement, you will carry over into another period of nine months. And this can have
consequence in your open performance review and appraisal system (OPRAS).

Monitoring and evaluation of the programme

As the programme will be conducted at school level and centres for learning communities
within the wards, school team, ward educational officers, districts school quality assurers and
educational officers will be the main monitors of the programme. There will be also
monitoring and evaluation at national level which will involve TIE, MoEST, and Po-RALG.
The evaluation of the implementation of the programme will be conducted after completing
the learning programme. The objective of the evaluation is to realise if the programme was
implemented as it was planned and to identify challenges that arose during the
implementation of the programme in order to develop strategies for improvement.

This evaluation will involve different educational stakeholders from school level to national
level. Evaluation tools will be prepared by the TIE by involving different educational
stakeholders. Teacher Needs Assessment (TNA) guideline will be among the tool that will be
used for monitoring and evaluation of the programme. After completing the evaluation,
improvement will be made in the areas which will need changes and the programme will
proceed.
Symbols and their interpretations

Specific competences

Teaching and learning activity

Personal development plan

Tools or practical resources that foster the enhancement of teaching and

learning

Take note

xi
Assessment activities

Summary that includes the main ideas used or covered in each unit or
sub-unit

Questions for reflection

References

xii
 Unit One Preparation for teaching and learning Biology

Preparation for teaching and learning is a complex process. Without preparation there is no effective
teaching. Teachers needs to prepare teaching and learning in ways that provide equitable access and
opportunities to all students to building upon on what they already know and hence to acquire,
construct, and create new knowledge. As student diversity increases, the challenges for teacher
preparation to facilitate learning increase. A teacher has to pass through a number of documents
including the curriculum materials during preparation for teaching and learning Biology.

In this unit, you will improve your ability to:

(a)
Analyse Biology curriculum materials;
(b)
Use Biology teaching and learning resources; and
(c)
Design interactive learning activities using context-based resources.

Biology syllabus, textbooks, teachers guide, phone, internet connectivity, Biology

laboratory materials, Computer, projector, television, camera, tablets devices,

microphone, headphones, speakers, remote control, presentation clicker, DVD, CDROM,

smart phones, printers, flash disks, modem, router and digital whiteboards.

1.1 Curriculum materials

The curriculum is a crucial component of any educational process. Curriculum materials play an
important role for teachers, by providing tools for facilitating learning. Teachers use curriculum and
other materials to determine knowledge and skills that students are expected. Curriculum also used in
addressing questions such as what, why, how, and how well students should learn and be able to do. As
a Biology teacher, in order to facilitate learning effectively you need knowledge and skills to analyse
curriculum materials such as Biology syllabus, textbooks, supplementary books and teachers guide.
Analyzing curriculum materials means reading and interpreting the curriculum materials logically
based on the relevant skills expected to be taught in a particular class. Analyzing the syllabus, will help
you to prepare a scheme of work and lesson plans by choosing relevant teaching and learning methods
and resources.

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 Time: 120 Minutes
1. Visit the website www.tie.go.tz to download ordinary level secondary school
syllabus or visit the school library or TRCs to obtain a copy of a Biology syllabus and
use it to:
(a) Analyse elements of Ordinary level Biology syllabus and relate them to
teachers guide, text books, and Biology practical manual.
(b) Assess topic number one in the Biology Syllabus and determine whether the
time, resources, and methods suggested enable you to prepare a good form one
lesson, then give your suggestions.
(c) Summarise in a table form how different curriculum materials can help you to
achieve goals of teaching Biology

Curriculum material Its role in teaching Biology

(d) Choose any topic of your interest 40 minutes and prepare a lesson plan using
curriculum material analysed in 1. (c) above

1. How can you solve challenges you face when analysing Biology curriculum
materials?
2. How can computer and internet connectivity help you to analyse the biology curriculum
materials?

1. What have you learnt about analysis of Biology curriculum materials in

facilitating teaching and learning?

2. Which aspect of Biology curriculum materials analysis requires more clarification?

One of the key skills of a good teacher is the ability to analyse curriculum materials.
Among other things, the curriculum materials that need to be worked on are the Biology
syllabus, teachers’ guide, scheme of work, lesson plan, and lesson notes. As a lesson planner, you have

2
to consider the relationships between Biology curriculum materials in preparation of lessons in order to
attain the curriculum goals.
1.2 Using Biology teaching and learning resources
Different resources are used in teaching and learning. These can either be audio, visual or audio-visual
of which the use of each or all together involve more senses therefore promote active learning. The
purpose of learning resources as we implement curriculum is to aid teaching and learning activity. In
the same vein, learning resources influence motivation to learning and help to interpret concepts.
Effective use of resources makes learning more meaningful and encourage development of skills and
attitudes. Thus, it is important to learn how to use different resources along with the Biology
curriculum. In so doing, communication and sharing of ideas among peers is encouraged to enhance
personal development. This will help to have skills in using its related resources materials in order to
use effectively the curriculum material. In this section you are expected to develop ability to use
resources suggested in Biology syllabus in teaching and learning.

Time: 60 minutes

1. Plan a learning activity using resources that will involve students’ constructive
interactions.
2. In collaboration with a fellow teacher, develop a schedule of which you can execute the
lesson using the prepared resources for improvement.
3. Write a summary based on peer review during presentation showing how was helpful to
improve your learning activity.

1. What kind of resources will you use in teaching “Grouping of Living

Things” to make all students engaged?
2. In which ways Biology learning resources can be obtained in your school
compound?
3. How does the Learning aids help to improve teaching Biology?
4. What challenges did you encounter when using teaching resources, you
selected?
Suggest ways for improvements.

3
 1. What have you learnt about the use of teaching and learning resources?
2. What more do you need to know about the use of Biology teaching and learning resources?
3. Did this section improve your skills on planning lessons?

Biology teaching and learning resources can be commercially obtained or accessed locally
within the school compound. You can involve your students in collecting some of the
resources such as plant and animal specimens. However, you need to take all safety precautions when
involving your students to collect specimen. The importance of involving students in collecting learning
resources is that, the entire process of collecting and using the resources involve learning organisms’
habits, habitats and mode of life. To do this you have to make a specific plan depending on what kind of
resources you need your students to collect and the competence you want your students to develop.
Moreover, you may need to provide students with the collecting tools and devices. The effective
collection and use of Biology resources improves teaching and learning

1.2.1 ICT facilities in teaching and learning Biology

As we have seen in the previous section, teaching and learning resources are used by both teachers and
learners to develop attitude, skills and knowledge. Textual curriculum materials such as syllabus and
text books are examples of teaching and learning materials. We have also seen that there are other
related resources for teaching Biology. ICT is among of important resources as it can be used to handle,
process, communicate and store information. The ICT skills also should be applied by students to learn
Biology.

Time: 120 minutes

1. Design a Biology lesson activity whereby teaching and learning will involve the use of
ICT software such as word processor and power point in a designed lesson show how
will:
(a) Require students to use ICT in learning process:
(b) Produce tools such as spreadsheet, word processor and power point.
(c) Display simulations.
(d) Communicate through internet.
2. Demonstrate the lesson designed to your peers for improvement.

4
 3. Write a summary based on peer review during presentation showing how was helpful to
improve your designed lesson activity.

1. How will you use ICT facility prior, during and after teaching a Biology lesson?
2. How can you use social media in teaching and learning in Biology subject?
3. To what extent the use of ICT facility in teaching and learning Biology useful in developing the
21st century skills to my students?

1. What new things have you learnt on working with ICT facilities or materials in teaching and
learning Biology?
2. How do you comment on the use more than one ICT device in teaching and learning a
certain concept?

Since we are living in a world where frequent changes are occurring in all sectors, the use of ICT in
teaching and learning Biology is inevitable. ICT does not replace teacher’s role but it improves the
pedagogy, hence the teaching becomes more interactive and effective. ICT facility help to improve
the teacher-students and students-students interaction. It is useful in preparation of teaching and
giving feedback about the teaching and learning process. You have to decide the ICT devices to use
prior to the process of teaching. In most cases ICT involves use of more than one device connected to
each other. This gives the reason why you should have time prepare them for effective teaching and
learning Biology.

1.3 Designing Context-based interactive learning activities

You are required to develop skills to design learning activities and resources based on the context. A
number of learning activities can be used in facilitating learning in a classroom. Generally, a well-
designed learning activity can enhance the quality of learning of students through exploration,
experimentation and expression. a teacher may involve the use of locally available materials that
students are familiar with to ensure active learning environment, and so exploration through interactive
learning and investigation can easily be achieved. Context based interactive learning activities support

5
learners’ thinking, investigation and sharing of information about how knowledge was created.
Similarly, interactive learning approaches involve experimentation which calls for gathering
information through experience

Time: 60 Minutes

1. Use available materials to design context-based learning activities with improvised

resources and then
(a) engage your fellow teachers in the biology department to improve the learning
activities.
(b) Demonstrate the designed context-based activities to your fellow teachers in
the community of learning and identify the strengths and weakness of the
activities (Improve whenever necessary).
(c) Write a summary based on peer review during presentation showing how was
helpful to improve your designed lesson activity.

1.
What is the significance of using locally available resources in designing interactive learning
activities?
2.
Suggest ways you will use to overcome challenges faced during designing interactive
learning activities using context-based resources?

learning
1. What do you need to know more about designing context-based interactive activities
2. What plan will you make to learn more about designing interactive learning activities that
are context-based?

The strategy and skills you need on how to plan and develop the lesson that will
enhance active learning is very important. You need to be equipped with those skills in
order to implement a Competence based Biology lessons that will assist learner to develop
competencies in solving problems in their respective environments.

6
 There are challenges in designing interactive and constructive learning activities that
support learning objectives. You should design each learning activity to fulfil some of
the conditions including a definite beginning and ending, clear transition between
learning activities and plan clear guideline on how to complete the activity.

The unit introduced you to the issues related to preparation for teaching. It is important

that you prepare well before teaching. When preparing for teaching, one has to analyse
curriculum materials, design, prepare and create learning activities using context-based
resources, and use curriculum materials in teaching and learning. Sometimes one might need to
improvise teaching and learning resources, therefore context-based materials will help during
improvisation. More importantly, implementing a good teaching is all about how well you plan
student cantered learning activities. The learning activity has to show the content to be learned
and clear instructions to guide students in doing the learning activity. The activity has to be
structured in a meaningful way for students to understand.

Aggarwal, S. (2000). Biology laboratory module for class XI. Vikas publishing House PVT
LTD.
Anonymous. (2016). What is the difference between textbooks and reference books.
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (2009). Developing the theory of formative assessment. Journal of
Educational Assessment and Evaluation, 21, 5-31.
Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B., & Wiliam, D. (2003). Assessment for learning:
Putting it into practice. Buckingham: Oxford Open University Press.
Dee Fink, L. (2003). Creating Significant Learning Experiences for College Classrooms:
An Integrated Approach to Designing College Courses. San Francisco:
JosseyBass.
Green, C., Eady. M., & Andersen, P. (2018). Preparing quality teachers. Teaching & Learning
Inquiry, 6(1). http://dx.doi.org/10.20343/teachlearninqu.6.1.10.
Mackean, D.G. (1997). GCSE Biology 2nd Edition. John Murray (publishers) Ltd.
Retrieved from http//: www.answers.com/Q/...books?

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Stone, R.H. (1981) Revision Biology for tropical school, Oxford University Press.
TIE, (1998). O-level Secondary School Biology Practical Module.
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation. (1980). UNESCO:
Handbook for science teachers. Paris: UNESCO.

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 Unit Two Interactive teaching methods in Biology

Effective teaching requires the use of interactive methods to enable students develop competencies. It
has been observed that students learn themselves better by constructing their own competencies rather
than being imparted knowledge by their teachers. Therefore, the focus of education emphasizes on the
learner to be at the center of learning to enable then be critical thinkers, creative, innovative, ICT
proficient, collaborative and problem solvers. Assessments is emphasised to be integrated during
teaching and learning processes to provide an opportunity for a teacher to support learning and students
use assessment information as feedback for feeding forward learning proceeds. This unit intends to
develop your competence in applying interactive methods that address all the aspects of teaching and
learning in a competence-based curriculum.

In this unit you are expected to improve your ability to:

(a) Design interactive learning activities for teaching and learning Biology;
(b) Apply interactive teaching methods in different Biology lessons; and
(c) Use appropriate techniques to assess interactive learning and to provide feedback.

ICT facilities, internet sources, books, syllabus, laboratory materials and specimens.

Modules, guides and flip charts and VIPP Cards.

1. What kind of activities can I plan to make my students interact during learning?
2.
Which interactions is needed to bring meaningful learning?
3.
How can I assess interactive learning?

2.1 Interactive learning activities

Best learning practices are the ones that enable students to build knowledge by interactive with
activities and related to their experiences. In this subunit, you are expected to improve your facilitation
skills for effective teaching and learning. Interactive learning activity play an important role in
achieving the 21st Century skills; problem solving skills, creativity, critical thinking, innovation,
collaboration and communication. This can be achieved by using learner centered approaches such as

9
group work, brainstorming, pair-share, gallery walk, project, experimentation, simulation and others.
Knowledge of these methods does not guarantee you to be successful in implementing classroom
teaching. You need to be creative in designing interactive lessons that will engage your students during
teaching and learning processes. Therefore, you have to think on how to start, transit and terminate
your lessons interactive; where students interact with each other, with the teacher, with learning
resources as well as the environment.

Time: 120 minutes

1. Design an interactive lesson that will involve students interact with each other, with the
teacher, with learning resources.
(a) From the lesson designed instruct your students to:
(i) Develop a work report.
(ii) Present the findings.
(iii)Summarize the findings.
(b)Present the design lesson to your peers in Community of learning for sharing and
improvement.
2. Chose a topic in a Biology Syllabus then:
(a) design an interactive lesson showing how you will engage students, prompt
students to interactive each other, and interactive with learning resources.
(b) Share the lesson design with fellow Biology teachers in a department
(c) Write a summary on how you use peer review comment for improving the
lesson before you use it for teaching in classroom.

1. What resources will you need when designing an interactive lesson on “Safety

in the Environment”
2. What instructions will you provide to your students to achieve objectives of the
designed lesson “Safety in the Environment”
3. What challenges do you think you are likely to face when executing the lesson
“Safety in the Environment”

10
 1. Does this activity help you to improve designing interactive learning lessons?
2.
What facilitation methods and resources should you include in your lessons to achieve
leaner centered teaching?
3.
Can the lesson you have designed be useful to other Biology teacher to bring about
interactive learning?

Interactive techniques help students in constructing new attitudes, knowledge, and skills.
These techniques encourage students’ participation when they use question that stimulate response,
discussion and hands on experience and encourage the use of materials that capture students’
attention. It generally prompts student to actively engage with lesson rather than passively
absorbing it.

2.2 Interactive Teaching Methods

There are as many teaching techniques which are either embedded in participatory or less participatory
methods of teaching. Teachers may use both approaches to bring about learning. However, in a
competence-based teaching and learning, participatory learning approaches bring about the desired
outcomes of designing interactive and learner centered lessons. This sub unit aims at assisting you to
review and practice various facilitation techniques under participatory approach.

Estimated time: 60 Minutes

1. Design a plan that can employ brainstorming, group work, gallery walk and group
presentation in one lesson.
2. Compare the designed plan in (1) above with one of your previous lesson plans. Then:
(a) write their difference
(b) state whether the activity you used before help to achieve learner centered
teaching.
(c) write how you will improve your practices on using these interactive
teaching methods.
3. Develop instructions that will enable your students to learn through project work

11
 1. Why is it important to incorporate multiple methods of teaching in one lesson?
2. Explain necessary criteria to consider when planning a lesson that use
interactive teaching methods.

1. Has this unit improved your competence in interactive teaching methods?

2. What do you need to improve on interactive teaching methods?

Planning for interactive lesson requires time, range of resources to support the
proposed interactive methods. Also it requires the teachers’ positive mind towards
achieving this goal, ample time for designing tasks, instructions and trying out your plan before
implementing it.. Enough resources are needed for student to use and develop learning experience.
Such resources should be equally distributed to individual or group of students. You should have
enough skills and knowledge to enable you achieve this target.

2.3 Assessing interactive learning in Biology

Assessment for assessing interactive learning Biology needs to be integral part in teaching and learning
processes. Moreover, the emphasis has to be in provision of constructive feedback, which is helpful for
learn to assess themselves and set strategies for moving learning forward. This is emphasised to equip
learner with the 21st century skills which involve critical thinking, creativity, collaboration and
communication. Also, emphasis is directed to achieving literacy skills that involve information media
and technology and life skills that involve flexibility, leadership, initiation, productivity and social
skills...

You are advised to consider the following criteria when using assessment and giving feedback;
1. use assessment during teaching and learning:
2. Use assessment for assessing teaching such as assessing the effectiveness of teaching instruction
and materials
3. Use assessment for improving teaching, improving teaching instruction and materials
4. Provide constructive feedback, the feedback that will allow learners to assess their strength and
weakness in learning and hence set strategies for improvement;

12
5. Feedback should be given on time. Delayed feedback is usually useless; and
6. Feedback should focus on a specific competence. To make it constructive, you should not include
areas that was not addressed in a subject of discussion.
This unit will give you an opportunity to practice various techniques to assess interactive learning and
provide feedback.

Time: 180 minutes

1. Develop assessment plan for assessing the following activities:
(a) Project work
(b) Practical experiment
(c) Group work
(d) Students portfolio
2. Design assessment plan in 1 should enable students to assess themselves and
other peer assess them
3. Read materials on constructive feedback provision and then write a summary on
your portfolio on things to consider on provision of constructing feedback
4. Chose previous test and use it to remark while consider the elements of effective
constructive feedback provision.
5. Share the activity done above with peers in school for improvement and clarity.

1. (a) What elements will you consider when preparing observation guide for
assessing students’ skills in conducting food test experiment?
(b) How will you design a checklist for assessing skills in grouping living things?

1. What new things did you lern from this section?

2. Have your assessment skills improved after going through this section?

Assessment for assessing a competence-based lesson has to be integral part in teaching

and learning processes. Integration of assessment during teaching and learning, helps a

13
teacher to assess and improve teaching and students to improve learning. Teachers assess and
improve learning through assessing teaching instruction and materials to establish if they are
effective in facilitating learning or not and hence improve them to meet the learning needs.
Students on other hand use assessment feedback to assess their own learning and set strategies for
meeting the learning needs. However, for students to use assessment effectively in improving
learning, the feedback given should be constructive and timely given. In sense that feedback
given has to be given in time when learning takes place and should show the gap and strength in
learning and how to close that gap to achieve the learning needs.

Thus, for each assessment task given should constructed effectively to ensure that it
assess the intended skills and knowledge for learning. Feedback given also should be
given in time and be constructive.

In this unit you have learned how to design interactive activities for assessing learning

and provision of constructive feedback to enable learning to take place. The use of assessment
effective during teaching and learning processes will facilitate the attainment of the 21 st century
skills; problem solving skills, creativity, critical thinking, innovation, collaboration and
communication.

The use of interactive teaching and learning methods; learner centered methods are also
key for implementing competence-based curriculum. Interactive methods include group
work, brainstorming, pair-share, gallery walk, project, experimentation, simulation and
others. Regular practice in your teaching career will help in use of these methodologies.

MoEST. (2016). In-service training for secondary school teachers physics module.
Dar-es-Salaam.

Tanzania Institute of Education. (1998). Ordinary level secondary school practical

module. Dar-es-Salaam.
Tanzania Institute of Education. (2013). Module: Pedagogy for physics in secondary
education. Dar es Salaam. Tanzania institute of education.
TIE. (2011). Physics form 1 & 2 students´ book. Longman, Malaysia.

14
15
 Unit Three Competence-based assessment in Biology

Assessment for learning involves construction of assessment tool for gathering information about
student progress to support and improve learning. In carrying out competency-based assessment usually
you face challenges in assessing effectively the knowledge, skills, and attitude domains. You need to
understand that assessment is teaching and learning process. Adequate competencies in constructing
assessment tools can provide accurate data for students’ learning progress. This unit intends improve
your skills design and use effective assessment tools to assess the three learning domains.

In this unit you are expected to improve ability to:

1. Plan competence- based assessment effectively

2. Construct assessment tools to assess knowledge, skills, and attitude

3. Interpret and use assessment results.

water, practical guides, ICT facilities such as computer/smart phone, internet connectivity,

Biology books, Biology syllabus, chemistry module, files, Microscope, Beakers, measuring cylinders

1. How will I learn about competence-based assessment techniques?

2. How will I use competence-based assessment results to provide feedback?

3.1 Competence-based assessment and evaluation

Assessment and evaluation are closely related concepts though they are different. Whereas assessment
is a systematic collection of data to monitor the success of students’ learning outcomes, evaluation on
the other hand is a judgment by the teacher about whether the instruction has met its intended learning
outcomes.

Estimated Time: 120 Minutes

1. By using relevant books and online sources:

(a) Write a summary on how assessment and evaluation can be used for improving teaching
and learning Biology.
(b) Summarize important requirements for assessing learner’s competence while learning.
(c) Analyse different types of assessment tools that can be used to assess skills and attitude.

16
 (d) State how you can use those assessment tool to assess teaching and learning 2. Create an
assessment activity that use checklist and rating scales to assess students
‘skills on:
(a) The use of microscope; and
(b) The use of measuring cylinder.
3. Design a plan to help you evaluate outcomes of (2) above.

1. What challenges are you likely to face when implementing competency-based

assessment?
2. How can you use the competence-based assessment to evaluate students learning outcomes?

1. What new knowledge have you gained from this sub-unit?

2. What more can you do to improve designing competency-based assessments?

Assessment is made to identify the level of performance of an individual and it is

process-oriented, while evaluation determines the degree to which goals are attained
and is product-oriented. The teaching and learning process needs both assessment and
evaluation for increasing quality and judging the quality of education. One among other ways
of achieving quality education is to use competency-based assessment. Some of the
competence-based assessment tools you may use to assess students are written tests,
portfolios, group tasks, brief investigations, practical tasks and oral examinations. As a
chemistry teacher, you are required to play your role in achieving quality education by
performing a relevant competency-based assessment in the process of teaching and learning
chemistry at your school. The use of assessment information as feedback is very important for
improving teaching, teaching instructions and materials, and setting strategies for improving
teaching and learning Biology.

3.2 Construction of assessment tools

Construction of assessment tools should observe quality that is needed to bring intended outcomes.
Some of the qualities of a good assessment tool are usefulness, validity, reliability, practicability and

17
fairness. In this section validity and reliability are addressed. Moreover, the section will guide you to
construct valid assessments and how assessment results should be used.

1. (a) In your department, use any topic of your interest then construct two short answer and
one essay type competence-based questions. Share with your colleague to assess if CBQ
features have been observed. If yes identify the features and if no rephrase the question.

3.2.1 Validity and reliability

Assessment instruments should have good qualities to ensure they capture desired learning outcomes. It
may be easy to make an assessment tool, but it is more difficult to construct a valid and reliable one. If
the content of and practicability of an assessment tool covers the required parts of the subject it aims to
assess, then the tool will be valid. For example, if you have covered a certain part of the biology
syllabus, then the assessment is expected to address only the part that is covered and its applications.
Reliability of an assessment tool is the degree to which it is consistent and stable in producing the
intended results. It should be consistent within itself, across time and across place. It means that, the
assessment should give similar results even if different students of similar ability and conditions take
the same assessment and obtain similar results. This should be so, no matter whether the assessment
was taken at different times and places. In your role as a Biology teacher, you are expected to plan and
construct valid and reliable assessment tools. In this part, you will improve your ability construct valid
and reliable assessment instruments.

Estimated Time 120 Minutes

2. From your department, collect five samples of Biology assessment tools such as terminal
examination papers and the related results. Evaluate them and write a summary on their;

(a) Validity
(b) Reliability
3. Indicate the areas that could have been improved in the collected samples of Biology
assessment tools before they were administered.
4. Among the collected assessment tools, select one and use its content to construct an
improved version.

18
 1. Sometimes, a valid assessment tool may not be reliable due to underlying challenges.
What do you think are the factors that can affect reliability of the assessment results?
2. How would you address the challenges raised in Question (1) to improve construction of
valid and reliable assessments?

How do the competences gained in this unit will help you to construct reliable and
valid assessments?

It is important to note that reliability of a assessment tool does not imply its validity. An
assessment can be reliable by achieving consistent results but not necessarily meet the
other standards for validity. However, invalid assessment limits the ability for an
assessment to be reliable. In other words, assessment tool needs to be valid in order to be

reliable. It is your responsibility to prepare both reliable and valid assessment tools every
time to assess any part of the learned course. In this view, you are required to equip
yourself with the knowledge and skills on how to prepare reliable and valid Biology
assessments for capturing desired learning outcomes.

3.2.2 Planning Assessment tools

Having gone through validity and reliability of assessment tools, you are expected to construct quality
assessment tools measuring knowledge, skills and attitude. Construction of the assessment tools should
be carefully planned in order to achieve validity and reliability. A table of specifications is a tool which
set necessary step in the construction of assessment tools. A table of specifications mainly ensures that
the test you intend to construct will have enough content validity. It specifies the topics and sub-topics
which are to be covered in the assessment. By studying this sub-unit, you will develop skills on how to
prepare a table of specification.

A table of specification is a blueprint of tests and examinations, and it is a two-way chart that relates the
intended competencies and content of a test. The purpose of the table of specifications is to identify the
achievement domains being measured and to ensure that a fair and representative sample of questions

19
appears on the test. The table of specifications allows you to focuses on the key areas and weighs those
different areas based on their importance. The table of specifications provides you with evidence that a
test has content validity, that it covers what should be covered. The following example of a table of
specification is set to enable you to plan and prepare assessment tools.

A table of specification for six Biology topics to be assessed

Topics Skills to be tested Total of
number per
items Total

Understanding
topic
Remembering
percentage
weight per

Evaluating
topic

Analyzing
Applying

Creating
Basic concepts and 1 1 3.33
terminologies in
Biology
Scientific processes in 1 1 1 1 1 5 16.67
Biology

The Biology 1 1 2 6.67

Laboratory
First aid 2 1 3 10.00

Safety at home and 1 4 2 3 2 2 14 46.67

school

Waste disposal 1 2 1 1 5 16.66

Total number of items 5 9 5 4 3 4 30

per the skill tested

Percentage weight per 16.67 30.00 16.67 13.33 10.00 13.33 100
the skill tested

20
 Time:120 Minutes
1. Carefully study the features of the table of the specification.
(a) Comment on the format of the table.
(b) Relate suggested topics and skills to be tested. What inference can you draw?
(c) The numbers in the matrix indicates the weight in terms of marks each topic will carry to
assess a certain skill. Suggest improvement you could make if given an opportunity to
review a table.
(d) Plan a test whose table of specification will cover topics “Nutrition” and
“Balance of nature”
4. Share the table of specification developed with peers in school for improvement
5. Write a summary and put in your portfolio on how peer review and assessment was
helpful for improving your work.

1. What challenges are you likely to face when planning a terminal Biology
examination?

2. How can a table of specification help you to minimize challenges that might affect validity of
an assessment tool?

1. Has this activity improved your skills in developing valid assessment tools?
2. What plan do you make out of this activity?

This section has guided you on the preparation of assessment tools. One of the important
guidelines is a table which identifies achievement domains to be measured and ensure a fair representative
sample of content. This table enables you to achieve validity and reliability of assessments.

3.2.3 Use of Assessment results

Creating valid and reliable classroom tests means you should spend a lot of time developing test items,
to analyze how well the assessment tools worked. This will involve analysis and interpretation of data
obtained after assessment process for the purpose of feedback provision and improvement of
instruction. Assessment information should be shared with appropriate audiences such as students,

21
parents and education authorities. The assessment information can be used as a tool for the
improvement of the curriculum implementation in your schools. That is why you should devote your
time to prepare assessments whose results can be trusted. Assessment information benefit the learners
as they use it to link learning experiences and instruction.

It is more productive to student’s learning when feedback is given with explanation and example as to
what is accurate and inaccurate about their work. Therefore, scores, rating, ranking, and position define
feedback messages in learning. Feedback can be given verbally, non-verbally, or in written form. This
part presents to you the use of assessment results in teaching and learning Biology.

1. Visit your library and other sources of information then summarize;

(a) Uses of assessment and evaluation information at the classroom and school level for
improving teaching Biology
(b) Uses of assessment and evaluation information at the classroom and school level for
supporting students to improve learning. Biology
(c) The use of NECTA reports for improving school achievements.

2. Visit the NECTA website and download Form four Biology performance reports then show how
you can you use NECTA reports to improve the teaching and learning Biology?

Explain how you will involve your students in discussing assessment results.
Explain the role of assessment results in improving students’ achievements.

1. What areas of improvement have you noted that you will focus on when giving
feedback concerning assessment results?

2. How will you use assessment results to motivate students’ learning?

Assessment of results can be used to improve instruction and student learning. It

can be used as a source of information for teachers in identifying what areas that need
further efforts to work on. It is through assessment of results students’ academic achievements

22
are identified and supported by applying enrichment classes as a strategy of implementing
corrective instruction.

The unit introduced you to the issues related to competence-based assessment. It is

important to note that assessment involves the use of information about student progress to
support and improve learning. For you to create valid and reliable classroom assessment you need to
have skills on developing assessment tools, analyzing how well they work and interpreting data
obtained after assessment process for the purpose of feedback provision and improvement of
instruction. You are expected to use these skills in your daily practices of assessment.

Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (2009). Developing the theory of formative

assessment. Journal of Educational Assessment and Evaluation, 21, 5-
31.
Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B., & Wiliam, D. (2003). Assessment for
learning: Putting it into practice. Buckingham: Oxford Open University Pr

Brookhart, S., & Nitko, A. J. (2011). Education assessment of students (6th ed.).
Pearson, NJ: Merrill.

Miller, M. D., Linn, R. L., & Gronlund, N. (2013). Measurement and

assessment in teaching (11th ed.). Pearson, NJ: Upper Saddle River.

Ministry of Education and Vocational Training. (2007). Biology Syllabus for

Ordinary secondary education. Form I-IV: Dar es Salaam: TIE

Mlungu, R. S (2006). Advanced level practical Biology for forms 5 and 6.

Arusha: Perfect Printers Limited

National Examinations Council of Tanzania (2015). Examiners’ report on the

performance of candidates: CSEE 2014. Dar es Salaam: NECTA.

Tanzania Institute of Education (1995). Secondary school Biology: Book one. Dar
es Salaam: TIE.

Tanzania Institute of Education (1995). Secondary school Biology: Book one.

Dar es Salaam: TIE.

23
 Unit Four Intervention programs in teaching and learning Biology

A biology teacher is not only engaging in teaching, but also undertakes other activities that impact the
life of the students and their communities. The world of knowledge, attitudes and skills is everchanging
thus poses a number of challenges for teachers to keep up with trends and the best practices in the field
of science. As such, through professional learning, you should constantly improve your attitudes, skills
and knowledge, so as to become more creative and innovative in your teaching profession. The
intention of this Unit, is therefore, is to give you essential skills for designing and implementing
intervention programmes necessary for solving students challenges when teaching Biology.

In this sub-unit you will improve your ability to:

(a) Analyzing problems for intervention programmes in Biology.
(b) Apply intervention programmes to solve challenges in teaching Biology

1. What can I do to learn about intervention programs?

2. Do I need intervention programs in teaching biology?

3. How will I implement intervention programmes?

School library, Lecture theatre/hall, Books, ICT facilities, online resources, laboratory
materials, module and teachers guide.

4.1 Intervention Programmes in learning Biology

The term intervention refers to an action taken to intentionally become involved in a challenging
situation in order prevent it from getting worse. In biology, intervention may focus on improvement of
teaching challenging topics. Intervention programmes in Biology teaching are the plans designed to
solve problems emanating during teaching. In secondary schools there are many problems that range
from social, cultural and economic sources which needs innervation programmes. The process of
developing intervention programmes usually begins with the identification and analysis of the
problems. You need to be aware of the problems emerging in your school. The observation strategies
and other related inquiring techniques such as asking questions, formal and informal conversations and
attending meetings are among the strategies that can be used to identify problems. Problem analysis is

24
much more related to the process of finding out root causes of the problems and their magnitude. In
analyzing problems for intervention, you will need to develop tools for analysis one of which is a
problem tree.

This problem tree model explains that the consequences of the problem are observable but its
underlying causes are submerged. In order to analyze the problem, you must go deep to the root causes
in order to opt best intervention programme. It means that, you have to employ more time in finding
out what causes the problem before dealing with the consequences.

1. Identify problems that interfere learning of Biology that may need intervention
programs.
2. Use a problem tree to critically analyze the identified problems for an intervention
programme. Use the format hereunder:
Problem Root causes Consequences in Learning Biology

3. Share your work with peers for improvement

4. Write a summary and put in your portfolio on how peer review and assessment was
helpful for improving your work.

25
 1. Explain the extent to which intervention programs are important in addressing student
learning problems.

2. How does problem analysis helpful in deciding intervention programmes?

1. What have you learned about problems that need intervention programs in teaching?

2. What more do you want to learn about intervention programmes?

You can use different tools and methods to analyze problems in teaching Biology in
the school and communities and henceforth conduct intervention programmes. Problem
analysis is an effective way of solving problems as it helps to establish causes and effects on the
existing problems. Proper analysis of the problem increases the possibility of eliminating it.

4.2 Apply intervention programmes when teaching Biology

Teaching certain topics dealing with handling certain organisms or teaching certain concepts such
as “reproduction in human being” and “Family planning and
Contraception” may interfere with the culture of some students, yet the syllabus require
that they must be addressed. Handling certain mammals such as pigs goes against some
students’ religious faith. Similarly teaching family planning and contraception to
secondary school adolescents is perceived by majority in the society as facilitating
sexual malpractices.

On the other hand, dealing with some secondary school students who are adolescents
require additional skills to make them cope with learning even if there may occur some
unbecoming behavior portrayed by the adolescents that my impact on their learning.

These challenges that are faced in teaching and learning Biology may be addressed by
implementing intervention programmes. You will need to develop specific intervention
programme for specific challenge in order to improve teaching and learning Biology.
Some of the challenges may need counselling, coaching, peer discussion, debates,

26
project work, guest speaker, study tour and others strategies that you may deem
necessary.

Estimated time: 120 minutes

1. With reasons, identify areas that need intervention when teaching Biology. 2.
Perform a library survey to study different intervention programmes in the teaching field and
then:

(a) Develop an intervention program for teaching

i. Family planning and Contraception for groups of shy form four students.
ii. Conduct practical work for students with audio and visual impairment

(b) Propose a meeting action plan to discuss with parents with children who are your
students facing prolonged learning difficulties after being found
engaging in love affairs with fellow students.

1. You have been appointed to sensitize girls to learn science subjects in a District
where many Secondary School girls do not opt to learn science subjects even if the
assessment shows that they can effectively learn science subjects including Biology.
(a) What are the intervention programmes will you recommend to address the
problem?

(b) Design a plan for implementing the intervention programmes you have proposed.

1. Are you comfortable with intervention program concept?

2. Is the intervention programme helpful in improving your teaching?

3. What else do you need to improve in addressing learning challenges by

intervention programmes?

Effectiveness of an intervention program depends largely on the knowledge of the problem

that is addressed. You should have enough clues on the problems that interfere with learning.
Therefore, identification of problems that need intervention program should be handled carefully in

27
order to achieve the intended outcome. Similarly, the selected intervention programme should perfectly
fit the problem to be addressed.

This unit has exposes you to skills of developing intervention programmes related to teaching

Biology your schools. Your core function of in a school is to develop students’ competences necessary
for learning biology and for problem solving. You are supposed to ensure that your teaching Biology
become an agent of change and support learners to attain such competences. Developing intervention
programmes is essential in addressing various problems that hinder learners’ progress in learning
Biology. It creates learning environment in which learners feel comfortable, valued and safe. Such
environment will enable them to form positive emotional bonds with you, peers, parents and
community members. It will enhance positive attitudes towards schooling, thereby promote the
students’ overall development and, in turn, facilitate learning.

Baldwin, T. T., & Ford, J.K. (1988). Transfer of training: A review and
directions for future research. Personnel Psychology, 41(1),63 - 105.
Broad, M. L. & Newstrom, J.W. (1992). Transfer of training: Actionpacked
Strategies to ensure high payoff from training investments.
Canada:Corporate& Professional Publishing Group.
Cohen,L. Manion, L. and Morrison, K.(2007). Research methods in education,
(Sixth Edition). London:Routledge.
Daffron, S. R., & North, M.W. (2011). Successful transfer of learning. Florida:
Krieger Publishing Company.
Day-Miller, E. A. & Easton, J. O. (2009). Designing education projects: A
comprehensive approach to needs assessment, project planning and
implementation, and evaluation. NOAA-U. S: Bridgewater.
Hamza, M. (2012). Developing training material guide. Sweden: Swedish Civil
Contingencies Agency (MSB).
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank. (2004).
Education and HIV/AIDS: A sourcebook of HIV/AIDS prevention
programmes. Washington DC: IBRD/WHO.

28
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. (2002).
Handbook for Monitoring and Evaluation. Geneva:IFRC.
McCawley, P. F. (2009). Methods for conducting educational needs assessment:
Guidelines for cooperative extension system professionals 242
McDonald, L. (2011). Transfer of training in teacher PD: A Processoutcome
orientation.Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 29(0), 1885-1894.
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. sbspro.2011.11.438
McDonald, L. (2012). Learning, motivation, and transfer: Successful
Nzilano, J. L. (2016). Professional development of learner-centred teaching in
Tanzania: Perceptions and experiences of teachers in southern highlands’
teacher education colleges. Journal of Issues and Practice in Education, 8
(2).
teacher professional development. Teacher Education and Practice, 25(2), 271.

29
 Unit Five Basic biological skills

You need to understand the scientific skills to enable you to undertake necessary steps essential for
helping students learn Biology. You are expected to be productive and professional in an academic
setting. You should utilize the critical-thinking skills learned in the science laboratory or the field to
develop student’s skills related to preparation of solution and samples, dissection of plants and animals,
calibrating apparatus, use of the light microscope, making accurate measurements and understanding of
laboratory safety and warning signs.

In this unit you will improve your ability to:

(a) Apply skills to make students take accurate measurements when performing
experiments.
(b) Apply principles of preparation of biological reagents for students’ practical
work.
(c) Apply skills to make students dissect different living organisms.
(d) Facilitate the use of microscope to students.

1. What do I know about basic skills in Biology?

2. Am I conversant enough to use measuring instruments and devices available in the
laboratory?
3. Do I have enough mathematical skills to direct my students convert one unit of measurement to
another?

Digital balance, triple beam balance, spring balance, and analytical balance spatula and
petri dishes, thermometer, beaker, test tubes and source of heat, measuring cylinder,
volumetric flask, dissection set, biology specimen and Microscope. Others are
Reagent bottles, distilled water, sodium anhydrous pellets, Copper II Sulphate penta-
hydrate, concentrated hydrochloric acid, Sudan III powder, Sodium citrate, anhydrous
sodium carbonate, beakers, test tubes, water bath, measuring cylinder, volumetric
flask, stirrer, spatula, digital or triple beam balance, water, frogs/toads,

30
 rats, rabbits, grasshoppers, droppers, scalpels, droppers, and wash bottles, microscope slides,
plant sections, stains and food coloring materials

5.1 Measurement of mass, temperature and volume

Laboratory work involves basic activities of measuring fundamental quantities such as mass,
temperature and volume for practical purposes. The rationale of making accurate measurements is to
make sure that the conducted experiments are free from errors. This sub unit aims at assisting a biology
teacher to develop students’ useful skills of measuring mass, temperature and volume.

5.1.1 Measuring Mass

Measuring mass accurately is a procedure of initiating most biological experiments concerning
preparation of reagents and solutions in the laboratory. Mass is used to measure the weight of objects
by using specific scales in the metric system and its common units are the gram and kilogram. Biology
teachers are expected to develop students’ skills in using this fundamental quantity to prepare array of
experiments.
The activity of measuring mass needs care in following procedures since a minor error may lead to
failure of reaching the required experimental output. The balances are sensitive to external forces such
as dust, wind or touches. The following example is set to demonstrate how you can measure 35g of
Copper II Sulphate powder by using a digital balance.
Example: to measure 35g of Copper II Sulphate powder the following procedure is to be followed.
(a) Always check that the balance is level before using it. If not, you need to calibrate it so that the
reading is at zero.
(b) Decide whether you use direct weighing or weighing by difference. In this case you need weighing
by difference because powder cannot be put directly to the balance, but you need to put it on a
weighing pan or paper first.
(c) To weigh by difference, you have to take two measurements, first, take a clean piece of weighing
paper and place it on the balance and record the first reading. Then gradually put Copper II
Sulphate powder to be weighed on the weighing paper and weigh it. Record the second reading.
The mass of Copper II Sulphate powder is determined by subtracting the first reading from the
second. If mass of weighing paper reads 10g; then total mass should be 45g
(Mass of paper + Mass of Copper II Sulphate powder) - (mass of paper) = (mass of substance)

31
 (10g+ Mass of Copper II Sulphate powder) = 45g
Mass of Copper II Sulphate powder= 45g-10g
Mass of Copper II Sulphate powder=35g

From this example you can now prepare activities for your students to practice measuring mass.

Estimated time: 60 minutes

1.
Design an activity that allows your students to collect and measure mass in
grams of different solid and liquid objects by using triple beam balance,
digital balance and spring balance.
2.
Share the activity developed in a community of learning for improvement
3.
Write a summary and put in your portfolio on how peer review and
assessment was helpful for improving your work.

1. Identify sources of errors that your students might make during

measuring mass.
2. What could be the sources of errors?
3. Explain how will you correct students’ errors of measurements?

1. Can this activity help your students to deal with problems related to mass
measurements?
2. What activities can you design to make students apply unit of mass in different settings?

5.1.2 Measuring temperature

Rare but very important skill that a Biology teacher needs to develop in students is temperature
measurement. Some biological experiments involve measurement of temperature especially those that
need a certain amount of temperature for the reaction or results to occur. In biological experiments,
temperature control is required to maintain certain range of conditions.

32
 1. Design an activity that will involve your students to measure different range of
temperatures in different conditions by using a thermometer.
2. Assign your students tasks to tabulate and establish different graphs as a
result of change in conditions of temperature.
3. share the activity developed in a community of learning for improvement
4. Write a summary and put in your portfolio on how peer review and assessment was
helpful for improving your work.

1. Develop an assessment tool that you will use to assess your students’ ability to
measure and record temperature.
2. What can you infer about kinds of skills your students are developing when measuring and
recording temperature?

Can you relate student skills of measuring temperature with other experiments
involving heating and cooling?

5.1.3 Measuring volume

Preparation of reagents and solutions in the laboratory for biological experiment purposes requires that
Biology teachers are familiar with the methods and skills involved. Many of the reagents used in are in
the form of solutions which need to be purchased or prepared. In most cases, the concentration of the
solution and its method of preparation must be as accurate as possible. One of the procedure for
preparing reagents and solutions is to accurately measure the volume. This sub unit provides valuable
information about the instructions that a Biology teacher should make for students to measure volume
of solutions in the laboratory.

1. Design an activity that will engage students to measure volume of liquids by

using measuring cylinder, beaker and volumetric flask.
2. Prepare instructions that will enable your students to record and interpret data
from the volume measured.
3. share the activity developed in a community of learning for improvement

33
 4. Write a summary and put in your portfolio on how peer review and assessment
was helpful for improving your work.

1. Analyse challenges your students will encounter when measuring volume.

2. Explain how you will overcome the challenges?

1. Can make your students apply their prior knowledge on volume of liquids to
deal with laboratory related experiments?
2. Can you design more activities that can allow students to relate skills of measuring
volume to those of measuring mass and temperature?

When measuring mass of a substance, apart from gram (g) being the common
unit of mass in most biological measurements, there are multiples and
submultiples among which are the kilogram (kg) and the milligram (mg). Students may not
be able to measure mass accurately, yet, another challenge may be failure to interpret the
metric system due to inability to correctly convert the main unit used into other units. You
are advised to take time to let students repeat measuring mass to make sure that they obtain
accurate measures of mass and to change one unit of mass to another. This exercise will
reinforce the skills in students and in turn students can be involved in the next step of doing
an experiment.

Of course, it is well known that 1 kg = 1000 g and 1 g = 1000 mg, but

emphasizing students to frequently make conversion of units of mass builds the
culture of students to consider changing the units before applying them into
some experiments.

Conversions allow you and your students to solve problems that have different
mass units. Therefore, when you have to solve problems related to mass
measurements, it is very important that you look at what unit or units the mass
is expressed in and then, using the conversions, move from one to the other
when necessary. In so doing students will be able to measure and convert units
of mass accurately.

34
 When directing your students to deal with temperature measurement, it is wise to
remind them that the basic unit of temperature in the International System of
Units (SI) is the Kelvin (K) but for everyday applications, it is often convenient to
use the Celsius scale, in which 0 °C corresponds to the freezing point of water and
100 °C is its boiling point.
In some cases temperature is measured in Fahrenheit (F) and usually water
freezes at 0°C or 32°F and boils at 100°C or 212°F. Therefore, you should
develop student skills to convert units of temperature. For example, to convert
temperatures from Fahrenheit to Celsius the formula C= 5/9(F−32) is used and
for Celsius to Fahrenheit F=9/5(C+32) is used.
To make student develop the skills, design an activity that will require them to
convert units of temperature into Celsius and Fahrenheit respectively.

Most of activities involving volume of liquids, are the most frequently

occurring in student’s daily life. They encounter volume measures when buying
a bottle of water, soda, liquid medicine, milk and so many others. Before you
can actually deal with teaching how to measure volume it is wise thing take
students into mental tour to share their experiences on different activities that
involve volume measurements. From the mental tour students will come up
with the different amounts of liquids and units of volume they have
experienced; say volume of a bottle of soda water is about 350ml; that of a
bottle of water is 1.5L and so on. From there, you can build a foundation on
which they can base as you develop student’s skills in measuring volume of
liquids. You can then design and set up activities that will involve the use of
volume measuring instruments such as measuring cylinder, beaker and
volumetric flask, and how to convert one unit of volume to another.

5.2 Preparation of biological reagents

In an ordinary level secondary education preparation of biological reagents and solutions is essentially
the role of a Biology teacher and/or a laboratory technician. However, this activity involves multiple
skills of measurements of mass of solutes, volume of solvents and temperature of which; these skills
have already been developed in Biology students. Therefore, in some points you can involve students in

35
preparing laboratory reagents. Skills of measuring mass, temperature and volume are fundamental
during preparation of Benedicts’ solution, Copper II Sulphate, Solution, Sodium Hydroxide solution,
Sudan III solution, dilute Hydrochloric acid and other bench reagents.

What precautions do I need to take before I start to prepare biological reagents?

1. Can you identify reagents and solutions that a biology laboratory is

supposed to have?
2. Schedule a plan which will help you to prepare all necessary laboratory reagents
and solutions and, in a plan, prioritize with reasons which reagents you will
begin to prepare and how you will involve your students during preparations.
3. By aid of Ordinary Level Biology Practical Guide, prepare the following
reagents/ chemicals/ preservatives:

(a) Benedict’s solution, Sudan III, Iodine solution,

(b) 200ml of 1% Copper II Sulphate solution
(c) 200ml of 2% Sodium hydroxide solution
(d) (100ml of 1% Dilute hydrochloric acid.
(e) 70% ethanol, 10% /40% formalin

1. What are the resources that you will need to prepare Benedict’s solution,
Copper II Sulphate Solution, Sodium Hydroxide solution, Sudan III solution
and dilute Hydrochloric acid.
2. Establish a procedure on how you will use each resource.
3. Explain storage mechanisms and protocols you are going to use after you have prepared
each reagent. (Refer to safety Laboratory Manuals)

1. What have interested you most in this unit?

36
2. Does this section meet your expectations?

Most biological reagents are commercial, so they can be bought and used
directly. However, it is costly to buy a reagent that can be prepared by a teacher
using minimal resources and be used when it is required. Biology teachers should regularly
prepare reagents of the amounts that will be used by students. It is wise not to prepare large
amounts of reagents that cannot be used in near future, lest they can expire.

Preparation of some reagents is not an easy task as it involves variety of

principles, skills and techniques. In preparation of dilute hydrochloric acid for
instance, it requires determining the mass in grams of one mole of solute, the
molar mass and the volume of solution required, in liters, molarity of solution
required, and to calculate grams of solute required using predetermined
equation.

The concentration of the solution and its method of preparation must be as

accurate as possible. In most cases, certain percent solutions are defined based
on the grams of solute per 100 grams of solution. Example: 20 g of sodium
chloride in 100 g of solution is a 20% by mass solution. Volume percent
solutions are defined as milliliters of solute per 100 mL of solution.
Massvolume percent solutions are also very common.

5.3 Dissection of animals

Studying anatomy and physiology of animals requires that the internal structures are displayed and
observed. Students should acquire dissection skills at their early stages of learning in secondary schools
so that they develop and grow up with investigative habits. Activities of dissecting animals begin with
the collection of animals from their habitats and end with displayed internal systems and structures for
study purposes. Biology teachers should therefore develop students’ skills to collect, handle, dissect
study and draw systems/structures of different animal specimen. According to our curriculum, the
commonly dissected animals are rats, rabbits, frogs and cockroaches. They are dissected to study
visceral general and specific internal systems, organs and tissues.

37
 Estimated time: 120 minutes
1. Design an activity that will involve your students to collect and dissect a rat,
frog/toad and a cockroach.
2. Develop a rating scale you will use to evaluate your student’s ability to
dissect a rat, frog/toad and a cockroach.
3. share the activity developed in a community of learning for improvement
4. Write a summary and put in your portfolio on how peer review and
assessment was helpful for improving your work.

1. Explain procedures you will follow when planning and executing a practical
session for dissecting a frog/toad.

2. Describe challenges associated with dissection of animals.

3. Why is it important for your student to learn dissection of small animals such as
cockroach, rabbit and frogs?

1. Do you have enough skills to instruct students to dissect small animals?

2. What more assistance do you need in order to enable my students learn dissection of
animals better?
3. How beneficial are dissection skills in student’ future career?

The learning that occurs through dissection is different from that afforded by a
lecture lesson. Dissection gives students first-hand experience in seeing the subject
matter. This hands-on learning environment can improve students’ skills and knowledge of
anatomy much easier because they are able to carry out physical activities. The hands-on
approach of dissection allows students to see, touch and explore the various tissues, organs and
systems and understanding how they work within a single animal. This strengthens students’
comprehension of biological systems. When applied to their bodies, this may then translate to
a greater understanding of human biology. Moreover, when students know they will be
working on a real specimen, their attention and motivation is increased. This can facilitate

38
greater assimilation of information, enhanced understanding of the subject matter and the
ability to recall the biological science behind the specimen. Biology teachers should make this
learning conveyed by dissection more really by incorporating biological theory into practice
whenever the subject matter allows.
5.4 The use of light microscope
Students are taught how to use a light microscope in the classroom because of microscopes’ vital role it
plays in science. Early exposure to such a tool and acquiring the skill of manipulating a microscope
serves as preparatory training for a future career in the sciences or related fields. Skills of using
microscope helps students engage in their own scientific investigations and research in school.

This sub unit aims at upraising Biology teachers’ confidence and capacity to facilitate parts of the Light
Microscope, types, steps on how to use and proper microscope cleaning and maintenance.

Estimated time: 120 minutes

1. Design an activity that will require students to:
(a) Familiarize with parts of microscope.
(b) Adjust and focus by using low, medium and high-power objectives under
microscope.
(c) Perform coarse and fine adjustments.
(d) Prepare plant sections and observe them under microscope.
(e) Compute magnification of images in relation to microscope eye piece and objectives
lens used.
(f) Draw different structures observed under microscope.

1. What assessment procedure will you follow to determine how well students
observe and draw images under microscope?
2. Describe errors that appear to be common when students are using the microscope and
how you can correct them.

39
 1. Are you now comfortable to guide student use microscope?
2. Can you now lead students to use formula to compute the magnification of the
specimen from the eyepiece?

Since microscope is a sophisticated apparatus, you will need to work closely

with your students as they are using it. At this instance you gradually instill the
skills of using a microscope that involves setting your microscope, directing it to the light
source and then adjusting the diaphragm to the largest hole diameter to allow the greatest
amount of light through. Probably, rotating the nosepiece to the lowest-power objective is
the point to you need for your students to start with. It is easiest to scan a slide at a low
setting, since you have a wider field of view at low power. You better provide your students
with prepared slide that works best when they do this for the first time.

Once you have trained your students how to set up the microscope, next step you
need to develop other skills related to using a microscope. This time you need to
prepare activities that allow your students to prepare slides. Best option is to
start with instructing them to prepare slimmest plant sections from young stems,
roots and leaves; to stain them and mount them to clean glass slides ready for
observation. Finally, you should train them how to draw and label the observed
images and end up by calculating the magnification. You might need to teach
them how to fix the sections they have prepared to make permanent slides for
future observation. All these processes require that as a Biology teacher, you
have enough skills of using the microscope.

In this unit you have learned the scientific skills to enable you to undertake necessary

steps essential for helping students learn Biology. You have developed skills for various
measurements, preparation of reagents, dissection of animals and the use of light microscope.
The skills you have revised are essential for you as a Biology laboratory manager. You are
expected to use the skills in the laboratory or the field to develop student’s skills related to
learning Biology.

40
Aggarwal, A.P., & Aggarwal B, S. (2003). A handbook of Biology practical. S,
Chand and Company Ltd. New Delhi.
Tanzania Institute of Education. (2008). Biology practical module for teaching in
seconday schools, Dar es Salaam.
Tanzania Institute of Education. (1998). Biology practical module, Dar es Salaam.

41
 Unit Six Classification of living things

Every field of biology depends upon classification of living organism in one way or another.
Classification of living things is important as it help to understand the interrelationship among different
groups of organisms. Understanding the classification of living organism is an important building block
of biological science, yet most biology teachers are facing difficulties to help their learners to group the
common organism. In this unit you are expected to learn skills that will help to improve your ability to
teach learners to classify living organisms.

In this unit you will improve your ability to:

(a) Engage learners in specimen collection.

(b) Apply basic principles of classification of organisms.

1. Am I knowledgable enough with the required materials for specimen collection?

2.
What new things do I want to learn about the specimen collection and naming?
3.
Do I know the principles of classification of organisms?

Sweep nets, collecting containers, preservatives, Safety goggles, forceps, Microscopes,

Hand lenses, plant and animal specimen.

6.1 Specimen collection

In a biology laboratory, the value of the experiment is compromised by using specimens that have not
been properly collected, labelled, handled or stored prior to and during the experiment. Engaging
students in collection of materials for classification whelps to familiarize them with the classification
hierarchy and learn how living things fit into the classification systems.

Time: 120minutes

1. Plan an activity that will enable your students to:

(a) Familiarize with field specimen collection materials

42
 (b) Collect different plants and animals for classification.
(c) Use safety precautions when collecting specimen.
(d) Preserve the collected specimens for the future use
2. share the activity developed in a community of learning for improvement
3. Write a summary and put in your portfolio on how peer review and assessment was helpful for
improving your work.

1. What kind of tools will you use to assess student’s skills on the use of field
specimen collection materials?
2. How will you assess the activities of collecting different plant and animal specimen
for classification?
3. How will you ensure that the collected specimens are well handled and stored?

1. What have you leant about facilitating the process of specimen collection?

2. Which aspect in facilitating specimen collection need clarification?

3. What else can you do to improve involvement of students in specimen collection?

In this unit you have revised the skills of collecting, handling and storing specimens.
It is important to facilities these skills to your students so that they can be able to
properly collect, label, handle and store specimen for experiments concerning
classification of living things.

6.2 Basic principles of classification of organisms

“If you have ever been to a library, you will know how much easier it is to find a book on a
particular subject if the books are well arranged in subject groups. When the librarian has a new
book to add to the library, he or she will group it with books on a similar topic, according to a
certain classification system” (Kadhila, 2009).

From Kadhila’s quotation, the same principle is used where living organisms are classified into groups
based on basic shared characteristics. Classification helps you to learn about different kinds of living
organisms, their features, similarities and differences. Learning of classification enables you to

43
understand how organisms are grouped under different categories due to their similarities and
relatedness. It helps in the identification of living organisms as well as their diversity. Organisms within
each group are further divided into smaller groups basing on similarity of their features. This section
introduces you to the principles and skills of grouping organisms according to their similarities and
differences.

6.2.1 Studying features of organisms for classification

There are peculiar features that distinguish one group of organisms to others. In the field of taxonomy,
these features are termed as distinctive features. There is big confusion among biology teachers
between distinctive features and general features. Two groups of living things may look similar in
almost all the features, but one or a few features may be different. This difference is points of deciding
to group subdivide large groups into smaller groups.

Estimated time: 160 minutes

Plan an activity that will guide the learners to:
Differentiate organisms basing on similarity of their features (use specimen collected in section
5.1).
Place organisms with similar features to the same groups.
Name each group by common names.
Share the activity developed in a community of learning for improvement
Write a summary and put in your portfolio on how peer review and assessment was helpful
for improving your work.

1. How can you relate groups of organisms made by your students to the levels of
classification (kingdom, phylum, classes, order, families, genus, and species)

2. Explain how students can apply skills of grouping organisms in studying the levels of
classification

1. Are you comfortable with facilitating the features of living organisms for
classification to my students?
2. Which skills for facilitating features of living organisms need improvement?
3. How will you improve facilitating features of organisms for classification?

44
 In this section you have revised the skills for studying features that distinguish one
group of organisms to the other. It is through studying these features that one can
classify organisms into their respective groups depending on how they are similar or
different organisms
. You should improve your students’ ability to analyze features of for
classify them appropriately into respective groups.
6.2.2 Grouping of organisms
Grouping living organisms makes it easier to study them. Basing on similarities and differences,
organisms have been arranged into major taxonomic ranks called levels or hierarches of classification.
Each category or level is called a tax on (plural-taxa). There are seven such taxa arranged in descending
order into Kingdom, Phylum, Classes, Order, Families, Genus, and Species. In this order, the largest
category is Phylum with few characteristics uniting the members. The lowest taxon is species where
groups of organisms belonging to one species are closely related and they can interbreed. You can put
one group of many organisms of different categories such as plants and animals and ask your students
to sub group them until they arrive at smallest unclassifiable groups. In such exercise they should base
on observable features.

1. Plan an activity that will involve your learners to:

(a) Collect various organisms from plant and animal kingdoms and put them into
one group.
(b) Use observable features and differentiate them into plants and animals.
(c) Divide each group (Plants and animals) father into smaller groups as much as
they can.
(d) Give each group a name.
2. Write a report and put in portfolio on how you will use it to teach

1. What tool will you use to assess the student’s skills to put the organisms into
their major and smaller groups?
2. Design such a tool and use it to assess your students.

45
 1. What have noted about interaction of students during grouping organisms into major and
smaller groups?
2. What more do your students need to know about the process og grouping of organisms?

Grouping of organisms needs mastery of the features of each organism in order

to differentiate them from one another. Different kinds of plants and animals have
their similar and different features. Therefore, the entire process of grouping organisms is
dominated by the activities of studying the features of each organism, at the same time using
the features to distinguish organisms. Having gone through this sub-unit you now have
developed skills to design variety of activities for your students to achieve this purpose.

This unit have provided you with skills for collecting, handling and storing specimens.
It has exposed you to skills of enabling your student’s study and analyze features for
classifying organisms into their respective groups. Finally, it has facilitated you with the skills
of enabling your students to group organisms to different categories by using similarities,
relatedness and differences. You are expected to facilitate these skills to your biology students.

Aggarwal, S. (2002). Biology laboratory module for class XII 2nd Edition. Vikas
publishing House PVT Ltd.
Mackean, D.G. (1997). GCSE Biology 2nd Edition. John Murray (publishers) Ltd
TIE. (1998). O-Level Secondary School Biology Practical Module. Inter press Tanzania
limited, Dar es salaam.
TIE. (1999). Biology for secondary school Book one. 2nd Edition. Inter press Tanzania Ltd,
Dar es Salaam.

Unit Seven Transport of materials in living organisms

46
In most cases Biology teachers have been teaching concepts of transport of materials in living things
theoretically using lesson notes as storytelling. This has resulted into most of students hating Biology
with the reason that it is a subject with a lot of boring notes and difficult Latin words. It is thus
imperative that you change your orientation to teaching from theoretical to activity-oriented teaching.
This will upswing a desire for students to learn, hence, raises their performance in Biology. The
approaches should be employed in your day-to-day tasks as they directly lead to the acquaintance of the
21st century skills. In this unit, you will learn how to design activities for students to learn osmosis,
diffusion, mass flow, blood circulation and lymphatic system. The competencies developed from this
unit will improve your creativity in teaching and learning

In this unit, you will improve ability to:

(a) Create learning activities on diffusion, osmosis and mass flow to enhance
effective learning
(b) Design appropriate lesson activities to enable students learn blood circulatory and
lymphatic systems effectively.

1. How can I design interactive learning activities?

2. How can I facilitate students in learning about osmosis, diffusion and mass flow?

Potassium permanganate, tea bags, cabbage leaves, beakers, motor and pestle, cellophane
bag, long narrow glass tube, retort stand, water, sharp knife, spatula, Irish potatoes, pipet,
crystallizing dishes, heat sources, sugar or table salt, stop watch or a digital wrist watch,
rubber bands, Stethoscope, Sphygmomanometer, pictures of swollen lymph nodes, videos
showing disorders of blood circulatory and lymphatic systems
7.1 Diffusion, osmosis and mass flow

In this section you will have the opportunity to improve your skills of developing learning activities for
teaching diffusion, osmosis and mass flow. It is expected that you will not only manage to design
interactive activities but also to clear a challenge of some students and teachers who, many times been

47
using diffusion, osmosis and mass flow interchangeably though they are different. These activities you
are going to design should help you to make a distinction among them.

Time: 120 minutes

1. Design activities that will enable your students to demonstrate how diffusion, osmosis
and mass flow occur in living and non-living organisms
2. Share the activity developed in a community of learning for improvement
3. Write a summary and put in your portfolio on how peer review and assessment was
helpful for improving your work.

Example of activities you can design:

1. Ask students to review concepts of osmosis, diffusion and mass flow prior to the moment they
attend the lesson.
2. Provide an overview of the concepts to students that, particles of matter are in constant motion.
This is more obvious in liquid and gaseous states than in solids. Questions such as “What causes
the movements of the molecules in these substances?” and “Which Biological phenomenon
explains these movements?” will help to brainstorm on osmosis, diffusion and mass flow
mechanisms.
3. Provide all the learning materials that are listed and ask students to use a correct list of materials
to demonstrate one of the phenomena in the activity.
4. Develop a checklist that will enable you to assess the performance of each individual or a group
while performing the activities. An example of a checklist is shown in Table below.
Table 7.1: Tasks performance and an achievement attained
Na. Criteria for achievement Achievement attained
01 Selected correct materials, demonstrated the Very good
phenomenon, gave reasons and related it to normal life
situations

02 Selected correct materials, demonstrated the Good

phenomenon and gave reasons behind

48
03 Selected correct material and demonstrated the Average
phenomenon

04 Selected a correct set of materials for a demonstrating a Below average

correct phenomenon

1. Explain activities that can be used to make students demonstrate osmosis, diffusion and
massflow?
2. Explain the impotance of using appropriate assessment tool to closely folloup the
students activities?
3. Which challenges did you encounter in assessing the demontrations made by the
students?

1. What have I leant about designing activities for learning osmosis, diffusion and
massflow?
2. Which aspects need futher clarification?
3. What do I need to know more about desing interactive learning activities on osmosis,
diffusion and massflow?

The concepts of osmosis, diffusion and massflow are too abstract if only
theoretically taught. Likewise, when these concepts are only demosntrated by the
teacher makes learners only memorise what happened and sometime end up
confusing the terms. When the learners are involved to design and perform experiments to
develop the principles underlying the movements of molecules, they develop a meaningful
learning thus they cannot easily forget. When thinking about designing an activityfor
students to use in learning:
Think of how you will use their creative thinking and inovative minds in their learning.
Let them experiment with the resources instead of prescribing the steps. If possible
let them develop the steps out of their innovations.
Guidance should be minimal and should only be in moments they require it.
Make sure that the processes are assessed rather than the final products, this will enable
you to note where to help.

49
 In this light, among the activities that you can use to assist your learners can be
found in the Biology text book for form two, MOEVT(2009) Biology practical
guide, and other referenses.

7.2 Blood circulatory and lymphatic systems

Most of the learners cannot distinguish between blood circulatory and lymphatic systems. In most cases
they theoretically memorize the parts of these systems as a result they confuse the functions of the
lymphatic system with that of the blood circulatory systems. These among many other aspects that
students confuse, may be attributed to the approaches that some of their Biology teachers deploy in
teaching and learning. This section aims at improving your skills in designing lessons that will enable
your students learn blood circulatory and lymphatic systems effectively.

Time: 120 minutes

1. Design learning activities for students to demonstrate measuring of pulse rates and blood
pressure by using both standard laboratory instruments and other local methods.
2. Use ICT facilities to download authentic animations for blood circulation and lymphatic
system and display to your students for study.
3. Plan a role play that will make students apply what they have learnt in on blood
circulatory and lymphatic systems in solving real life problems.
4. Share the activity developed in a community of learning for improvement
5. Write a summary and put in your portfolio on how peer review and assessment was
helpful for improving your work.

1. What laboratory materials will you use to demonstrate mechanism of blood circulatory
system?
2. Show the procedures you will follow to demonstrate mechanism of blood circulatory
system by using material identified in (1) above.

1. Has this activity improved my skills on day-to-day teaching quos?

2. Can I use these skills appropriately to facilitate my students learning blood circulation and
lymphatic system?

50
3. Which improvement should I make on designing activities for my students?

Since blood circulation and lymphatic systems are complex, you need to
instruct your students to pass through the learning materials including their text
books prio to the lesson. This will make them have desire to prove experimentally some of
the activities they have encountered with in their text books. Make sure the activities that
create can challenge students rather than those that are already have answers from the
books. Examples of activities that you can design for your students can be:

(a) Dissection of the heart of a bird or rabbit to display the internal parts there after
draw and lable their structures
(b) Determination of pulse rate and blood pressure using a wrist digital watch
(c) Demonstrate what should be done to assist a fellow with high rate of heart beat.

This unit has provided you with an overview of how you can improve your skills in
teaching concepts that appear to be abstract and usually theoretically taught. It has
enlingted essential skills you can use to demosntrated in a way that will not only make students
memorise the concepts but also involve them to design and perform experiments to develop the
principles underlying them. By doing so, you are in a good position to make students have
desire to experimentally perform activities and overcome learning challenge they have been
encountering while learning Biology.

Chesile, G. (2008). Activities and experiments. Non published article: CEMASTEA.

Nairobi, Kenya.

MOEVT. (2005). Biology syllabus for secondary school Form I-IV: TIE. Dar es Salaam
Tanzania.
MOEVT. (2009). Biology practical guide: Dup Ltd. Dar es Salaam.
TIE. (2005). Biology for secondary schools form 1&2: Longman Pearson Inc. Dar es Salaam.

51
52
 Unit Eight Reproduction in plants

Reproduction is one of the important processes in living organisms; it makes continuation of existence
of species. There are different modes of reproduction in different species of organisms. Studying how
organisms reproduce is a major field in Biology that requires students to be equipped with essential
skills to help them learn effectively. This unit specifically aims at improving your skills in teaching
reproduction in plants. Plants can reproduce asexually from vegetative parts or sexually from
reproductive parts of the plant. In this unit, you will be equipped with different practical skills to
investigate reproduction structures in plants.

In this unit you will improve your ability to design learning activities that will enable students
to:
(a) Analyze asexual reproductive structures in studying reproduction in plants.
(b) Analyze sexual reproductive structures in studying reproduction in plants

Do I have enough facilitation skills to design activities that will enable my students learn
reproduction in plants.

Knife, Irish potato, cassava cuttings, sweet potato, stems, flowers, and biology
modules, polythene sheets, ICT facilities, knife, flowering plant, flowers (hibiscus
flowers, common bean flower, rose flower, maize flower, grass flower pea flower etc.),
dissecting kits, Safety goggles, forceps, and biology modules.

8.1 Asexual reproduction in plants

In plants asexual reproduction can be natural or artificially managed by person, but in all cases part of
the parent plants are used to generate a new plant. Artificial asexual is vegetative done by cutting,
budding, layering and grafting. Natural asexual reproduction occurs in different parts of the plants i.e.
leaves; stem and roots, some of these parts have been modified to bulb, tuber and corn. The new plant
is genetically identical to the parent plant from which the stock has been taken. In this sub unit, you
will be practically engaged with activities of asexual reproduction in plants.

53
 Estimated time: 180minutes

Plan a practical lesson in which students will practice skills in methods of vegetative

propagation including:

(a) Budding, grafting, cutting and layering

(b) Describing the reproduction mechanisms behind each method

(c) Presenting findings after experimentations.

Note: It may take more than one week to get results depending on type of plant used.
Study plant structures (a) to (c) which are used for reproduction in plants.
(a) How will you use them to describe asexual reproduction to your students?
(b) What points will you explain to your students that asexual reproduction have
advantages compared to sexual reproduction?

A B C

1. Does the activites help your students to practice methods of asexual reproduction
in plants?

2. What more activities can you design to engage my students in practicing methods of
asexual reproduction in plants.

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 The Modes of asexual reproduction in plants vary according to individual species
and available conditions. It may be simply by division of the parent cell as in
unicellular organisms, by fragmentation of the parent body, and by formation of buds.
However, irrespective of the mode of reproduction, all organisms pass on their hereditary
material to their offspring during the process of asexual reproduction.

8.2 Sexual reproduction in plants

Sometimes it becomes difficult for students to understand sexual reproduction in plants because it is
taught abstractly without involving activities designed to study the processes involved. Activities such
as bisection of flower sections and ICT facilities help to comprehend learning process. This is
important because memorizing functions of reproductive organs is not enough, students need to learn
the processes occurring in them. Simulations in ICT can capture Meiosis process which illustrates the
division of gametes into haploid state using animation, picture and drawing. Activities involving flower
sections will help students to recognize structures involved in sexual reproductive in plants.

Estimated Time: 180

minutes

1. From the authentic source download an animation for gametes formation by meiosis
and display to students.
2. Design an activity that will help students to analyze stages of meiosis.
3. Design an activity that your students will perform with a hibiscus flower to analyze
longitudinal and cross-section structures.
4. Share the activity developed in a community of learning for improvement
5. Write a summary and put in your portfolio on how peer review and assessment was
helpful for improving your work.

1. Explain challenges that your students will face when performing activity (2) above.
2. Describe the skills that your students will acquire when performing activity
(3) above.

55
 3. Explain how the engagement of learners in various activities relating to sexual
reproduction in plants help to improve their knowledge?

1. How well does this section improve your skills in facilitating students to analyze stages of
meiosis?
2. What didn’t work well with practical dealing with flower parts?
3. Which practical aspects relating to dealing with flower parts need clarification?

You have revised meiosis as an essential process in sexual reproduction. You have
also had an opportunity to link the process of meiosis to the reproductive structures
of flowering plants. Since you used hibiscus as a model flower, you are expected to
facilitate your students with skills of dealing with any other flowers surrounding the school.
In so doing you will have a time to design more activities by using variety of flowers with
different structures, shape and size depending on plant species.

Having learned this unity you have improved your ability to design activities that will
help your students to study different modes of reproduction in plants. You have also
noted that, since the modes of reproduction vary according to individual species and available
conditions you need to be creative in facilitating your students by designing different activities
that will suit variety of flowers with different structures, shape and size depending on plant
species. More importantly, involving your learners in preparation of specimen for study will
make meaningful learning as students connect what they are learning to their surrounding
environments. This connection will develop problem solving skills to students.

Aggarwal, S. (2000). Biology laboratory Module for Class XI. Vikas publishing
House PVT LTD.
Mackean, D.G. (1997). GCSE Biology 2nd Edition. John Murray (publishers) Ltd.
Stone, R.H. (1981). Revision Biology for tropical school, Oxford University Press.
TIE. (2005). Biology form 3&4. Student book. Pearson longman. Dar es salaam.
TIE, (1998) O-level Secondary School Biology Practical Module.

56
 Unit Nine Growth in living organisms

Facilitating growth of living organisms to students on one hand, need to be connected to the real
environment because the process is under influence of many external environmental factors which can
have positive or negative effect on increase of their body size. On the other hand, facilitating growth of
living organisms to students has to be viewed as an internal process occurring within the organisms as it
involves increase of protoplasm starting from the moment a new cell is formed mitotically. For this
reason, you have to design activities that, when performed by students will develop an understanding of
both phenomena and eventually enabling students apply skills in solving problems relating to growth of
living organisms such as plants and animals.

In this unit you will improve your ability to design practical activities for students to:
(a) Investigate factors affecting growth in plants.
(b) Investigate regions of growth in roots and shoots (c) Analyze effects of
nutrients to animal growth

1. What resources do I need to design activities for teaching factors affecting

growth?

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 2. How do I engage students in investigating regions of growth in roots and shoots of
plants?
3. Do I have techniques and resources for teaching effects of nutrients to animal growth?

Test tubes, cotton wool, viable seeds, oil, ice cubes, boiled water and a beaker potted

plants, thermometer, refrigerator, carbohydrates, protein, mice/rabbit/, small cages, beam

balance, food & water containers, thread, meter ruler, newly growing seedling, petri dish,

cotton wool and ink.

9.1 Activities on plant growth

Germination, growth and developing of plants is geared by necessary factors whose availability affect
the processes directly. Light, temperature, moisture, air and nutrients are required by plants in a certain
amount. When there is an optimum availability of these factors plant growth and development is at the
steady state. The factors influence processes such as seed germination, development of roots, shoots
and leaves. You need to design relevant activities for your students to study these processes effectively.

9.1.1 Seed germination

Any viable seed can germinate, if necessary, conditions are provided. Germination is usually the growth
of a plant contained within a seed; it results in the formation of the seedling. It is also the process of
reactivation of metabolic machinery of the seed resulting in the emergence of radicle and plumule. In
this section you will improve your ability to design activities and assessment tools that will assist
student in investigating factors for seed germination.
Estimated time: 60 Minutes

1. Design activities that will help your students to investigate necessary conditions for
seed germination.
2. Prepare a ten days data gathering tools to be used by your student to record the
changes that occur as the seeds germinate.
3. Share the activity developed in a community of learning for improvement
4. Write a summary and put in your portfolio on how peer review and assessment was
helpful for improving your work.

58
 1. What will you explain to your students if some of the seeds did not germinate
despite all the necessary conditions?

2. Describe inferences drawn by your students from the data gathered during
performing seed germination activity?

3. How will you assess students during data gathering as they record the changes
occurring during seeds germination?

1. Do the activities you have designed enable students to investigate necessary

conditions for seed germination?

2. What can you do to improve your students’ skills in investigating conditions for seed
germination?

Your students should have the knowledge that, viable seeds are the ones which have
live embryo. Seed germination is possible only when live embryo meet necessary
conditions like moisture, suitable temperature and air. Under these conditions embryo will
emerge out of the seed coat. Seed germination generalizes the sum of events that begin with
hydration of the seed and culminate in emergence of the embryonic axis (usually the radicle)
from the seed coat.

During the beginning stage of germination, the seeds take up water rapidly and this
results in swelling and softening of the seed coat at an optimum temperature. The seed
coat ruptures and the radicle emerges to form a primary root. The seed starts
absorbing underground water. After the emerging of the radicle and the plumule, shoot
starts growing upwards.

9.2 Investigating effect of temperature on seedling growth

Temperature being one of the external factors for plant growth has influence on internal factors which
affect growth. It affects enzymes which are activated at moderate temperature, deactivated at lower
temperature and denatured above moderate temperature. In this section you will have a role to set
experiment to for your students to prove the effect of temperature on seedling growth.
Estimated time: 120 Minutes

59
 1. Temperature has effect on enzyme activities; the growth of seedling can be affected
differently at different ranges of temperature. Consider an example below to design
activities for your students to conduct practical investigation on effect of temperature to
seedling growth. Let your students in groups perform the following activities:

(a) Collect three potted plant seedlings, label A, B and C

(b) Record the height of seedling from the level of the soil by using ruler or thread.

(c) Place the potted plants on different conditions

• Plant A around room temperature 20 >280 C

• Plant B at low temperature 10-160C

• Plant C at higher temperature (oven) 35 >410C.

(d) Leave the setup for 3 days.

(e) Ask students to record the changes of length of seedling for 5 consecutive days

(f) Ask students to compare results at different temperatures and let the draw inferences.

2. From the example above, design more activities for your students to practice on

(a) Effects of light on growth of seedlings (Various light intensities)

(b) Effect of moisture (Various soil moisture environments)

(c) Effects of nutrients (Various soil fertility)

(d) Effect of air (Various condition of air supply)

1. Develop tools to be used for assessing the above experiments.

2. How does temperature affect other internal factors for seedling growth?

3. Explain how students can apply the skills from these experiments in their daily life?

60
 1. Have you met your expectations of improving teaching growth of plants?
2. What more can you do to improve on designing learning activities for investigating factors
affecting plant growth?

61
 Growth in plants is relatively affected by external factors like moisture, temperature,
light and nutrients and internal factors like enzymes and hormones. To be able to grow,
develop and reproduce, plants utilize specific essential nutrient as one of the external factors for
growth. There are mineral needed by plants in large quantity for growth such as carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, potassium and calcium. Those needed in small amount are called
micronutrients including manganese, zinc, boron, copper and molybdenum. Deficiency of
minerals may lead to stunted growth, death of plant tissues, or yellowing of the leaves. After
experimentations involving controlling soil fertility your students should see one or more than one
of these effects.

9.3 Investigating regions of growth in roots and shoots

Growth of plants proceeds in regions of the plant where there is rapid cell division such as in the root
tips and shoot apex. In this subunit you will have ability to design activities to investigate regions of
growth in plant roots and shoots.

Estimated Time: 120Minutes

1. Design students’ learning activities to investigate growth regions of the plant root
by following the steps hereunder:
(a) Take a plant potted in a clear glass pot.
(b) Measure the length from the root tip upward to 4cm.
(c) Divide the length you have measured to mark two equal parts measuring 2cm
each, one representing immature and the other mature region of the root as shown
in the figure below.
(d) After four days take measurement of each of the two regions you have marked.
(e) Ask students to establish any change in measurement as a result of growth.
 2cm 2cm

2cm
2.8cm
62

1. Based on the activity you have designed; how will you guide students to:
(a) Identify region of the root that has increased its length?
(b) Explain what caused this increase?
(c) Explain external factors that have influence on the growth of the region?
2. What inferences will your students make from this activity?
3. Explain how you will design learning activities for students to investigate plant
growth at the shoot apex.

1. Can you connect students’ conclusion to the physiological process taking

place at the root tip?
2. What more can you do to improve on this activity?

The root tip has cap –like structure called root cap produced by meristematic zone. A
few millimeters above the root cap is the region of meristematic activity where cells are
constantly dividing mitotically hence bringing increase in size. This makes the foot tip to grow by
increasing its length. At the shoot apex is region of new cell division. It is the extreme tip of which
apical meristem, or primary meristem contributes to primary growth causing increase in length. You
should connect this physiological phenomenon to students’ activities in order to make learning
meaningful.

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9.4 Investigating effects of nutrients to animal growth
Animal growth is dependent on food substances like protein, carbohydrates, lipids and vitamins.
Though each food has specific function in the body, the absence of one group of food can interfere with
the normal growth rate of an animal. In this part you will improve your ability to design learning
activities for students to learn growth of animals.

Estimated Time: Minutes

1. Design activities for students to investigate the effect of nutrient in growth of an

animal by following steps like in the example below
(a) Weigh the mouse or any other small mammal and record its weight and put the
animal in cage.
(b) Provide an animal with the protein and carbohydrate food substances. This could
be a mixture of dried fish with maize flour.
(c) Provide the animal with water in a container
(d) Label the cage as cage 1
(e) To a similar set of apparatus, put another mammal of similar age and weigh as the
one above.
(f) Provide this animal with water and polished maize flower (g) Label this cage as
cage 2.
(h) Weigh both animals at interval of 2days for one month.
(i) Observe the two animals for any other changes related to growth and
development.
2. Prepare a tool to help your students record the changes in mass of an organism for 30days
at intervals of 5 days. Use example of a table below:

Number of recordings Weight of animal in grams Other observation

Cage 1 Cage 2 Cage 1 Cage 2
1
2
3
4

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 5
Average weight

1.Which inferences can be drawn from experiment above on effect of food

substances to animal growth?
2.How can you asses the learning from this activity?

1. Does this activity help to improve your skills in designing interactive activities
for teaching animal growth?

2. What more can you do to meet your expectations?

Nutrients are important in animal growth. Deficiencies, excess or imbalances in these

nutrients can produce negative impacts on health, which may lead to diseases. Once
students have investigated effects of nutrients on growth of animals, you have to infer their results to
the fact that quality and quantity of food substances taken have great contribution to the proper
growth and good health of animal. From this inference it is a good opportunity for students to connect
the learned ideas to the functions of food substances such as carbohydrates, proteins, fat, vitamins
and minerals to the body of animals

Factors affecting growth in plants and animals are to be investigated with appropriate
procedures and instruments to avoid errors. You have to design activities with accurate
procedures that students will follow and be actively engaged to construct meaningful learning of
the factors affecting growth of organisms. Moreover, you should let students analyze their
findings and relate them to the internal processes occurring within the organisms. This would in
turn develop competence to students to apply skills in solving problems relating to growth of
living organisms.

Aggarwal, S. (2000). Biology laboratory Module for Class XI. Vikas publishing House
PVT LTD.
Mackean, D.G. (1997). GCSE Biology 2nd Edition. John Murray (publishers) Ltd.
Stone, R.H. (1981). Revision Biology for tropical school, Oxford University Press.
TIE. (1998). O-level Secondary School Biology Practical Module.

65
66