Introduction to Life Science, Earth and Life Science

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain the evolving concept of life based on
emerging pieces of evidence.

Study and analyze the diagram.

What was the first form of life?

Life is believed to have existed on earth for billions of years now. Scientists do not know exactly
when did life begin on Earth. However, they are able to trace how life developed and evolved using
some pieces of evidence.

The Origin of Life

There are many theories about the origin of life. Some believed that living organisms were put to
Earth by some divine forces. Others say that life did not originate from Earth but from other planets.
But among scientists, the most accepted theory is that life came from inanimate matter.

According to the primordial soup theory proposed by Alexander Oparin and John Haldane, life
started in a primordial soup of organic molecules. Some form of energy from lightning combined with
the chemicals in the atmosphere to make the building blocks of protein known as the amino acids.

Early Forms of Life

The first form of life is believed to have appeared some 3.5 billion years ago. The first evidence of
life is found in microfossils. Microfossils are fossils that contain the remains of tiny plants and
animals. They are very small and can be measured in millimeters, and some could only be identified
under a microscope.
Some of the remains of organisms do not have a nucleus so they were called prokaryotes. They
are known to be the earliest forms of life. They have survived the extreme conditions of the early
environment. They started to make their own food by utilizing the energy from the sun and the
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. These are the photosynthetic organisms. The process of
photosynthesis produced more oxygen that changed the Earth’s early atmosphere. This change in
the atmosphere allowed oxygen-breathing organisms to exist. The cyanobacteria are the first
photosynthetic organisms to form. Their microfossils are among the easiest to recognize. Their
morphology remained the same and they left chemical fossils in the form of broken products from
pigments.

The first microfossil that showed remains of organisms with differences in structure from the simple
form of life was seen in rocks about 1.5 billion years old. They are larger than bacteria and have
internal membranes and thicker wall. These findings marked the beginning of eukaryotic organisms
on Earth.

How did multicellular organisms evolve?

Multicellular organisms are believed to have evolved from unicellular eukaryotes. Some single
eukaryotic cells, like unicellular algae, formed multicellular aggregates through association with
another cell producing colonies. From colonial aggregates, the organisms evolved to form
multicellular organisms through cell specialization. Protozoans, sponges, and fungi came to being.

The first fossilized animals which were discovered 580 million years ago were soft-bodied. The
continuous process of cell specialization brought the emergence of complex and diverse plants and
animals, including human beings.

Evidence from fossil layers proved that different forms of life were present and have evolved through
time. According to Charles Darwin, organisms change over time as a result of adaptation to their
environment in order to survive.

Explore!
Your mother bought some meat from the market one day. She placed the meat in a pan but forgot to
place it in the freezer. After some time, maggots were seen crawling from the meat. What can you
say about these outcomes?

Try it!
Place a piece of bread in a plastic container and leave it for three days. Observe what would happen
to the bread. What do you see on the bread? What brought them there?

What do you think?

If multicellular organisms came from unicellular organisms, then are all species related?
Key Points
 The first forms of life are the bacteria found on microfossils.
 Eukaryotic cells evolved from prokaryotic cells.
 Multicellular organisms evolved from eukaryotic cells through cell specialization.
 The evolution of life is brought about by the changes in the environment which are linked to
changes in climate and geology.
 Evidence that life evolved is found in fossil records and molecular biology.

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe classic experiments that model conditions
which may have enabled the first forms of life to evolve.

How did life begin on Earth?

About 4.6 billion years ago, the Earth began to exist. The existence of life, as believed by many
scientists, started from the moment the Earth’s environment became stable to support life. Several
theories were proposed to explain life’s origin. One of these theories is the primordial soup
theory proposed by Alexander Oparin and John Haldane.

According to this theory, life started in a primordial soup of organic molecules. Chemicals from the
atmosphere and some form of energy from lightning combined to make amino acids which are the
building blocks of protein.

Several scientists conducted different experiments that modeled conditions which may have enabled
the first life forms to evolve. Among these experiments are the Electrical Discharge Experiment,
Thermal Synthesis, and The Protocell Experiment.

Electrical Discharge Experiment

Stanley Miller and Harold Urey verified the primordial soup theory by simulating the formation of
organic molecules on the early Earth. They confined methane, ammonia, water, and hydrogen in a
closed system and applied continuous electrical sparks to trigger the formation of the building blocks
of life. After a day, they observed a change of color in the solution. After a week, the solution was
tested, and they found out that several amino acids were produced.

The purpose of this experiment was not to try and produce amino acids, rather, its purpose was to
explore the conditions of the early Earth and what the naturally occurring results would be.

Thermal Synthesis
Sidney Fox demonstrated in his experiment the origin of life using a specific mixture of pure, dry
amino acids. In his experiment, after heating the mixture, an aqueous solution was formed and
cooled into microscopic globules called protenoid microspheres. The globules looked like coccoid
bacteria and seemed to be budding, which is a form of reproduction in some microorganisms.

He claimed that the protenoid microspheres constituted protocells – almost true cells, and
multiplied through division like true cells. He believed that these cells were the link between the
primordial environment and the true living cells.

The Protocell Experiment

Jack Szostak contemplated on how early life forms formed in a primordial chemical environment.
He then thought that the simplest possible living cells or protocells just required two components to
be formed: a nucleic acid genome to transmit the genetic information and a lipid sac which
encapsulated the genome and let itself grow and divide.

Szostak built lipid sacs made in fatty acids and a replicase – an RNA molecule that catalyzes its
own replication, in the test tube. He found out that lipid sacs with more RNA grew faster. He
suggested that such test tube evolution was possible. The results suggested that the early forms of
life with just a single gene, an RNA gene, could have undergone a Darwinian evolution.

Try it!
Try to leave a piece of bread on the table for two to three weeks. What do you think will happen to it?
How will you relate this to the experiments about the origin of life?

What do you think?

Which of the three experiments is the most plausible in determining the origin of life? Why?

Key Points
 One of the theories about the early forms of life is the primordial soup theory proposed
by Alexander Oparin and John Haldane.
 Several scientists conducted different experiments that modeled conditions which may have
enabled the first life forms to evolve; these include Electrical Discharge
Experiment, Thermal Synthesis, and The Protocell Experiment.
 Stanley Miller and Harold Urey verified the primordial soup theory by simulating the
formation of organic molecules on the early Earth.
 Sidney Fox demonstrated in his experiment the origin of life using a specific mixture of pure,
dry amino acids.
 Jack Szostak made protocells from a lipid sac and a replicase – an RNA molecule that
catalyzes its own replication.
 At the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe how unifying themes (e.g., structure
and function, evolution, and ecosystems) show the connections among living things and how
they interact with each other and with their environment.
 How are these units connected to each other?
 

Ecology
Ecology is the branch of biology that deals with the study of living organisms and their relationships
with each other and their environment. Let’s take the diagram in the previous slide as an example.
The diagram depicts that everything is connected and interrelated with one another. They are
different from each other, but they co-exist with one another in one community. The unifying themes
of life give us an idea of how each of these themes contributes to the connection and interaction of
living organisms and their environment.
Biological Systems

A system consists of related parts that interact with each other to form a whole. It has different parts,
but each plays a significant role for the whole to function as one. Without the help from each other, it
cannot fully perform its function.

Levels of Organization
The cells are considered as the basic unit of life. All living organisms are made up of cells. When
cells come together, they form the tissues. A group of tissues that perform the same functions form
the organs. A group of organs that works together form the different organ systems. An organism
consists of many organ systems but functions as one individual.

Forms and Functions

The function of an organism or a part of an organism greatly depends on its form and structure. It is
related to how it works. An example of this is the webbed foot of a duck which helps the duck swim
and search for their food under water. Others birds have different structures of feet used for perching
and grasping food.

Reproduction and Inheritance

Reproduction ensures the survival of species. All living organisms reproduce either through asexual
or sexual reproduction. In asexual reproduction, the offspring inherits the genes from a single parent.
However in sexual reproduction, the offspring inherit the genes from two individual parents. Some
examples of animals that undergo asexual reproduction include earthworms, hydra, planaria, and
bacteria. Animals that undergo sexual reproduction include some reptiles, fishes, insects, and
mammals.

Energy and Life

Living organisms obtain energy from the food they eat. Plants undergo photosynthesis where they
convert the energy from the sun into sugar. Since most of the animals cannot produce their own
energy, they get the energy from the consumption and assimilation of the biomass of plants and
other animals.
Thermal Regulation
The ability of an organism to regulate their internal conditions is called homeostasis.

Humans have to maintain a body temperature of 37 ∘C. When the temperature outside our bodies
becomes hot, the skin cools down by perspiration, maintaining the normal body temperature.
Adaptation and Evolution
In a world that is continuously changing, life itself evolves. Evolution is the change in the physical
and heritable traits of organisms over successive generations. Organisms change over time to
acclimate to their environment in order to survive. If they fail to adapt to the changes, they usually
become extinct. The Baiji white dolphin, for example, became extinct due to diminished food supply
and in addition to that, the pollution caused by human activities.

One contemporary example of adaptation is the Aedes aegypti or the mosquito famous for carrying
dengue that caused major outbreaks nationwide. Their eggs were able to survive with scarce or no
rainwater which is essential to their life cycle.

Evolution takes time, usually decades. However, there are times when change happens very rapidly.
One example is the blue moon butterfly that managed to undergo a mutation which allows the males
to survive an infection of a parasite.

Explore!
Look around you and identify the living organisms that surround you. What makes them similar to
one another? What makes them different?

Try it!
Observe what happens to your body when you enter a very dark and cold theater. How does your
body adapt to the surrounding?
What do you think?
Which of the unifying themes do you consider the most important of all? Why did you say so?

Key Points
 Ecology is the study of living organisms and their relationships with each other and their
environment.
 An organism’s structure is related to how it works.
 An organism consists of many organ systems but functions as one individual.
 The function of an organism or a part of it depends on its form and structure.
 Reproduction ensures the survival of species.
 Living things obtain energy from the food they eat.
 The ability of an organism to regulate their internal conditions is called homeostasis.
 Organisms undergo adaptation or evolution in order to survive.

Bioenergetics, Earth and Life Science

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how cells carry out functions required for life.

Have you ever wondered what the inside of a cell looks like and how its parts perform
functions required for life?

The Basic Unit of Life

All organisms are made up of cells. The cell is the basic structural unit found in every living
organism that performs several functions throughout life. The zoo animals such as elephants and
snakes, the plants in the garden, and even yourself, are all living things composed of cells. These
cells can only be seen through the use of a microscope.

Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells

There are two types of cells based on the presence or absence of a nucleus. Cells can be eukaryotic
or prokaryotic.

Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus which contains the genetic material or DNA. They also have
several membrane-bound organelles such as ribosomes and mitochondria. They include animal and
plant cells.

Prokaryotic cells differ in eukaryotic cells because their DNA is found in a region called
the nucleoid rather than a nucleus. They also lack most membrane-bound organelles present in
eukaryotes. However, prokaryotes have cytoplasm where organelles are suspended, flagella that
aids in motility, cell wall made of peptidogycan, cell membrane that serves as a selective barrier,
and ribosomes that make proteins.

Eukaryotic Cells
There are two types of eukaryotic cells: animal and plant cells.

Animal Cells
Aside from the nucleus, the typical animal cell also have other membrane-bound organelles such as
mitochondria, lysosomes, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, nucleus, microtubules, plasma
membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes.

 The mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell because this is where most energy (ATP) is
produced.
 The lysosomes break down large molecules into smaller pieces and digest worn out
organelles.
 The Golgi apparatus sorts and packages proteins and lipids produced by the smooth and
rough endoplasmic reticulum.
o The cis face receives the materials for processing in transport vesicles.
o The trans face is the discharging end where molecules are released through the
secretory vesicles.
 The endoplasmic reticulum has two types: rough ER and smooth ER.
o Rough endoplasmic reticulum is bounded with ribosomes. It is where most protein
synthesis occurs.
o Smooth endoplasmic reticulum has no ribosomes attached. Its function is mainly
for lipid synthesis.
 The nucleus is the largest organelle that serves as the control center of the cell. It contains
the hereditary material known as DNA.
 The microtubules are components of the cytoskeleton and important in a number of cellular
processes.
 The plasma membrane is a semi-permeable membrane that encloses the cell separating its
contents from the surroundings.
 The cytoplasm is a semifluid matrix where organelles are suspended.
  The ribosomes consist of the large and small subunits. Their main role is to synthesize
proteins needed by the cell.

Plant Cells
Plant and animal cells share the same structures except for the chloroplast, cell wall, and
amyloplast, which are only found in plants. A large vacuole is found in both animal and plant cells
but is a typical and distinct structure in a plant cell.

 The cell wall provides support and protection for the cell. Special openings
called plasmodesmata are used to communicate and transport materials between plant
cells.
 The chloroplasts convert light energy to sugars through photosynthesis.
 The vacuole is responsible for storing food, water, and metabolic and toxic wastes.
 The amyloplast is responsible for the production and storage of starch and the conversion
of starch back to sugar as needed by the plant for energy.

How do cells carry out functions required for life?

Cells have different types which are specialized to perform specific functions. For example, cardiac
muscle cells have numerous mitochondrion because they need a lot of energy. Nerve cells are long
for them to be able to transmit signals from the brain to the rest of the body. Cell membrane of cells
in the intestine is extended to have more surface area to absorb food. Mammalian red blood cells
don’t have nucleus to make more room for hemoglobin, a protein that carries respiratory gases.

Explore!
Cancer cells are basically cells that have gone wrong. Typically, these cells no longer respond to
signals, their growth is uncontrollable, and they even evade apoptosis (programmed cell death).
Since the cells keep on dividing, they eventually form a lump (tumor) that grows in size. How do
normal cells become cancer cells?

What do you think?

Human red blood cells lose their nucleus when they mature. What properties of mature red blood
cells can you infer from this information?

Key Points
 The cell is the basic unit of life.
 Prokaryotic cells do not have nucleus. Their genetic material is found in a region called the
nucleoid.
 Eukaryotic cells have nucleus which contains the genetic material. They can be classified
as animal or plant cells.
 Animal cells have a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria,
lysosomes, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, microtubules, plasma membrane,
cytoplasm, and ribosomes.
 Plant cells have the same structures as animal cells except for chloroplast, cell wall, and
amyloplast which are only found in plants.
 Cells have different types which are specialized to perform specific functions.

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain how photosynthetic organisms use light
energy to combine carbon dioxide and water to form energy-rich compounds.

Take a look at this picture.

What can you say about this picture?

The sun is the primary source of energy needed by all organisms to survive. However, this energy
cannot be consumed by most organisms unless converted into other forms of energy. Think of it this
way. When you go to another country, you need to exchange your money for their currency so that
you can use it. Just like in this case. Only plants and photosynthetic organisms such as algae
convert light energy into forms usable by other organisms.
Photosynthesis is the process where photosynthetic organisms convert light energy to
form sugar. In plants, photosynthesis specifically occurs in the leaves.

The thylakoid membrane contains chlorophyll which is responsible for capturing light energy.
Photosynthesis has two phases: light-dependent reaction and light-independent reaction.

Light-Dependent Reaction
The reaction occurs in the thylakoids. It converts light energy to ATP and NADPH. It can be
summarized into four steps:
 1. Light absorption and splitting of water. Light strikes the chlorophyll and an enzyme splits
water (H2O) into protons (H+ions), electrons, and oxygen (O2).
2. Production of ATP. ATP synthase accepts energy from H+ions to produce adenosine
triphosphate (ATP).
3. Hydrogen pump powered by electron acceptors. Electrons pass through proton pump
and the energy from the electrons pumps H+ions back to the thylakoids.
4. Production of NADPH by re-energizing electrons. Light strikes again, the chlorophyll and
electrons get re-energized. The last electron acceptor moves electrons to nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP) and H+ions to produce NADPH.
Light-Independent Reaction
This is also known as the Calvin cycle. It takes place in the stroma and uses ATP and NADPH from
the light-dependent reaction. It reduces CO2 to form sugar. The reaction is summarized below.
 1. Fixation of CO2. Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase (Rubisco) catalyzes CO2 to ribulose 1,
5-bisphosphate (RuBP). A carbon atom sticks to RuBP and results to unstable 6-C molecule
and splits into 3-phosphoglycerate.
2. Reduction of 3-phosphoglycerate. The energy from ATP and hydrogens from NADPH are
added to the 3-C molecule to form 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (G3P).

3. Regeneration of RuBP from G3P. Most of the G3P are used to generate back the RuBP
and prepares again for CO2 fixation.
Photosynthesis is composed of two reactions. Below is the summary:
A group of boys placed a bunch of leaves in a sealed plastic bag and left it under the sun. After two
days, they saw drops of water inside the plastic bag. What does this infer?

Try it!
Get a plant and cover some of the leaves with aluminum foil. Place it under the sun for three days.
Examine the leaves and compare it to the other leaves after three days. What do you observe?
What do you think?
How does deforestation affect photosynthesis?

Key Points
 Photosynthesis is the process where plants and other photosynthetic organisms convert
light energy into chemical energy to form sugar.
 Photosynthesis has two phases: light-dependent reaction and Calvin Cycle.
 The light-dependent reaction converts energy to ATP and NADPH. It has four steps: (1)
Light absorption and splitting of water, (2) production of ATP, (3) hydrogen pump powered by
the movement of electron acceptors and, (4) production of NADPH by re-energizing
electrons.
 Calvin cycle uses the ATP and NADPH from the previous reaction. It has three steps: (1)
Fixation of CO2, (2) reduction of 3-phosphoglycerate and, (3) regeneration of RuBP from
G3P.

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to trace the energy flow from the environment to the
cells.

Cells of living organisms need constant supply of energy to carry out life processes. The lions
catching their prey, the birds flying through the air, and the dogs wagging their tails – use energy.

Where do organisms get this energy? How does energy flow from environment to cells of
organisms?

Energy that organisms use comes from food. Organisms can either make their own food
(autotrophs) or get it by consuming other organisms (heterotrophs). Examples of autotrophs
include plants and photosynthetic organisms such as algae. Examples of heterotrophs include
animals and humans.

Most autotrophs, such as plants, phytoplankton, and algae, capture light energy and take in carbon
dioxide and water from the environment. The reactants (CO2 and H2O) are then converted into
glucose. In addition, oxygen is released as a by-product. This process is known
as photosynthesis which occurs in the cell’s chloroplast. Since autotrophs can make their own
food, they are also called producers.

On the other hand, heterotrophs cannot make their own food so they depend on other organisms for
food. Some consume autotrophs (herbivores) while others consume other heterotrophs
(carnivores) or consume both (omnivores). Since they obtain energy from consuming other
organisms, they are also called consumers. The cells of heterotrophs produce ATP (energy-
carrying molecule) by breaking the chemical bonds in glucose and releasing their stored energy.
This process is known as cellular respiration which occurs in the mitochondria of each cell.
Photosynthesis in autotrophs and cellular respiration in heterotrophs work together to store and
release energy in living organisms. The reactants of one process are the products of the other. The
reactants of photosynthesis – CO2 and H2O produce C6H12O6 and H2O. These products are then
used by heterotrophs in cellular respiration which releases CO2 and H2O back to the environment.

Energy Flow from Environment to Cells

As energy moves among living organisms, some of it is lost as heat. Nevertheless, that energy is not
completely lost in the universe. Energy is never created nor destroyed. It is just converted from one
form to another. One good example is when you feel hot after exercise. The warmth that you feel in
your body results from energy transformation that occurs when you move. As shown in the
illustration, loss of energy in the form of heat and body activities is involved at each step of energy
transfer among organisms.

The illustration above shows the overall flow of energy through living organisms. The solar energy is
captured by chlorophyll in the chloroplast of plant cells (producers). Through photosynthesis,
glucose is produced. Animals could then use this glucose from producers to make their own energy
through cellular respiration. This process occurs in the mitochondria of animal cells. As energy is
transferred, some energy is lost in the form of heat through different activities of the body.
Explore!
There is 90% energy loss at each trophic level (feeding level). This means that only 10% of the
energy from one level of the food chain makes it to the next. How much energy do you think is
accessible to humans? And how much do we use?

What do you think?

Why is there greater energy loss in warm-blooded organisms than in cold-blooded ones?

Key Points
 Autotrophs can make their own food through a process known as photosynthesis.
 Heterotrophs consume other organisms for food. They harvest energy through the process
known as cellular respiration.
 As energy is transferred between living organisms, some energy is lost in the form of heat
and body activities.
 Only 10% of the energy is obtained when an organism eats the other.
 The solar energy is captured in the chloroplast of producers. Through photosynthesis,
glucose is produced. Animals could then use this glucose from producers to make their own
energy through cellular respiration which occurs in the mitochondria.

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe how organisms obtain and utilize energy
and recognize that organisms require energy to carry out functions required for life.

What do you notice about this picture?

Carbohydrates are one of the most important food sources for animals. If carbohydrates are stored,
then its potential as a source of energy is null. Carbohydrates must be broken down into sugar and
produce ATP that will act as a fuel essential for cell's activities and processes. The same thing
happens when you put a coin in a machine slot, the machine slot will not accept it unless it is a token
because the machine slot was made to read the token, not the coin.

Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration is a process of energy conversion where carbohydrates are broken down
into glucose and ATP. There are two types of cellular respiration: aerobic
respiration and anaerobic respiration.

Aerobic Respiration
This occurs when glucose is broken down in the presence of oxygen. This is divided into three
stages: glycolysis, Kreb's cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.

A. Glycolysis

 It is a process where glucose is broken down into pyruvic acids.

 It takes place in the cytoplasm.
 Two ATP and NADPH are produced.
 This can happen with or without oxygen.

B. Kreb's Cycle
  This happens in the mitochondria.
 Kreb's cycle requires oxygen.
 When a pyruvic acid loses CO2, it produces acetyl-CoA which oxidizes to form CO2, ATP,
and other compounds (NADH and FADH2).

C. Oxidative phosphorylation
  Phosphorylation is the process where electrons are combined with another molecule from
the ATP.
 The main goal is to transfer electrons from NADH and FADH2 to produce ATP.
 The final electron acceptor in oxidative phosphorylation is the oxygen. The oxygen accepts
the electrons to produce water within the mitochondrial matrix.
 Two steps are involved: electron transport chain (ETC) and chemiosmosis.
 ETC transports electrons but produces no ATP.
 In chemiosmosis, ATP synthase is driven by protons to produce ATP.

Anaerobic Respiration
This occurs in the absence of oxygen and glucose is broken down to ATP. There are two types of
anaerobic respiration: alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid fermentation.

A. Alcoholic Fermentation

 Glucose is converted to alcohol. This type of fermentation does not occur in humans. It
usually occurs in bacteria and yeast.

B. Lactic Acid Fermentation

 This occurs in the human body when oxygen in the muscles is used up and the muscles still
require more energy, thus producing lactic acid. This is especially evident during intense
physical exercises or movements.
Explore!
You have a paper in Biology due next week. Since the deadline is still next week, you
procrastinated. At the day of the deadline, you rushed to finish your paper. You wanted to finish it but
it feels like you can't think anymore. Based on the situation, what is the role of cellular respiration in
your body's condition?

Try it!
Place 12 teaspoon of yeast in a 50 mL Erlenmeyer flask. Add 40 mL of vinegar to the flask then
cover the flask tightly with a balloon. Observe what happens to the balloon. What does this prove?

What do you think?

Why is cellular respiration important for one to maintain life?
Key Points
 Cellular respiration is a process of energy conversion where carbohydrates are broken
down into glucose and ATP.
 There are two types of cellular respiration: aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration.
 Aerobic respiration occurs when glucose is broken down in the presence of oxygen. This
has three stages: glycolysis, Kreb's cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
 Glycolysis is a process by which glucose is broken down into pyruvic acids, ATP, and
NADPH.
 In Kreb's cycle, pyruvic acids produce acetyl-CoA to form CO2 and ATP.
 Anaerobic respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen and glucose is broken down to
energy.
 Two types of anaerobic respiration: alcoholic and lactic acid fermentation.
 In alcohol fermentation, glucose is converted to alcohol.
 Lactic acid fermentation leads to the production of lactic acid in the human body when
oxygen in the muscles is used up and still requires more energy.

Perpetuation of Life, Earth and Life Science

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe how plants reproduce.

Angiosperms, also called flowering plants, have seeds enclosed within an ovary
while gymnosperms have unenclosed or "naked" seeds on the surface of their leaves or scales.

How do angiosperms and gymnosperms reproduce?

Reproduction in Angiosperms
Flowers are the sexual reproductive organs in angiosperms. They consist of the androecium (male
reproductive structure) and gynoecium (female reproductive structure).

Male Reproductive Parts of the Flower

Androecium is the male reproductive structure of the plant that consists of a whorl of stamens.

The stamen is comprised of the filament and the anther. The filament is a long, slender stalk that
holds the anther while the anther produces the pollen grains (male reproductive cells).
(a) Stamen
(b) a cut section of the anther

Female Reproductive Parts of the Flower

Gynoecium is the female reproductive structure of a flower. It may consist of a single pistil
(monocarpellary) or may have several pistils (multicarpellary).

The pistil is made up of the stigma, the style, and the ovary. The style is a slender stalk that
supports the stigma while the stigma is the sticky part that receives the pollen. The ovary is the
basal sac that contains the ovules (female reproductive cells).

Both the male and female gametes of the flowers are non-motile. They are brought together by
pollination.

Pollination
Pollination unites the male and female reproductive cells or gametes. It takes place when the pollen
grains from the male anther are transferred to the female stigma.

Types of Pollination
 Autogamy is a type of pollination where pollen grains are transferred to the stigma of the
same flower.

 Geitonogamy is a type of pollination where pollen grains are transferred to the stigma
of another flower of the same plant.
  Xenogamy, also called cross-pollination, is a type of pollination where pollen grains are
transferred to the stigma of a different plant.

Agents of Pollination
 Abiotic agents are nonliving things that aid in the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to
the stigma. They include wind and water.

 Biotic agents are living things that aid in pollination. They include animals and even
humans.

Example
A bee, which sips nectar from flowers, transfers the pollen grains from one flower to another. It is an
example of a biotic agent.

Tips
In pollination, the pollen grains are transferred to the female reproductive structures of a flowering
plant. However, it does not guarantee the transfer of the correct type of pollen to another flower
since the pollen grains are of the same species as the stigma where it came from. It is the pistil of
the flower that recognizes whether the pollen is the correct type or not.

If the received pollen is of the right type, the pistil recognizes and accepts the pollen to promote
post-pollination events that lead to fertilization.

Fertilization
Fertilization takes place when the sperm (germinated pollen) unites with the egg (ovule) forming a
fertilized egg called a zygote.

Process of Fertilization
1. The pollen grain attaches to the stigma.

2. Each pollen grain becomes a part of the pollen tube, which grows down the neck of the style
and reaches the ovary.

3. Sperm cells are discharged into the embryo sac, fertilizing the egg cell.
Double Fertilization
During double fertilization, the pollen grain enters the ovary and releases two sperm cells. One
sperm cell unites with the egg cell forming a diploid cell or zygote. The other sperm cell bonds with
two polar nuclei forming a triploid endosperm nucleus.

Post-fertilization
During post-fertilization, the zygote develops into an embryo while the endosperm
nucleus develops into the endosperm.

Also, the ovule, which contains the embryo and endosperm, matures into a seed while
the ovary forms the pericarp of the fruit.

The seed is the beginning of the next generation. It grows into a seedling and then into a mature
plant. The mature plant then produces flowers that contain the reproductive cells.

Reproduction in Gymnosperms
Unlike angiosperms, gymnosperms do not have flowers and fruits. Their ovules, which become
seeds, are on the surface of a scale or modified leaf. Examples of gymnosperms include cycads and
conifers.

Most gymnosperms have reproductive parts called cones. They produce two kinds of cones: the
male and the female cones. The male cones produce the pollen while the female cones contain
at least one ovule.
Pollination
In gymnosperms, the main pollinating agent is wind. Wind carries the pollen from the male cones to
the female cones. A sticky substance secreted by the ovule collects the pollen.

Fertilization
After pollination, the ovule closes and seals in the pollen. One sperm cell fertilizes the egg cell
forming a zygote.

Post-Fertilization
The fertilized egg develops into an embryo, and the other parts of the ovule mature into the seed
coat and food store.

Try it!
Collect a Hibiscus or a gumamela flower. Using a magnifying glass, observe the pollen grains in an
open anther of the flower.

If a microscope is available, get a pollen sample, place it on a glass slide with a drop of water, and
observe the pollen grains under the microscope.

What do you observe?

What do you think?

How do humans contribute to the pollination of angiosperms and gymnosperms?

Key Points
 Angiosperms have seeds enclosed within an ovary while gymnosperms have unenclosed
or "naked" seeds on the surface of their leaves or scales.
  The flower consists of the gynoecium (female reproductive structure)
and androecium (male reproductive structure).
 Most gymnosperms have reproductive parts called cones. The male cones produce the
pollen while the female cones contain at least one ovule.
 Pollination unites the male and female reproductive cells or gametes.
 Fertilization is the union of pollen grain and ovule in the ovary.
 During double fertilization, one sperm cell fertilizes the ovule forming the zygote (diploid)
while the other sperm cell unites with the two polar nuclei to form the endosperm (triploid).
 In angiosperm fertilization, the zygote matures into an embryo while the rest of the ovule
develops into a fruit.
 In gymnosperm fertilization, the zygote matures into an embryo while the rest of the ovule
develops into a seed.

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe the different ways of how representative
animals reproduce.

Animals produce sounds which are significant in their reproduction. It is an essential feature of living
organisms because, without reproduction, life will not exist.

How do different animals ensure continuity of species?

There are two types of reproduction that exists in living organisms: asexual and sexual
reproduction. Asexual reproduction is common among lower form of animals while sexual
reproduction can be found in more complex animals.
Asexual Reproduction
This type of reproduction does not need two parents to produce an individual. Therefore, the
offspring produced is the exact copy of the parent animal. Most common forms are fission,
fragmentation, and budding.

Fission
Fission is a type of asexual reproduction wherein two individuals will form as the parent divides in
half. The illustration below shows a sea anemone undergoing fission.

Fragmentation
Fragmentation, the breaking of body parts into fragments, is always followed by regeneration and
regrowth of lost parts. Even if the animal is broken into many pieces, each piece will grow into a new
individual. Planarians, as shown in the illustration below, as well as sponges, cnidarians, bristle
worms, and sea squirts reproduce by fragmentation.

Budding
Budding is when an outgrowth called a bud grows and develops from the parent animal and would
eventually separate to become a new individual. This type of reproduction is common in certain
species of coral and hydra.

Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction needs two parents to produce an offspring. The combination of the genes from
both parents increases the chances of species variation. Therefore, species extinction is highly
unlikely. Fertilization, the union of egg and sperm cells, could happen internally or externally.

External Fertilization
In external fertilization, the union of egg and sperm occurs outside the female reproductive tract.
This is common among most species of bony fish and amphibians. As shown in the illustration
below, the clasping of the male frog induces the female to release eggs, over which the male
releases his sperm.

Most eggs of the amphibians develop in the water but others carry them on their back or in their
vocal sacs as shown below.

Internal Fertilization
In internal fertilization, the union of egg and sperm occurs within the female reproductive tract.
Animals that undergo in this type of reproduction produce offspring in any of the following ways:
oviparity, ovoviviparity, and viviparity.

 Oviparity – after the eggs are fertilized internally, it would complete its development outside
the mother’s body. The egg would receive its nourishment through its yolk. This is found in
some bony and cartilaginous fish (including clown fish and blue tangs), most reptiles, some
amphibians, all birds, and a few mammals (monotremes).

 Ovoviviparity – the eggs are also fertilized internally and receive its nourishment through its
yolk. However, eggs will complete its development within the mother. They are then fully
developed when they are hatched and released by the mother. This is common in some
bony fish (including mollies, guppies, and mosquito fish), some cartilaginous fish, and many
reptiles.

 Viviparity – the eggs are developed internally and receive nourishment directly from the
mother’s blood through placenta rather than from the yolk. This can be found in most
cartilaginous fish (including lemon sharks), some amphibians, a few reptiles, and almost all
mammals including humans.

Explore!
Jellyfish reproduction involves both sexual and asexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction occurs in
the adult stage where males release sperm and females release eggs. When sperm and egg
combine, it will form a small larva called planula. These planulae will attach to rocks and become
polyps. During this stage, they can reproduce asexually by elongating then budding off to produce
many young jellyfish.
Why do you think many species of jellyfish produce offspring extraordinarily quickly?
Try it!
Tell whether the following scenarios are under asexual or sexual reproduction and state the
advantages and disadvantages of having these qualities.

1. offspring are genetically variable

2. every offspring is genetically identical
3. slower rate of reproduction
4. faster rate of reproduction
5. needs only one parent to produce an offspring
6. needs two parents to produce an offspring
7. extinction of species is unlikely

What do you think?

Earthworms are hermaphrodite, contains both eggs and sperms. When mating, the two worms are
lined up against each other with each head facing in opposite directions. Sperms are only passed
from each other which then fertilize each other’s eggs. Then a cocoon forms in each worm.

In spite of having both eggs and sperms, why do earthworms do not self-fertilize?

Key Points
 Reproduction is an important feature of living organisms because it ensures continuity of
species.
 The two types of reproduction that exist in living organisms are asexual and sexual
reproduction.
 Asexual reproduction involves only one parent to produce a new individual. The offspring is
the exact copy of the parent animal. Most common forms are fission, fragmentation, and
budding.
 Fission is a type of asexual reproduction wherein two individuals will form as the parent
divides in half.
 Fragmentation involves the breaking of body parts into fragments. Each piece will
regenerate and become a new individual.
 Budding is when a bud grows and develops from the parent animal then would eventually
separate to become a new individual.
 Sexual reproduction needs two parents to produce an offspring. The combination of the
genes from both parents increases the chances of species variation.
 Fertilization could happen internally or externally.
 External fertilization involves the union of egg and sperm outside the female reproductive
tract.
 Internal fertilization involves the union of egg and sperm within the female reproductive
tract. Animals that undergo in this type of reproduction produce offspring in any of the
following ways: oviparity, ovoviviparity, and viviparity.
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain how the information in the DNA allows the
transfer of genetic information and synthesis of proteins.

What do you observe in this diagram?

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) contains the genetic information of almost all living organisms. It
contains nucleotides composed of a five-carbon sugar deoxyribose and a phosphate group. There
are four nucleotides in a DNA: adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C).

The nucleic acid sequence indicates the order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA strand. The
nucleotides or nucleotide bases (A, C, T, G) of a DNA strand or a sequence can be complementary
to another sequence. Cytosine pairs with guanine, and adenine pairs with thymine in the
complementary DNA strand.
The sequence of the DNA strand contains codes of information that provide instructions for making
proteins needed by organisms in order to grow and live. In our diagram in the previous lesson
chapter, the recipe was transcribed into English for one to make the recipe. The same with DNA, if
not transcribed, it will not give instructions to make proteins needed by our cells.

Role of DNA in Inheritance

Genes are short segments of DNA that are the basic units of heredity. Every individual has two
copies of each gene, one from the father and the other from the mother. They are responsible for all
the traits that an individual inherits from their parents. The sperm and egg cells carry 23
chromosomes each. When they unite, a total of 46 chromosomes will be produced. The only thing
that makes us unique from each other is the slight variations in the genes. For example, most of us
have black eyes, some have brown eyes. We all have genes for eye colors, but the differences in
the genes dictate whether a person will have black or brown eyes.

Role of DNA in Protein Synthesis

The DNA plays an important role in the synthesis of proteins. Proteins play an important role in the
cells’ functions and structures. There are three processes involved in the production of
proteins: replication, transcription, and translation.

Replication
Replication refers to the process of copying one DNA to produce two identical DNA molecules.
During this process, the DNA unwinds, and both strands of the double helix will serve as templates
for producing new strands of DNA.
Transcription
Transcription is the process by which the genetic information in the DNA strand is transcribed to
the messenger RNA (mRNA). This RNA is called the messenger RNA because it carries the
message copied from the DNA to produce proteins. In this process, RNA uses complementary
coding where the bases are matched up, similar to how DNA forms a double helix. The difference
between RNA and DNA is that instead of thymine, RNA makes use of uracil.

Translation
Translation is the process wherein protein molecules are assembled from the information encoded
in mRNA. As a whole, the synthesis of proteins is made possible by the DNA which provides the
information needed to create proteins in the body.
Explore!
A girl is alleged to be the lost daughter of a rich business man. Now that this man is very ill and
wanted to be sure that this girl is his daughter, he ordered his staff to get samples from her and do
DNA paternity testing. The results found were inconclusive. Why do you think the results were
inconclusive?

Try it!
Go to a hospital and observe the X-ray technicians. Why do you think the technician stands behind
the lead walls, and the other persons must not enter the room while doing the X-ray?

What do you think?

What happens when an organism undergoes mutation?
Key Points
 DNA contains the genetic information of almost all living organisms.
 The nucleotide consists of deoxyribose and a phosphate group.
 There are four nucleotides in a DNA: adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G),
and cytosine (C).
 Genes are short segments of DNA that are the basic units of heredity.
 Replication refers to the process of copying one DNA to produce two identical DNA
molecules.
 Transcription is the process by which the genetic information in the DNA strand is
transcribed to the messenger RNA (mRNA).
 Translation is the process wherein protein molecules are assembled from the information
encoded in mRNA.

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

 describe the process of genetic engineering;

 conduct a survey of the current uses of genetically modified organisms (GMOs); and
 evaluate the benefits and risks of using GMOs.

Have you ever heard of genetically modified organisms?

Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology

Genetic engineering means modifying genes in a living organism to produce genetically modified
organisms (GMOs) also known as transgenic organisms. It is a modern type of genetic
modification. In this process, the gene of interest is physically removed and placed in an organism
to be modified. This method is more rapid and specific than the traditional plant breeding because a
gene coding for a specific trait could be transferred to an organism. Genetic engineering is an
application of biotechnology which uses biological systems, processes, or organisms to create
products intended to improve the quality of human life.
How is genetic engineering done?

As shown in the illustration above, copies of the recombinant plasmid— a circular, double-stranded
DNA molecule, will be isolated and transferred to other organisms. Depending on the gene of
interest, genetic engineering has various applications in the field of medicine, environment, and
agriculture.

To help you describe the processes involved in genetic engineering, let us use Bt corn, a genetically
modified pest resistant plant as an example. This plant was grown in the Philippines against Asian
corn borer, a major pest in corn.

DNA Isolation (isolating plasmid and gene of interest)

The first step in creating a pest-resistant plant is isolating the plasmid of Agrobacterium and pest-
resistant gene from a bacteria, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt).

 Agrobacterium tumefaciens, a gram-negative soil bacteria cause crown gall disease in

plants but its tumor-inducing plasmid is usually used in genetic engineering because of its
ability to integrate its DNA into a plant’s genome.
 The resistant gene would be obtained in the DNA of Bacillus thuringiensis. This bacterium
produces a protein known as Cry1Ab toxin that is lethal to the larval stage
of lepidopterans (moth family).

Ligation (gene insertion to the plasmid)

When the resistant gene is inserted into the isolated plasmid, they are cleaved using the same
restriction enzyme before they are combined using DNA ligases. Restriction enzymes are also
called restriction endonucleases. Once they recognize a specific nucleotide sequence, they cleave
the strands.

Transformation (plasmid is placed back into bacterial cell)

The recombinant plasmid would then be placed back to the bacterium in a process
called transformation.

Selection (identification of the desired clone)

The nutrient media with X-gal (special galactose sugar) are used to select the transformed bacteria
containing the recombinant plasmid with the gene of interest.

The selected bacteria would then infect the cell of corn and integrate the gene into the plant’s DNA.
When the plant cell divides, each daughter cell receives the new gene. The transformed corn plant is
now pest-resistant.
The inserted gene producing the toxin in the genetically modified crop is only lethal to specific target
pests.

Current Uses of GMOs

The genes of bacteria, plants, and animals are being modified to improve the quality of human life.
Depending on the gene of interest, GMOs have many uses in agriculture, medicine, and the
environment.

Uses of Genetically Modified Bacteria

 Escherichia coli creates a synthetic human insulin.

 Cyanobacteria is used to yield polyhydroxybutyrate to produce bioplastic.

Uses of Genetically Modified Plants

 Bt corn is a pest-resistant plant against corn-infesting larvae.

 Banana vaccine is an edible vaccine against hepatitis virus.
 Golden rice is a genetically modified rice that produces beta-carotene.

Uses of Genetically Modified Animals

 Bioluminescent animals are used to identify different types of cells to detect diseases.
 Some bioluminescent animals such as glofish became novelty pets to humans.
  Fast-growing salmon are genetically modified salmon to continually produce growth
hormones.

Advantages of GMOs
The GMOs offer many benefits to mankind such as:

 Increased productivity. This enables farmers to have higher crop yields and reduced
pesticide use. (e.g. Bt corn)
 Reduced pesticide use. Since GM crops are modified for a specific pest, the use of
pesticide against that pest is reduced or removed.
 Improved nutrition like the high beta carotene content of Golden Rice. GM crops such
as Golden Rice with improved nutrition (high in beta carotene) reduces eye-related problems
like blindness due to malnutrition.
 Aided disease detection. Diseases can be identified because of protein trackers in
bioluminescent animals.

Disadvantages of GMOs
GMOs also raised concerns from people because of its possible harm to the environment and
mankind such as:

 Reduced biodiversity of non-damaging insects. Pest resistant crops (e.g. Bt corn) lead to
unintended harm to non-crop damaging insects such as larvae of Monarch butterflies when
affected by pollen of Bt corn.
 Decreased pesticide effectivity. Pest resistant crops seem to reduce the need for pesticide
at first but it would increase later on.
 Produced allergic reactions. Some people develop an allergic response to GM crops when
exposed to them.
 Led to a higher cost for GM seeds. Farmers buy new seeds every year. Farmers using
second generation seeds would lead them to Supreme Court with a charge of patent
infringement.

Explore!
As of 2014, International Rice Research Institute declared that the Philippines would have field trials
of GM rice known as Golden rice (high in beta-carotene). However, the farmers in the Bicol region
together with other independent organizations expressed strong opposition against it. Given all the
benefits of golden rice and GMOs in general, why do you think there are still controversies
underlying the production of GMOs?

What do you think?

Substantial amounts of human insulin and numerous different proteins are created using genetic
engineering. However, even if the approach is done correctly, it does not work for producing human
hemoglobin. Why do you think so?
Key Points
 Genetic engineering means altering genes in a living organism to produce a Genetically
Modified Organism (GMO).
 Biotechnology is a technology using biological systems, processes, or organisms to create
products intended to improve the quality of human life.
 The following are the steps in genetic engineering: DNA isolation, ligation, transformation,
and selection.
 DNA isolation is isolating the plasmid and gene of interest.
 Ligation involves sealing the gene of interest into the plasmid after they are both cut with the
same restriction enzyme.
 Transformation is a process wherein cells ingest foreign DNA from the surroundings.
 Selection is the process where the bacteria containing the recombinant plasmid with the
gene of interest is selected and will be used to integrate the gene of interest in the host
organism.
 Depending on the gene of interest, GMOs have many uses in agriculture (e.g. pest resistant
plants), medicine (e.g. edible vaccines), and environment (e.g. butanol production).
 GMOs offer many benefits to mankind such as increased productivity, improved nutrition,
disease detection, and cheaper medicines.
 Possible risks about GMO such as reduced biodiversity, decrease pesticide effectivity,
allergic reactions, and high cost for GM seeds posed concerns to many people.

Animal Survival, Earth and Life Science

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to identify the different metabolic processes involved in
the absorption of nutrients in various organ systems.

How are nutrients absorbed inside the body?

The nutrients that the body needs come from food. These nutrients are absorbed by the body during
digestion. Digestion is the process by which food is broken down into simple, soluble compounds in
the digestive tract. It involves mechanical and chemical processes.

1. Mechanical Process - During the mechanical process, the food is broken down into small
particles that are mixed with the digestive juices. This process starts in the mouth and
continues into the stomach.

2. Chemical process - During the chemical process, also known as hydrolysis, digestive
enzyme changes food particles into soluble forms that can be easily absorbed. For example,
enzymes change carbohydrates into simple sugars, proteins into amino acids, and fats into
fatty acids and glycerol. The chemical process starts in the mouth and continues into the
small intestine.

After the food undergoes mechanical and chemical processes, the nutrients are absorbed in the
small intestine and into the bloodstream. Then they are passed to different cells where they are used
in metabolic processes. For instance, the liver cells contain enzymes which use the nutrients to form
complex molecules.
Absorption
Absorption is the passage of nutrients through the intestinal walls and into the blood. The primary
site of absorption is the small intestine.

The villi, which are tiny finger-like projections, trap the nutrients which are taken in by the adjacent
cells. The capillaries, tiny blood vessels contained in the villi, serve as the passageway for the
nutrients to reach the general blood circulation. These nutrients are carried by the blood to the liver
and from there, distributed to various organs and tissues. The body is able to digest and absorb
about 90% to 98% nutrients of a mixed diet.

Metabolism
Metabolism is a process that converts absorbed nutrients into energy needed for repair, growth,
and development of organisms. All types of metabolism happen at the cellular level,
specifically intracellular or inside the cell. When metabolism results in building new substances, it is
called anabolism. If the nature of metabolism is destructive, it is called catabolism. Numerous
complex biochemical changes occur within the cells through anabolic and catabolic processes.

When the cells in the body need energy, a series of catabolic reactions occur. Catabolism happens
in the mitochondria, which act as a 'furnace' that burns food energy. The presence of oxygen is
necessary for the release of energy by the cells. The process of combining oxygen to a molecule is
called oxidation.

The figure below shows what happens to carbohydrates, fats, and proteins as they undergo
catabolic processes. As they undergo digestion and absorption, soluble forms of food are converted
to energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is often called the energy currency
molecule of the cells.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates can be converted to usable energy through glycolysis. Glycolysis is an anaerobic
process (does not require oxygen) that happens in the cytosol. This process converts glucose into
pyruvates while producing a small amount of energy. After glycolysis, the pyruvates pass through
the cytosol and goes into the mitochondria.

When the cells need energy, aerobic reactions (require oxygen) occur in the mitochondria. Each
molecule of pyruvate is converted into acetyl-CoA molecule. The acetyl-CoA enters the Kreb's cycle,
which generates ATP. Overall, the complete breakdown of glucose yields to carbon dioxide, water,
and ATP.

Fats
Fats can be converted into energy through beta-oxidation. Triglycerides, the dietary form of fat, are
first broken down into fatty acids and glycerol.

Fatty acids contain almost all the energy found in triglycerides. Their breakdown occurs in the
mitochondria. To enter the mitochondria, they are first activated through linking with coenzyme A.
Carnitine then transports the activated fatty acids across the mitochondrial membrane. Once the
fatty acids reach the mitochondria, a process called beta-oxidation strips up the fatty acids and
converts them to molecules of acetyl-CoA. The acetyl-CoA enters the Kreb's cycle. The complete
breakdown of fatty acids yields carbon dioxide, water, and ATP.

Proteins
Proteins are not the major sources of energy. However, when there are no carbohydrates and fats
available for energy production, proteins can be the alternative source. During the starvation state,
the body breaks down protein and extracts the energy needed by the body from the amino acids.

To use amino acids as a source of energy, they must undergo the process of deamination. In this
process, the amino group (-NH) is stripped off, leaving the "carbon skeleton". The carbon skeleton is
used by the liver to produce energy. The type of amino acid where the carbon skeleton came from
determines whether it would be converted to pyruvate, acetyl-CoA, ketone body, or other
intermediates of the Kreb's cycle. The breakdown of the amino acid yields urea, carbon dioxide,
water, and ATP.

What do you think?

Bodybuilders consume a lot of protein-rich foods and protein drinks when they attempt to build
muscles. But why do some of them still gain a lot of fat instead of muscles?

Key Points
 Absorption is the passage of nutrients through the intestinal walls and into the blood. The
primary site of absorption is the small intestine.
 Absorbed nutrients are carried by the blood to the liver and from there, distributed to various
organs and tissues as needed.
 Metabolism is a process that converts absorbed nutrients into energy needed for repair,
growth, and development of organisms.
 When metabolism results in building new substances, it is called anabolism.
 If the nature of metabolism is destructive or oxidative and release heat and energy, it is
called catabolism.
  Glycolysis is an anaerobic process that converts glucose into pyruvates used in the Kreb's
cycle to produce energy.
 Beta-oxidation strips up the fatty acids and converts them to molecules of acetyl-CoA which
enters the Kreb's cycle to complete the extraction of energy from fatty acids.
 Deamination is the process where the amino group (-NH) is stripped off, leaving the "carbon
skeleton" that is converted to pyruvate, acetyl-CoA, ketone body, or other intermediates of
the Kreb's cycle.
 The breakdown of glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids yield carbon dioxide, water, and
ATP.

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe the general characteristics of the different
respiratory structures that animals use for gas exchange with the environment.

Animals have respiratory structures that enable them to breathe in oxygen that is delivered to their
cells. For instance, mammals have lungs for gas exchange.

Have you ever wondered how other animals such as fish, insects, frogs, earthworms, and
turtles breathe?

Gas exchange in animals refers to the exchange of respiratory gases – uptake of molecular oxygen
and discharge of carbon dioxide. This process follows the principle of diffusion, the movement of
molecules from an area of high concentration to one of low concentration.

Animals have different respiratory structures used for gas exchange. Important respiratory structures
include the gills, the tracheal system, the skin, and the lungs.

Gills
Fish and other aquatic animals have gills that are used to take in dissolved oxygen in water. When
the oral valve in their mouth opens, it draws the water into the buccal cavity. The opercular cavity,
where the gills are housed, then closes. When the oral valve closes, the operculum (gill cover)
opens to move out the water through the gills.
In the gill filament, the blood in the capillaries flows in a direction opposite to the water flow. This
opposite flow allows for countercurrent exchange, the exchange of materials between two fluids
flowing in opposite directions. As a result, the oxygen molecules diffuse from water
(higher O2 concentration) to the blood (lower O2 concentration). This mechanism maximizes gas
exchange efficiency because if both fluids flow in the same direction, the concentration difference
will decrease rapidly.

Tracheal System
The tracheal system is common in insects. This system does not need the direct participation of the
circulatory system to transport O2 and CO2 since the air can diffuse directly to the cells.

In every segment of the insect’s abdomen, there are pairs of openings called spiracles, where air
enters and leaves the body. These openings connect to the tubular network called trachea that
eventually branches into tracheoles. When the oxygen reaches the tracheoles, it diffuses into the
cytoplasm of a nearby body cell. On the other hand, CO2, which is formed as waste product,
diffuses out of the cell and eventually out of the body through the tracheal system. Another part of
the tracheal system is the air sac which serves as an air reservoir.
Skin
Amphibians, earthworms, and some turtles can breathe through their skin in a process
called cutaneous respiration. They respire through their skin when they are submerged in water or
damp areas. It is important for them to keep their skin moist to allow efficient cutaneous respiration.
To avoid desiccation, their skin secretes mucus through the mucus glands.
Cutaneous respiration also occurs through concurrent exchange, where the direction of the
absorbed oxygen is directly opposite the circulation of the blood in the skin.

Tip
Though many amphibians can breathe through their skin in water, note that they also have lungs
that they use for breathing on land.

Lungs

The lungs are the primary organs of respiration in mammals. During respiration, the air has to go
through different organs before reaching the lungs. When air is inhaled, it passes through a windpipe
called trachea. The trachea then divides the air into air passages called the bronchial
tubes or bronchi located at the lungs. Upon reaching the lungs, the air passes through smaller
airways called the bronchioles with tiny balloon-like air sacs called the alveoli at their
ends. Capillaries, a network of tiny blood vessels, surround the alveoli. These vessels are the sites
of gas exchange. After the deoxygenated blood in the capillaries absorbs the oxygen from
the alveoli walls, it travels to the heart which in turn, pumps it throughout the body to provide
oxygen to the cells. On the other hand, CO2 produced by the cells is carried by the blood back to the
lungs where it is removed through exhalation.
Explore!
Earthworms, like any other animals, need oxygen to survive. Unlike humans, earthworms do not
have lungs. They breathe through their skin. Why do they often stay underground and how do they
respire there?

Try it!
Make a Venn diagram of different respiratory structures. Write down differences and similarities of
these structures.

What do you think?

Humans have two lungs, the primary organs for respiration. Can humans live with only one lung?
Key Points
 Gas exchange refers to the uptake of oxygen from the environment and discharge of carbon
dioxide.
 Diffusion is the principle involved in gas exchange. It is the movement of molecules from an
area of high concentration to one of low concentration.
 Different respiratory structures are found in the different animals.
 Gills are the organs that enable fishes and other aquatic animals to breathe in oxygen
dissolved in water and excrete carbon dioxide.
 Tracheal system is common in insects. This system is composed of the spiracles, the
trachea, the tracheoles, and the air sacs.
 Cutaneous respiration is breathing through the skin. It is common in amphibians and some
turtles.
 Lungs are common in mammals. Capillaries located in the alveoli are the sites of gas
exchange.

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe the characteristics of the different organs in
the distribution of nutrients and transportation of wastes.

What are the different organs involved in the nutrient and waste transport in the body?

Main Transport System

The main transport system for animals is the circulatory system. The circulatory system plays a
central role in an organism’s survival.

The human circulatory system comprises of the heart, the blood, and a closed system of
structures called blood vessels which include the arteries, the veins, and the capillaries. The main
functions of the circulatory system are to distribute the nutrients and oxygen to all body cells and
transport waste products to the liver, kidneys, and lungs.

This system works through diffusion—the movement of molecules from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration. However, diffusion only occurs over short distances
such as between blood and air in the lungs. In terms of the distribution of blood throughout the
human body, the process of bulk flow takes place. Bulk flow is the movement of the blood from an
area of high pressure to an area of low pressure through the action of the heart that pumps the blood
and pressurizes it to flow. This process allows a rapid transport of blood in all parts of the body.

Components of the Circulatory System

The Heart

The heart is the muscle that pumps blood throughout the body. It consists of four chambers. The top
two chambers are called atria while the bottom two are called ventricles. The atria are the receiving
chambers for blood returning to the heart. The blood from the circulation enters the right atrium while
the reoxygenated blood from the lungs enters the left atrium. The atria are thin-walled chambers
because they need to contract only minimally to squeeze blood into the ventricles. In contrast,
the ventricles have thicker walls because they need to contract harder to pump blood out of the
heart and into the circulation. The right ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary trunk while the left
ventricle ejects blood into the aorta.

The delivery system of the heart is separated into two circuits: the pulmonary and the systemic
circuits. The pulmonary circuit, supplied by the right side of the heart, receives the returning blood
and pumps the blood to the lungs for reoxygenation and dispatch of carbon dioxide. On the other
hand, the systemic circuit, supplied by the left side of the heart, transports the oxygenated blood to
the entire body.

The Blood Vessels

Blood vessels are responsible for the transport of blood throughout the body. There are three types
of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries. Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the
heart while veins carry deoxygenated blood towards the heart. Capillaries are tiny, thin-walled
vessels that allow water, nutrients, and oxygen from the blood to move to the surrounding tissues
and allow wastes to move out in the opposite direction.

The Blood

The blood is a special connective tissue that distributes essential nutrients, including oxygen while
collecting wastes, such as carbon dioxide. It consists of a yellowish fluid called plasma, which
contains red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. The red blood cells have hemoglobin, the
protein that transports oxygen to the different tissues in the body. This protein also releases the
carbon dioxide picked up from body tissues.
The Path of the Circulatory System
The deoxygenated blood passes through the right side of the heart which pumps it into large vessels
called pulmonary arteries. It then moves into the lungs where it is 'cleaned' as the carbon dioxide is
exchanged with oxygen. This process of exchange between the carbon dioxide and oxygen is
called oxygenation. The oxygenated blood travels back into the heart through the pulmonary veins.

The oxygenated blood is pumped into the largest blood vessel and the main artery in the human
body called aorta. Before the blood leaves the aorta, it passes through the small arteries. Then
finally, it passes through the capillaries which distribute it to all the tissues of the body. Oxygen and
nutrients are delivered to these tissues. Simultaneously, the waste products of the cells are carried
away by the blood. As soon as all the oxygen is used up, the blood goes into the veins and travels
back into the heart.

Closed and Open Circulatory Systems

Humans have closed circulatory system. In a closed circulatory system, the circulatory fluid or
blood is limited within vessels. The heart pumps blood into large vessels, branching into smaller
vessels and into different organs. Other animals with closed circulatory system include squids and
earthworms.

On the other hand, in an open circulatory system, the circulatory fluid called haemolymph coats
the body cells. The heart pumps the haemolymph through circulatory vessels and goes into the
sinuses or the spaces surrounding the organs. Arthropods such as grasshoppers have open
circulatory systems.

Explore!
Sickle cell anemia is a genetic disorder that causes mutation in the hemoglobin of the infected
person. As a result, anemia causes the red blood cells to have an irregular shape. People infected
with this disease usually get tired easily and are easily short of breath. What is the effect of this
disease in the nutrient and waste transport system of the body?

What do you think?

What is an alternative transport system in animals without the circulatory system?

Key Points
 The main transport system for animals is the circulatory system.
 The circulatory system plays a central role in an organism’s survival and is interconnected
with the respiratory system.
 The heart is the muscle that pumps blood throughout the body.
 The delivery system of the heart is separated into two circuits: the pulmonary and the
systemic circuits.
 The pulmonary circuit receives the returning blood and pumps the blood to the lungs for
reoxygenation and dispatch of carbon dioxide.
  The systemic circuit, supplied by the left side of the heart, transports the oxygenated blood
to the entire body.
 Blood vessels are responsible for the transport of blood throughout the body.
 There are three types of blood vessels: arteries, capillaries, and veins.
 Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart.
 Capillaries are tiny, thin-walled vessels that allow water, nutrients, and oxygen from the
blood to move to the surrounding tissues and allow wastes to move out in the opposite
direction.
 Veins carry deoxygenated blood towards the heart.
 The blood is a special connective tissue consisting of cells surrounded by a fluid called
plasma.
 The plasma is a yellowish liquid and considered as the biggest component of the blood.
 Red blood cells carry oxygen to the different tissues in the body and pick up carbon dioxide
to be eliminated.
 In a closed circulatory system, the heart pumps blood into large vessels, branching into
smaller vessels and into different organs. On the other hand, in an open circulatory system,
the heart pumps the circulatory fluid called hemolymph through circulatory vessels and goes
into the sinuses.

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how the human body maintains homeostasis.

How does the human body maintain homeostasis?

Homeostasis
Homeostasis comes from the two Greek words homeo meaning similar and stasis meaning stable.
It is the ability of the body to maintain a constant internal equilibrium. It keeps the body functioning
well even when there are changes in the environment. Examples of homeostasis include the
regulation of body temperature, blood sugar level, and blood urea level.

Although homeostasis maintains a constant internal balance, it is not a static state. It is a dynamic
state or continuously changing. Take the body temperature as an example. Humans generate
internal body heat and maintain an average temperature of about 37˚C. However, the body
temperature still varies all throughout the day. During daytime, especially when doing physical
activities, the body temperature rises. At nighttime, the temperature slightly falls during sleep.

Homeostasis is achieved through automatic mechanisms. These mechanisms have at least three
interdependent components. The components are the receptor, control center, and effector.

 The receptor is a sensing component that monitors changes in the external or internal
environment. For example, peripheral chemoreceptors detect changes in the pH of the
blood.
 The control center receives messages from the receptors and initiates the response to
maintain homeostasis. The brain is the control center of the human body. The brain
responds by sending signals in the form of nerve impulses to other organs (effectors) to bring
about changes needed to maintain homeostasis. For example, hypothalamus is ta part of the
brain that receives signals when there are changes in the blood pressure and heart rate.
 The effector is an organ or tissue that receives the messages from the control center and
brings about changes needed to maintain homeostasis. For example, the organs of the
 endocrine system act as effectors that release hormones into the blood to correct any
disruptions.

Types of Feedback Mechanism

Homeostasis is maintained through feedback mechanisms, which are series of events in which the
condition of the body is strictly and constantly monitored, evaluated, and changed.

Negative Feedback Mechanism

Negative feedback mechanism occurs when the change in the body, caused by stimuli, reverses
as a response of a particular effector. An example is the control of the blood sugar by the hormones
insulin and glucagon which are both secreted by the pancreas. Insulin is secreted when the blood
sugar level is high while glucagon is secreted when the blood sugar is low. When the blood sugar
increases, the hypothalamus sends signals to the pancreas to secrete insulin into the bloodstream
and lower the blood sugar level. When the blood sugar level reaches equilibrium, the pancreas stops
the release of insulin. On the other hand, when the blood sugar level is low, the hypothalamus sends
signals to the pancreas to secrete glucagon and increase the blood sugar level.

Positive Feedback Mechanism

Positive feedback mechanism occurs when the changes are strengthened by the response of the
effector. It occurs when the changes enhance the effect of the stimulus. For example, the pituitary
gland secretes oxytocin during childbirth as a positive feedback mechanism. Oxytocin intensifies and
speeds up the contraction in the mother’s womb. Increase in contractions hastens the delivery of the
baby. After giving birth, the production of oxytocin stops.

Another example of a positive feedback is lactation, which is the production of milk in the mammary
glands. The suckling action of the baby triggers the pituitary glands to produce prolactin, which
stimulates milk production. More suckling leads to an increase in prolactin, which in turn leads to
more lactation.

Explore!
Observe the changes in your skin during a hot, sunny day. Sweating is a natural response of the
body to maintain the body temperature, not lower or higher than normal body temperature which is
37˚C.

If you are in a cold environment, how does your body maintain 37˚C?

Try it!
Try to run four laps. What do you notice? What was your body's response after taking those laps?
What is the connection of this exercise to homeostasis?
What do you think?
What will happen if humans do not have the ability to maintain internal equilibrium or regulate body
temperature?

Key Points
 Homeostasis is the ability of the body to maintain internal equilibrium in response to
changes in the environment.
 Examples of homeostasis include:
o the regulation of body temperature;
o the regulation of water balance in the blood;
o the regulation of blood sugar level; and
o the regulation of blood urea level.
 The feedback system is a series of events in which the condition of the body is strictly and
constantly monitored, evaluated and changed.
 Negative feedback mechanism occurs when the change in the body, caused by stimuli,
reverses as a response of a particular effector.
 Positive feedback mechanism occurs when the changes are strengthened by the response
of the effector.

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to identify the structures and functions of the immune
system.

How does the human body fight against harmful microbes?

The immune system is a collection of cells, organs, and processes that protect the body against
foreign substances that can cause certain diseases. Immunity is the body’s ability to fight certain
illnesses, damages, and diseases caused by microbes.

Parts of Immune System

1. The bone marrow is responsible for the production of different types of white blood cells
which provide defense against infections.
2. The lymph nodes are structures that analyze destroyed cells and find molecules
called antigens which stimulate an immune response, such as activating white blood cells.
3. The spleen acts as a large lymph node capable of destroying and segregating
malfunctioning cells as well as old cells.

There are two basic types of immunity: the innate immunity and adaptive immunity.

Innate immunity provides immediate actions to protect the body against pathogenic microbes and
other toxins. This type of immunity is the first line of defense in the body. It treats all microbes in the
same way.
Cells involved in innate immunity response:

 Macrophages are white blood cells that engulf cell debris, bacteria, and viruses by the
process known as phagocytosis.

 Neutrophils are white blood cells that are smaller than macrophages, but they can also
engulf viruses and bacteria.

 Mast cells are abundant in connective tissues. They can mediate inflammatory responses,
such as allergic reactions and hypersensitivity.

 Dendritic cells are specialized cells which serve as messengers between innate and
adaptive immune response by processing antigens to be recognized by the lymphocytes.

Adaptive immunity refers to a highly specific mechanism of the immune system that recognizes a
particular pathogenic microbe. This type of immunity provides a long-lasting protection because it
has the ability to remember its actions to a particular antigen.

Cells involved in adaptive immune response:

 Lymphocytes are specialized white blood cells that determine the specific response of the
immune system to a particular infection.
 Specific lymphocytes called B-lymphocytes are able to produce antibodies that destroy
foreign substances while other lymphocytes called T-lymphocytes can recognize, respond,
and recall (immune memory) antigens.

What is the relationship between the innate and the adaptive immune response?

When the infection passed the first line of defense provided by the innate immune system, the cells
involved in adaptive immune system will take their place and attack the invaders. Innate immune
response includes dendritic cells which are very efficient in presenting antigens that can interact with
adaptive immune response specifically with T-lymphocytes.

What happens when the immune system fails to function?

Disorders in immune system such as AIDS, allergies, and autoimmune disorder will develop if there
is an appropriate response created by the body either to a typical substance in the environment or to
a component of the body in case of autoimmune diseases.
Explore!
Our immune system deals with thousands of microbes every day. When these microbes pass both
innate and adaptive immune systems without being damaged, the body would not be able to sustain
its defense. What are the different reactions of the body that show this scenario?

Try it!
Research about the different immunity responses that we usually encounter. Tell whether the
response is due to innate or adaptive immunity.

What do you think?

How is immune memory involved in the effectiveness of a vaccine?

Key Points
 The immune system is a collection of cells, organs, and processes that protect our body
against foreign substances that can cause certain diseases.
 The two basic types of immunity are the innate immunity and adaptive immunity.
 The cells involved in the innate immune system are macrophages, neutrophils, mast cells,
and dendritic cells while lymphocytes belong to the adaptive immune system.

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe the actions of the basic types of hormones.

How can hormones affect the activities of the body?

Hormones are organic substances released by the glands of the endocrine system directly into the
bloodstream. The hormone-releasing glands are the pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland,
thyroid, thymus, pancreas, adrenal, testicle, and ovary. Hormones are capable of changing the
physiological and metabolic behavior of their target cells to maintain homeostasis.

Types of Hormones Based on Chemical Structures

Peptide and protein hormones are water-soluble hormones that are comprised of amino acids
linked via peptide bonds. They are mainly responsible for the regulation of growth and development.
An example of a peptide hormone is insulin which is made up of 51 amino acid residues. This
hormone regulates the metabolism of fats and carbohydrates by promoting absorption of glucose.

Steroid hormones are lipid-soluble hormones derived from cholesterol. They help control salt and
water balance, metabolism, immune functions, and inflammation. Cortisol is an example of a steroid
hormone which controls some of the body's metabolism including the deposition of glucose in the
liver.

Amino acid derivatives are hormones derived from the amino acids tyrosine and tryptophan. They
function as promoters of metabolism and immunity. One example is a thyroid hormone known
as epinephrine or adrenaline. This hormone plays a role in the fight-or-flight response by
increasing blood flow to muscles.

Fatty acid derivatives are hormones derived from polyunsaturated fatty acids. They are also
called eicosanoids. They are mainly responsible for regulating blood pressure and blood
clotting. Prostaglandin is an example of a fatty acid derivative that is responsible for uterine
contractions.
 Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream. Below are some
examples of hormones secreted by specific glands.

Learn about it!

Why are hormones important?

Hormones are chemical messengers of the endocrine glands which work hand in hand with other
organ systems to maintain homeostasis and regulate most of the body’s processes.

Example
The Growth Hormone (GH) which is released by the anterior pituitary gland promotes growth and
helps maintain body structures and metabolism. The secretion of GH, which affects all essential
tissues in the body, happens every few hours and peaks during sleep.
Explore!
Estrogen and testosterone are sex hormones that are responsible for the male and female
secondary sex characteristics. The changes regulated by these hormones are characterized by
broad shoulders and deep voice in males while enlarged breasts and broader hips in females. What
other changes did you notice during your puberty stage?

What do you think?

What will happen if there is an abnormal secretion of a hormone in an organism?

Key Points
 Hormones are organic substances released by glands in the endocrine system directly into
the bloodstream. They are capable of changing the physiological and metabolic behavior of
their target cells to maintain homeostasis.
 Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream. These glands work with
other organs to maintain homeostasis and regulate most of the body’s processes.

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to identify the parts and functions of the nervous
system.

What makes up the nervous system? How does it work?

The nervous system is composed of the brain, the spinal cord, and the neurons. It is considered
as the body’s storage center and control system. It is mainly responsible for controlling and
coordinating all the organ systems by sending messages from the brain through nerve signals. It
makes sure that all the parts of the body are working together efficiently.

The nervous system is divided into two major parts: the Central Nervous System and
the Peripheral Nervous System.
Central Nervous System
The Central Nervous System (CNS) is composed of the brain and the spinal cord.

The brain lies within the skull and shaped like a mushroom. It is subdivided into four parts: brain
stem, cerebrum, cerebellum, and diencephalon.

 The brain stem consist of the medulla oblongata, pons, and

the mesencephalon continuing down to the spinal cord. It coordinates motor signals from
the brain to the body and controls life supporting autonomic functions of the peripheral
system. This is also where the facial nerves, which controls your facial expressions, is
located.
  The cerebrum is the bulk of the brain responsible for administering intelligence, emotion
learning, and critical judgement. It is divided into two cerebral hemispheres. Each
hemisphere controls the body’s activities opposite that hemisphere.
 The cerebellum is the second largest part of the brain responsible for fine-tuning the body
and limb movements.
 The diencephalon is also known as the forebrain. It includes the thalamus and
hypothalamus.
o Thalamus is responsible for receiving information from the sensory organs and
deliver them to cerebrum for other processes.
o Hypothalamus is the site of hunger, thirst, anger, and internal body temperature.

The spinal cord is a long, thin mass of bundled neurons. It serves as a bridge between the central
nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. It is responsible for delivering messages from
the CNS to PNS and vice-versa.

Peripheral Nervous System

The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is mainly composed of neurons. Neurons, also known
as nerve cells, are the basic units of the nervous system that communicate within the body by
sending electrochemical signals. Their tree-like structures called dendrites extend from the cell
body to pick up stimuli from the environment, and the long transmitting processes
called axons extend from the body cell to send signals to other neurons. Nerves are bundles of
axons that act as information highways that carry signals between the brain and the spinal cord and
the rest of the body.
PNS can be classified into two groups: the Somatic Nervous System and Autonomic Nervous
system. Somatic Nervous System (SNS) is responsible for the voluntary movement of the muscles
and organs and the reflex movement.

On the other hand, Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) is responsible for controlling the involuntary
movement of the visceral muscle tissue, cardiac muscle tissue, and glandular tissue. It makes your
heartbeat and breathing constantly working. The neurons of the ANS is classified into sympathetic
neurons and parasympathetic neurons.

 Sympathetic neurons initiate the “fight or flight” response of the body to stress, danger,
excitement, and other emotions. It increases respiration and heart rate, releases adrenaline
and other stress hormones, and decreases digestion.

 Parasympathetic neurons initiate the “rest and digest” response to rest, relaxation, and
feeding. It decreases respiration, increase digestion, and allows elimination of wastes.

Explore!
The nervous system is known as the control center because it has the ability to control every single
cell found in your body. Any damage to your nervous system would affect the proper functioning of
the brain. What are some examples of diseases that are related to the nervous system?

What do you think?

Is the nervous system capable of healing itself?

Key Points
 The nervous system is composed of the brain, spinal cord, and neurons.
 Neurons, also known as nerve cells, are the basic and functional units of the nervous
system that communicate within the body by sending electrochemical signals.
 The brain lies within the skull and shaped like a mushroom.
 The spinal cord serves as a bridge between the central nervous system and the peripheral
nervous system.
 The nervous system is divided into two major parts: the Central Nervous System and
Peripheral Nervous System.
 The Central Nervous System (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal cord
while Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is composed of nerves cells outside the CNS.
 PNS can be classified into two groups: the Somatic Nervous System and Autonomic
Nervous system.
 Somatic Nervous System (SNS) is responsible for the voluntary movement of the muscles
and organs and the reflex movement.
 Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) is responsible for controlling the involuntary movement
of the visceral muscle tissue, cardiac muscle tissue, and glandular tissue.
 ANS is sub-classified into sympathetic neurons and parasympathetic neurons.
 Sympathetic neurons initiate the “fight or flight” response of the body to stress, danger,
excitement, and other emotions.
  Parasympathetic neurons initiate the “rest and digest” response to rest, relaxation, and
feeding.

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe the relationship of organ systems in
ensuring animal survival.

How do the body systems work together?

Organ Systems and Their Main Functions

Organ systems are the most complex organizations in the human body. Each system has its
specific function, but it works with the other organ systems to ensure the organism's survival.

The 11 organ systems of the body are the respiratory, circulatory, skeletal, muscular, digestive,
reproductive, integumentary, lymphatic, excretory, endocrine, and nervous.

 The respiratory system is responsible for supplying the blood with oxygen.
 The circulatory system distributes O2, hormones, and nutrients to every part of the body.
 The skeletal system provides the framework and protection of body parts by encasing vital
organs with hard bones.
 The muscular system helps the body move from one position to another. It also helps
circulate the blood throughout the body.
 The digestive system converts food into usable energy in the form of ATP.
 The reproductive system enables the organism to reproduce to ensure the survival of the
species.
 The integumentary system protects the body from damage, such as abrasion and loss of
water.
 The lymphatic system transports lymph, which contains infection-fighting white blood cells,
throughout the body.
 The excretory system removes wastes and excess, unnecessary materials from the body
fluids to maintain internal balance and prevent organ damage.
 The endocrine system produces hormones that regulate metabolism, growth, and
development.
 The nervous system coordinates voluntary and involuntary actions of the body. Together
with the endocrine system, it controls and regulates other organ systems to maintain the
equilibrium of the body.

Relationships of Organ Systems

Processing and Transport of Nutrients

In humans, food is the main source of energy. It enters the body through the digestive system which
breaks it down into nutrients. The muscular system helps moving the food to different organs of the
digestive system. For example, muscles around the stomach contract and move food to the small
intestine.

When the food is broken down into nutrients, these nutrients are transported to different organs and
tissues through the circulatory system. Nutrients from the small intestine enter the blood vessels and
are then transported by the blood throughout the body.
Transport of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide

Oxygen enters the body through the respiratory system. This system, together with the circulatory
system, delivers oxygen to every cell in the body. As you inhale, the oxygen goes directly into the
lungs, specifically in the alveoli where there are capillaries that serve as sites of gas exchange. The
capillaries connect to larger blood vessels that transport oxygen to the rest of the body.

Removal of Wastes

Food is processed by the digestive system. After nutrients are absorbed through digestion, the
excretory system removes waste products in the form of urine and feces.

The organs of the excretory system are also parts of other organ systems. For example, skin is part
of the integumentary system. It is also part of the excretory system because it removes liquid waste
in the form of sweat. Similarly, the lungs are part of the respiratory system. They remove carbon
dioxide from the body, so they are also part of the excretory system.

Maintenance of Homeostasis

The nervous system serves as the control center for maintaining homeostasis in the body.
Homeostasis is the property of a system in which an internal factor (e.g. body temperature) is
regulated to maintain a stable condition despite changes in external conditions. If there are
disruptions of the internal factor, the nervous system sends out signals to other systems to correct
the disruption. For instance, it sends signals to the endocrine system which secretes hormones to
regulate body functions. These hormones are delivered to the target organs through the circulatory
system.

Tip
The failure of any of the organ systems may lead to the malfunction of other systems and death of
the organism.

Explore!
The nervous and muscular systems work together. When a nerve impulse reaches the muscle
fibers, it stimulates a reaction that results in the contraction of each muscle cell.

What happens when the muscular system malfunctions? Would it affect the nervous system?

How about when the nervous system malfunctions? Would it affect the muscular system?

What do you think?

Does the failure of the reproductive system cause a major effect on other organ systems?
Key Points
 Different organ systems work together to maintain survival of the organism.
 The 11 organ systems of the body are the respiratory, circulatory, skeletal, muscular,
digestive, reproductive, integumentary, lymphatic, excretory, endocrine, and nervous.

Plant Survival, Earth and Life Science

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to identify the parts and functions of the different types
of aquatic plants.

What are the characteristics of aquatic plants?

Aquatic plants, also called hydrophytes, grow in water or in soil permanently saturated with water.
They are well distributed around the world. They are often found in areas called littoral zone, which
is the shallow part of the water where the sunlight could reach the soil.

Aquatic plants can serve as food and habitat for organisms living in different bodies of water such as
ponds, lakes, and sea. Some of the major factors affecting the number of aquatic plants growing in a
specific body of water include water depth, nutrient availability, and type of soil.

One of the most important features of aquatic plants that make them adapt to water is the formation
of aerenchyma – a parenchyma tissue with large intracellular air spaces. This tissue is used to store
oxygen and transport it to other plant tissues. The stored oxygen is also used by leaves for
buoyancy.

Types of Aquatic Plants

Aquatic plants can be classified as floating, submerged, or emergent plants.
Floating Plants

Floating plants are not rooted at the water’s bottom, and the leaves and flowers float and move
freely on the water’s surface. Some of them are rootless. Others have roots with hair-like structures
that dangles from the underside of the leaves. They usually grow in areas where there is a little wave
in the water. Some of the common examples of floating plants are water lily, water lettuce, and
duckweed.

In the tropical areas with heated still waters, floating plants can completely cover the surface within
several months. Hence, they are also called aquatic weeds. Duckweeds, for example, can double
the surface coverage approximately every two days.

Submerged plants

Submerged plants are aquatic plants which are rooted on the water’s bottom but do not extend all
the way to the surface. The leaves, stems, and roots grow entirely underwater although some of its
leaves float. In addition, they have flowers usually raised above the water surface. They usually grow
near the shore up to the deepest part of the littoral zone. They can tolerate fluctuating water levels,
shoreline waves, and erosion. Some common examples of submerged plants are pondweed,
hornwort, and rice-field water-nymph.

Some species of submerged plants are known to have antipollution mechanisms. They are often
used for phytoremediation – the use of plants to remove, degrade, and contain contaminants such
as heavy metals.
Emergent plants

Emergent plants are rooted on the water’s bottom and extend their leaves and stem to the surface.
The leaves of these plants have spongy tissues and packed with air spaces. They typically grow
along the shore where the water is low, usually less than four feet deep. Some common examples of
emergent plants are wild rice, cattails, and pickerelweed.

A few species of emergent plants grow via stolons or rhizomes. Stolons, also called runners, are
stems that allow the plants to spread and reproduce. These stems enable emergent plants to
overcrowd other species and allow them to endure periods of environmental stress. On the other
hand, rhizomes are modified stems, where the shoots and roots arise through the nodes. The
shoots and roots serve as the overwintering buds of the plants during cold weather.
Example
Seagrasses are flowering aquatic plants which sometimes found in bays and lagoons. These
aquatic plants are so important because they provide food for commercial and recreational fishes.
They also add oxygen to the environment and fix sediments to generate materials for the small
invertebrates living in the same area.
Explore!
Water lilies provide food and habitat to other aquatic organisms. Research about other uses of water
lilies. What are the companies that use water lilies as source material for their products? What part
of the water lilies are used?

What do you think?

What do you think will happen if aquatic plants will overpopulate in an aquatic environment?

Key Points
 Aquatic plants, also called hydrophytes, grow in water or in soil permanently saturated
with water.
 Littoral zone is the area where most aquatic plants are found.
 Aquatic plants can be classified as floating, submerged, or emergent plants.
 Floating plants are not rooted at the water’s bottom and the leaves and flowers float and
free to move on the water’s surface.
 Submerged plants are aquatic plants which are rooted on the water’s bottom but do not
extend all the way to the surface.
 Emergent plants are rooted on the water’s bottom and extend their leaves and stem to the
surface.
 The most important feature of aquatic plants that make them adapt to water is the formation
of aerenchyma – a parenchyma tissue with large intracellular air spaces.

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to identify the parts and functions of terrestrial plants.

What are the characteristics of terrestrial plants?

Terrestrial plants are plants that grow on land. Some of these plants evolved from aquatic
environment and developed some structures or parts to survive the terrestrial environment.

The parts of terrestrial plants can be divided into the root system and the shoot system. The root
system consists of roots that obtain nutrients from the soil and store food. On the other hand,
the shoot system is made up of stems and leaves that carry substances up and down the plant.

The Root System

The roots are the structures found beneath the soil. They are responsible for anchoring the plants to
a substrate, absorbing water, dissolving minerals, and storing food. They have root caps which are
responsible for the cell division, elongation, and maturation while root hairs are mostly for
absorption.

There are three types of roots: taproot, fibrous roots, and adventitious roots.
  Taproot is the largest type of root and is present in most of dicotyledon plants.
 Fibrous roots consist of very fine branches and are present in monocotyledon plants and
grasses.
 Adventitious roots grow on stems above the ground. They include prop roots which are
present in corn.

The Shoot System

The shoots, also known as aerial plant structures are found above the soil. They are divided
into vegetative parts (stems and leaves) and reproductive parts (fruits and flowers).

Vegetative parts

The leaves are parts of plants where food is made through photosynthesis.
The stem is responsible for support and erection of leaves so they can be positioned properly to
capture light energy. They are also responsible for the transport of essential substances between the
roots and other parts of the shoots. Some modified stems like tubers, corms, bulbs,
and rhizomes serve as storage of carbohydrates.

Reproductive Parts

The flowers serve as the reproductive organs of flowering plants by sexual reproduction. They are
plant structures where pollination takes place. The male reproductive part of a flower is
called stamen while the female reproductive part is called pistil.

When the ovary within the pistil matures, it becomes a fruit which contains one or more seeds that
can be dispersed by different pollinating agents.
Example
All kinds of trees are considered as terrestrial plants. They are also made up of root and shoot
systems. They are important to animals because they provide habitat, food, and oxygen.

Explore!
Ferns are seedless land vascular plants. Research on how these plants reproduce without seeds.
What do you think?
Are terrestrial plants capable of phytoremediation?

Key Points
 Terrestrial plants are plants that grow on land that evolved from aquatic environment and
developed some structures or parts to survive the terrestrial environment.
 Terrestrial plants have root and shoot systems.
 The types of roots are taproot, fibrous and adventitious.
 Shoot system includes stem, leaves and flowers.
 Leaves and stems are classified as vegetative parts of a plant while flowers and fruits
are reproductive parts.

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe the different metabolic processes involved
in the plant organ systems.

What are the metabolic processes in plants?

Metabolism in plants is the collection of interrelated biochemical reactions that maintain plant life. A
series of metabolic processes happen in different parts of the plants such as leaves, stems, and
roots. These processes include photosynthesis, respiration, and nitrogen fixation.

Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is a series of complex processes that convert light energy, carbon dioxide, and
water into glucose and oxygen. It takes place in the leaves, and stems that contain chlorophyll (the
green pigments). It is divided into two major stages, the light-reaction phase (light-dependent phase)
and the Calvin cycle (light-independent phase).

Light-dependent Reaction

The light-dependent reaction is a process that requires the presence of light energy from the sun
and is occurring in the grana — membranous structures within the chloroplasts. Photolysis occurs
in this stage which involves the splitting of water molecules. This process results in the production
of O2 which is released into the atmosphere, and organic energy molecules such as ATP and
NADPH that will join the Calvin cycle.
Light-independent Reaction: The Calvin Cycle

The second stage is occurring in the stroma of the chloroplasts and does not require the presence of
light energy. This time, carbon dioxide is absorbed that will lead to the formation of sugar as a
product. The general equation for photosynthesis is:

6CO2+6H2O→sunlightC6H12O6+6O2
Respiration
Respiration in plants is the metabolic counter process of the photosynthesis whereas the gases
(CO2 and O2) enter and leave through their stomata. During the process, glucose (the product of
photosynthesis) is being used to produce carbon dioxide and water. The general equation for
respiration is:
C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+ATP
Respiration in plants has different stages: glycolysis, Krebs cycle, oxidative
phosphorylation (which includes the electron transport chain). The glucose molecule will first enter
the process of glycolysis in the cytoplasm wherein this molecule is broken down into two pyruvate
molecules. When the oxygen is available, the 3-carbon pyruvate molecules will be passed on to the
next stages such as Krebs cycle, oxidative phosphorylation, and electron transport chain which
occur in the powerhouse of the cell known as mitochondria, resulting to the production of energy in
the form of ATP. When the oxygen is not available, the pyruvate is used for alcohol fermentation.

Nitrogen Fixation
Nitrogen fixation is a process of converting nitrogen from the atmosphere into ammonia by the
nitrogen-fixing bacteria called rhizobia. This process usually happens in the roots of legumes. The
symbiotic relationship between the nitrogen-fixing bacteria and the legumes happens in the root
nodules.

Nitrogen fixation keeps the loss of nitrogen in the atmosphere compensated. It also determines the
rate of biological productivity in most fertile soil areas. But the principal importance of this process is
useful in the field of agriculture. Legumes such as peas, beans, and soybeans are used as food for
humans, as feeds for animals, and as green manure which is used to upgrade spent agricultural
land. Nitrogen fixation is essential since the presence of nitrogen in the atmosphere is inaccessible
to plants unless nitrogen is fixed.
Explore!
One of the limiting factors of the rate of photosynthesis is the amount of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere which is released by the animals. This shows how the animals and plants are
dependent on each other. What will be the result if more carbon dioxide is released into the
atmosphere while the population of the plant is decreasing?

What do you think?

Is there any difference how aquatic plants and terrestrial plants perform their metabolic processes?

Key Points
 Metabolism in plants is the collection of interrelated biochemical reactions that maintain
plant life.
 A series of metabolic processes happen in different parts of the plants such as leaves,
stems, and roots. These processes include photosynthesis, respiration, and nitrogen fixation.
 Photosynthesis is a series of complex processes that converts light energy, carbon dioxide,
and water into glucose.
 Respiration converts glucose (the product of photosynthesis) to produce carbon dioxide and
water.
  Nitrogen fixation is a process of converting nitrogen from the atmosphere into ammonia by
the nitrogen-fixing bacteria called rhizobia.

The Evolution, Earth and Life Science

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe the evidence of evolution such as
homology, DNA and protein sequences, plate tectonics, fossil records, embryology, and artificial
selection/agriculture.

What are the different evidence that support evolution?

Homology

Similarities between anatomical structures of organisms provided a basis for evolution. The term
used for similar characteristics shared by organisms is called homology.

A common ancestor may be present when different animals share common traits. The pair of arms
of humans and the wings of bats show homologous structures. They may come in different
shapes and sizes, but the overall structure and function of these parts share the same concept.

DNA and Protein Sequences

The presence of homologous structures also suggests the presence of homologous DNA and
protein sequences. Using today’s technology, the sequencing of the DNA codes and similar proteins
of various organisms showed striking similarities. The similarities in the DNA sequences suggest the
presence of a common ancestor.
Example
Consider six different organisms from different groups of organisms that share similarities in their
DNA sequences. The homologous DNA sequences prove that these organisms share a common
ancestor.

Plate Tectonics and Fossil Records

There has been substantial geographical evidence to support evolution. The continental drift
theory developed by Alfred Wegener states that the movement of plate tectonics shifted different
continents, isolating certain landmasses. This is how all continents form from pieces of one giant
supercontinent called Pangaea.

The figure shows similar fossil records of different continents which suggest that the continents were
once connected to each other. Common ancestors may have existed and differentiation happened
as these continents drifted.

Certain conditions such as changes in the environment and geographic locations are required for
some organisms to diversify or develop specialization. This is called adaptive radiation.

Fossil Records
Fossil records provide a time frame in understanding the evolution of life on Earth. They show the
transition in the form of species. One example of this evolutionary evidence pertains to birds as
direct descendants of certain dinosaurs. In 1861, a reptile-bird link came about upon a discovery of
the fossils of an Archaeopteryx dinosaur. All characteristics describe the dinosaur as a reptile except
one distinct characteristic — the feathers.

Embryology

Embryology is the study of the development of embryos. The overall conclusion in studying
comparative embryology showed that vertebrate animals share a common ancestor that is
specialized in many different environments.

The presence of gill slits in human embryonic counterparts in the placental stage is an evidence that
we all converge from a common ancestor.

Specialization takes place during development; some lose their gill slits in place of lungs while
certain organisms like fish and certain amphibians retain them.

Artificial Selection/Agriculture

Artificial selection is the process where humans domesticate wild living organisms for their benefit.
Consider the two very common “tamed/cultivated” organisms – dogs and wheat. Dogs and wolves
come from the same family, yet there are striking similarities and differences. They are similar in
terms of physical attributes as well as their ways of communication, such as body language and
howling. However, their disposition and temperament vary distinctly. This is because dogs diverged
from wolf-like canid and are just selectively bred as a domesticated canid. But even before this
selective breeding occurred, the long association of dogs with humans led them to be domesticated.

Another example of artificial selection is wheat. Wheat now grows in certain areas and climate. It
was one of the first domesticated food crops and a basic staple food for civilizations in Europe, West
Asia, and North Africa for 8 000 years. It was believed to have originated in southwestern Asia.
Today, wheat production is vastly produced in China, India, United States, France, and Russia which
shows that this crop has adapted to various conditions of soil and climate.

In the long run, all of these changes and adaptations in organisms are substantial proof that
evolution occurs.

Explore!
Genetic variation is evident. The variation in your community is a simple evidence of understanding
the basics of evolution. How does this imply the existence of evolution? Does this mean that some
humans are more evolved than others?

Try it!
Compare and contrast the difference of a prehistoric organism and modern day organisms. What are
the differences and similarities among those organisms?

What do you think?

Why is evolution still just a theory instead of law or postulate?

Key Points
 There are several evidence of evolution: homology, DNA and protein sequences, plate
tectonics, fossil records, embryology, and artificial selection/agriculture.
 Homology pertains to similar characteristics shared by organisms.
 The similarities in the DNA sequences suggest the presence of a common ancestor.
 The continental drift theory developed by Alfred Wegener states that the movement of
plate tectonics shifted different continents, isolating certain landmasses. Common ancestors
may have existed and differentiation happened as these continents drifted.
 Fossil records provide a time frame in understanding the evolution of life on Earth.
 The overall conclusion in studying comparative embryology showed that vertebrate animals
share a common ancestor that is specialized in many different environments.
 Artificial selection is the process where humans domesticate wild living organisms for their
benefit. In the long run, all changes and adaptations in organisms are substantial proof that
evolution occurs.

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how populations of organisms have changed
and continue to change over time, showing patterns of descent with modification from common
ancestors to produce the organismal diversity observed today.
How do new species arise? Were they there to begin with, and not just discovered? Or was it
a product of something else?

Evolution is a dynamic process. It is on-going and constantly active. Every act of predation,
mutation, and migration is in accordance to a species’ fundamental need – to survive. As evolution
arose, biodiversity, which is defined as the variability of organisms that came into existence, came
along with it.

The Nature of Earth and Evolution

Just as evolution is a dynamic process, the environment of Earth is continuously changing. The
coming and going of different eras, the changing atmospheric conditions, and the change in
geographical landmass over an extended period of time forced organisms to change. Different
changes took place such as diet, habitat, or competition. To compensate for these changes,
organisms have undergone adaptation, which is a crucial role in the dynamic nature of evolution.

In humans, our behavior in shifting from a nomadic to a territorial lifestyle gave way to artificial
selection or selective breeding in certain species. The change from a nomadic lifestyle which
relied on hunting and gathering was replaced by a cultivated one, where agriculture and
domestication of animals, such as cattle and poultry, gave a constant source of food. This change
allowed us to live longer, yet made us vulnerable to certain disease.

Factors Affecting Evolutionary Changes

Evolution interplays many different factors such as geographical and climatic conditions, symbiotic
relationships, and migrating patterns.

Theories on Evolution

There are two theories that explain how the evolution of organisms took place. They are the theory
of descent with modification and the theory of natural selection.

Theory of Descent with Modification

This theory implies that all existing organisms originated from a singular or several simple life
forms that have continuously adapted to changes in the environment. It seeks to explain that
biodiversity arose from these organisms continuously gaining new features in relation to changes,
thus branching out and forming a new species. Consider this evolutionary tree of fishes.

The tree is read as the top most organism being the most recent while the bottom most being the
earliest.

Notice that certain characteristics are always passed down such as the presence of paired fins, or
jaws. Furthermore, the new descendant is better equipped with new traits for survival.

Theory of Natural Selection

This theory states that only species with ideal or superior characteristics are able to survive the
changing environment and thus replicate. This characteristic is then passed on to succeeding
generations until various changes to this characteristic occur, creating a new dominant trait.
Mechanisms for Evolution

With these two theories, come the different ways and methods in which organisms carry out
evolution.

Divergent evolution is the process where isolated populations of a species branch out due to
geographical barriers or migration patterns. Many species have differentiated due to change in
geographical conditions or natural selection.

The presence of grizzly bears and polar bears is a clear example of divergent evolution; the latter
equipped for winter conditions while the former hibernates during winter.

Convergent evolution is the process where members of two varying species involve similar
characteristics due to similar environments. This is a species-independent type of evolution, as
demonstrated by the ability for numerous invertebrates such as spiders, weaver ants, and silk moths
to produce silk to capture prey.

Coevolution is the process where the survival of two species is dependent on each other. They are
based on symbiotic relationships such as commensalism, predation, and mutualism.

Hummingbirds and certain types of flowers have evolved this way. The nectar of these flowers have
the nutrients that are suited for the hummingbird’s diet while these birds freely pollinate the plant.

Theories Accounting for the Rate of Evolution

There has been an on-going debate of how fast the process of evolution occurs. They are based on
two theories: gradualism and punctuated equilibrium.

Gradualism is based on the concept of evolutionary changes occurring at slow and gradual
rate over several generations. The most common example of this is the evolution of humans. The
changes in the physiological and physical characteristics of humans were not drastic but took
millions of years.

Punctuated equilibrium is based on the stable genome over successive generations until
a sudden environmental change occurs. One example are the Tyrannosaurus rex or T. rex. When
the dinosaurs were forced to evacuate to smaller areas, a small population were separated. Being
under pressure and separated from a larger gene pool, this led to a rapid evolution.

Both proposed theories are valid. However, there is a lack of substantial evidence to support either
claim.

Try it!
Go to the nearest pond in your community. List down all the possible living organism you can see
with your naked eye. Research and trace their evolutionary relationships.

What do you think?

In general, an area is more prone to environmental damage if it has low biodiversity. How does
having a large biodiversity protect an area from environmental damage?

Key Points
 Evolution is a dynamic process of constant adaptation due to many factors such as
geography and environment, symbiotic relationships , and migration patterns.
 There are two main theories that go hand-in-hand with the evolutionary theory: the theory of
descent with modification, and the theory of natural selection.
 The theory of descent with modification accounts for organisms continuously descending
from ancestors with new modifications.
 The theory of natural selection accounts for the survival of the more evolved and dominant
species.
 There are three mechanisms in which organisms evolve: coevolution, convergent
evolution, and divergent evolution.
 There has been an on-going debate of how fast the process of evolution occurs. They are
based on two theories: gradualism and punctuated equilibrium.

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe how the theory of evolution was used to
come up with a classification scheme and be able to interpret a phylogeny tree.

In the previous lessons, evolution brought living organisms such as humans from single–celled
organisms to complex mammals.

How does the theory of evolution play into all of this?

Phylogenetics deals with the evolutionary history of an organism. We are able to understand how
organisms are related to one another by studying the pieces of evidence such as heritable
characteristics in the DNA sequences and structural features of certain organisms. The role of
studying evolution is crucial to understanding how organisms are grouped together.
Scientists pondered on the similar characteristics found in organisms. For instance, why did different
animals lay eggs and some did not? Why are there fruit-bearing plants, and plants that do not bear
even flowers? From here, organisms that shared certain characteristics were grouped into different
levels of organization.

Carl Woose came up with the three-domain scheme by comparing the sequences of ribosomes
found in the organisms. These evolutionary relationships can then be represented in a diagram
known as an evolutionary tree, or a phylogenetic tree. The overall culmination of analysis can be
mapped out into possible evolutionary roots of certain organisms.

A phylogenetic tree is read from bottom to top, with the bottom-most being the oldest organism while
the top most being relatively newer species. A branch that appears earlier indicates that the group of
organisms appeared earlier than those of later branches.

From this phylogenetic tree, you can see how each organism was able to differentiate and evolve
from their “ancestral chordates”. Each arrow that branches out from a node represents a group of
organisms. Every time an organism is able to differentiate, a new branch is created.

Example
There are several species of organisms in the order Carnivora. We can say that the striped skunk
and the European otter are from the same family, but each have different genus. Furthermore, since
the family of cats, skunks and otters, and wolves and dogs all branched from a single point, we can
say that they have a common ancestor. The common characteristics these animals share is that
they are carnivores.
The seasonal flu is caused by a virus, more specifically the Influenza virus. A phylogenetic tree can
be made possible because this virus carries genetic material that can still be read. However, this is
still an incomplete phylogenetic tree. More and more strains of this flu can appear; hence they cause
major outbreaks such as “bird flu” or “swine flu”.

In order to gain resistance from these diseases, one would need to get a flu shot or vaccination.
Vaccination works because your immune system learns to recognize specific markers (determined
by the genome) on the virus, thus not allowing it to thrive in your system.

Yet unlike chicken pox or measles, a flu shot needs to be periodically updated. Given the number of
strains of the flu virus, can you think of the reason why there is no permanent flu shot?

Try it!
List down all organisms you can find in your community. Try to group organisms that have similar
characteristics. No matter how simple those characteristics may be, list them down.

What do you think?

There are arguments that centralize on organisms that share similar characteristics and with what
DNA sequences and fossil records are able to tell us.

Why do you think different taxonomists have different points to argue?

Key Points
 Phylogenetics is the branch of biology that deals with the evolutionary history of a group of
organisms by studying DNA sequences and morphological features.
 A phylogenetic tree is based on evolutionary changes that have occurred. Branches appear
when an organism successfully develops a new trait compared to its ancestor.
 Groups of organisms that branch from the same node have at least one similar
characteristic. This node denotes the presence of a common ancestor.

Interaction and Interdependence, Earth and Life Science

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe the fundamental principles that govern an
ecosystem.

What are the different principles that govern an ecosystem?

The biotic factors in an ecosystem refer to the living organisms such as bacteria, plants, and
animals. The abiotic factors refer to the non-living things such as soil, climate conditions, and
terrain.

The fundamental principles of the ecosystem include adaptation and behavior, organizational levels,
biodiversity, and energy flow.

Adaptation and Behavior

The environment is constantly changing. Because of its changes, organisms constantly
undergo adaptation — the process of change to accommodate environmental conditions over a
short period of time.

Organisms are capable of adapting due to their behavior. Behavior is an organism’s response to
biotic and abiotic stimuli.

Abiotic factors in the environment which include climatic conditions can influence an organism’s
adaptation and behavior. For instance, certain animals undergo hibernation during the winter
season.

Biotic factors such as availability of prey, or predator-prey relationships can dictate how
organisms interact with each other. For example, when there is limited prey for predators, mass
migratory patterns may occur to ensure their survival.

Example
Birds and monarch butterflies are capable of migration due to their behavior. They can detect
changes in the environment, allowing them to prepare for migration. On the other hand, their
predators will have to adapt to the lack of available food resources.
Organizational Levels
The ecosystem is arranged in various levels. The levels of organization are organized from smallest
to largest.

The first level of organization pertains to an organism, which refers to the individual species.

The second level is the population which refers to a group of organisms of the same species in the
same area. For instance, a population of green sea turtles in Palawan is different from a population
of green sea turtles in Zambales. However, they can be under one population if they are grouped as
a population of green sea turtles in the Philippines.

The third level of organization is the community which involves more than one species or more than
one population. For instance, a live coral houses a community of multiple aquatic organisms. It is
important to note that both population and community levels only refer to biotic factors.

The fourth level of organization is the ecosystem which involves several communities combined
with abiotic factors. For example, an area in Zambales hosts different community of populations
interacting with several factors in the environment.

The last and final level is the biosphere which encompasses all ecosystems. The biosphere is
essentially the surface of the Earth.
Biodiversity
Biodiversity refers to the variability of organisms in an ecosystem. It has three types—species
diversity, genetic diversity, and ecological diversity.

 Species diversity refers to the abundance and number of different species in the same
area. For example, there is an abundance of different bird species in a forest.

 Genetic diversity refers to the variation in the genes within a particular species or within a
population. A very good example is the variability of eye color in humans.

 Ecological diversity refers to the diversity in an ecosystem, habitat, and natural community.
It shows how different species interact with each other and with their environment. It is the
largest type of biodiversity. For instance, the Amazon rainforest differs from the Congo
rainforest based on the different species found in both ecosystems as well as abiotic factors
such as the amount of rainfall. They are both rainforests but have a lot of differences which
make each of them unique.

The illustration below represents the global species diversity of organisms.

Energy Flow
For an organism to survive, it must be able to acquire energy from either the environment or another
organism.

The food chain shows the feeding relationships of organisms and depicts the energy flow in an
ecosystem. It starts in the organisms that are able to produce chemical energy derived from the light
energy of sun. They are called producers which are also known as autotrophs. The organisms that
feed on the producers are called the consumers, also known as heterotrophs. The consumers get
their energy from the producers that they consume.

Consumers are further divided into herbivores that only eat plants, carnivores that only eat other
animals, omnivores that can consume both plants and animals, and decomposers that feed on
dead organic matter and bring the energy back into the food web.

The food web is the sum of food chains and shows multiple pathways of energy flow in an
ecosystem. Just like in the food chain, the energy enters through the producers or autotrophs.

It is important to note that all parts of the food chain, except for the sun, from the producers up to all
types of consumers, release energy as they go about their daily activities.

Explore!
Notice that as one goes up the energy pyramid, the amount of available energy decreases. The
greatest amount of energy are in plants, which are located at the bottommost part. Most of the
energy an organism has is used for metabolic functions and biomass generation. Hence, only about
10% of the original amount of energy is taken by the second-level heterotrophs that will consume the
plants. For the succeeding levels on the energy pyramid, an organism will obtain only an
approximate of 10% of the energy from the previous level.

Given that information, why are there only a few large carnivores on Earth?

Try it!
Try to observe everyday routine activities. Do they coincide with a thriving ecosystem?

What do you think?

What could be the reason why the ecosystem have survived catastrophic events in the past like
major volcanic eruptions and massive floods?

Key Points
 An ecosystem is the interaction of biotic factors with their abiotic environment.
 An organism’s behavior will determine how it can undergo adaptation.
 Biotic factors can be classified into producers (autotrophs) or consumers (heterotrophs).
These organisms can be mapped into an energy pyramid which can show the transition of
nutrients and energy as they go up.
 Energy flow within an ecosystem is represented by food webs. Understanding how energy
flows in an ecosystem is crucial to investigating the quality of an ecosystem.

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe how an ecosystem’s biotic potential and
environmental resistance can affect population growth.

Most of the time, an ecosystem is dependent on the proliferation of keystone species — organisms
that play a crucial role in an ecosystem. However, due to different factors like limited resources, the
ability of how a certain species proliferates is affected.

Biotic Potential
The ability of a population of a particular species to propagate under ideal environmental conditions
— sufficient food supply, no diseases, and no predators, is called biotic potential. There are
primary factors that determine biotic potential: an organism's rate of reproduction and its litter
size — the number of offspring produced at one birth.

The biotic potential among organisms varies from species to species. Similar to humans, many large
mammals produce one offspring per year or breeding season. On the other hand, insects produce
thousands of offspring per year. Therefore, large organisms have relatively lower biotic potential
than smaller organisms.
Examples
On the average, spiders are capable of producing hundreds of offspring at a time, cats and dogs can
produce four to eight offspring at a time, and humans can only produce one to three offspring at a
time. The different biotic potentials of organisms can be attributed to several factors such as survival
rate of their offspring, frequency of reproduction, and reproductive lifespan.

Environmental Resistance and Carrying Capacity

The factors that limit the biotic potential of an organism are called environmental resistance. These
factors include abiotic and biotic factors that limit the organism from endlessly increasing its
population.

Biotic factors include predation, competition, parasitism, and diseases. Abiotic factors include
climatic conditions, fire, and temperature.

Examples of Environmental Resistance

Some of the common examples of environmental resistance include the availability of water and
predator-prey relationship.

 Water is an important resource that producers need for growth. If the producers do not grow
in an ecosystem, then the consumers in such ecosystem cannot be sustained.
 Dynamics of predator-prey populations contribute to environmental resistance. For
instance, if the predator population is low, we can expect that the prey’s population is high.

Biotic potential and environmental resistance affect the carrying capacity, which is defined as the
maximum population of a species an ecosystem can sustain indefinitely without being degraded due
to deterioration and damage.

We can analyse an ecosystem’s carrying capacity through this graph. The carrying capacity is the
portion of the graph in which the population plateaus; this is where the rate at which the replenished
resources of an ecosystem is equal to the number of organisms being born.

If the population exceeds the carrying capacity of its environment, it is called an overshoot. One
reason for the overshoot is when the reproductive lag time — the time it takes for the birth rate to
decrease and the death rate to increase in response to limited resources, takes place. When this
happens, a population can collapse or dieback since there are limited resources and space unless a
large number of individuals migrate to other areas with more favorable conditions. When the
population of the organisms is below the carrying capacity, the available resources are able to
sustain the needs of the population.

Tips
Biotic potential of organisms makes the population increase while environmental resistance limits the
population on growing relentlessly.

Try it!
Research about the carrying capacity in humans. What is the difference in the carrying capacity of
humans with other animals? What are the estimates of human carrying capacity on Earth?

What do you think?

During the 1900s, there were 1.6 billion people on Earth. Today, there are over 7.2 billion people
worldwide. Why do you think the population continues to grow? Is there a limit to the growth of the
population?

Key Points
 Biotic potential refers to the ability of a population of a particular species to propagate
under ideal environmental conditions — sufficient food supply, no diseases, and no
predators.
 There are primary factors that determine biotic potential: an organism's rate of
reproduction and its litter size — the number of offspring produced at one birth.
 Environmental resistance are factors that limit the biotic potential of an organism. It
includes abiotic and biotic factors.
 Carrying capacity is the maximum population of a given species that a certain ecosystem
can sustain indefinitely without being degraded.
 Biotic potential of organisms makes the population increase while environmental resistance
limits the population on growing relentlessly.

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe how the different terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems are interlinked with one another.
How are terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems interlinked with one another? What are some of
the factors that connect these two ecosystems?

An ecosystem is the collection of several communities of living organisms interacting with non-living
things.

Types of Ecosystems
There are two types of ecosystems: terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

Terrestrial ecosystems are ecosystems found only in land; these include tropical rainforests,
deserts, grasslands, deciduous forests, tundra, and taiga.

Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems found in bodies of water; these include lakes, rivers, ponds,
wetlands, oceans, and seas.

The linkages between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems have been established in various
ecosystems.

Factors That Link the Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems

Different habitats of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems are intertwined by the flux of materials within
these ecosystems.

Interaction in Land-Sea Interface

The land-sea interface or coastal ecotone is a major ecosystem where a transition area between
the sea and the shoreline is found. It shows how factors in two ecosystems interact and affect each
other.

1. A food web is formed across the ecotone boundary. Below is an illustration that depicts the
feeding relationships of different organisms within the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. For
instance, humans that live in a terrestrial ecosystem can get their food from a lake where fish
and arthropods reside.

2. Marine subsidies such as decaying animal flesh, detritus (dead organic material), food
scraps, and waste products from animals (sea turtles and seagulls) enter the terrestrial
ecosystem by shoreline drifting.

3. Some mammals worldwide, such as racoons and black bears, intentionally feed on exposed
marine organisms such as crabs, molluscs, and fish.

4. Terrestrial subsidies such as nitrogen, organic carbon, and phosphorus enter the aquatic
ecosystems via rivers.
Emerging Aquatic Insects

Emergent aquatic insects are important food sources for riparian predators - predators that reside
within the riparian zone or the interface between land and a body of water such as a river. Most of
the lifespan of these insects are underwater and emerge as adults to breed and return back into the
water to lay eggs.

One good example of a riparian predator that feed on aquatic insects is the spider. It was studied
that the spiders' biomass are higher and web densities increase near an edge of a stream. When
spiders are far from the stream edge, both biomass and web densities decreased.

Impacts of Anadromous Salmon on Both Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems

Anadromous salmon is a type of salmon that allocate their lives between freshwater and the
ocean. It transports a large amount of nutrients to both aquatic and terrestrial habitats.

Most of its biomass, about 95%, is marine-derived nutrients (MDN). The nutrients that salmon
provide to aquatic ecosystems are advantageous to marine organisms, such as other kinds of fish
and invertebrates, as well as to riparian zones.

The benefit of these migrating salmon extends up to terrestrial ecosystems. Terrestrial ecosystems
increase fish survival by providing shade, cover and even nutrients. In return, these salmon return to
these areas to reproduce and deposit nutrients. These nutrients enter the trophic system, from an
aquatic ecosystem to terrestrial ecosystem by directly consuming the flesh and eggs or indirectly
through dissolved nutrients.

Try it!
Research about the different manmade activities that have effects on both terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems.

What do you think?

Human activities have greatly catalysed our progress as a species at the expense of these
ecosystems. What can be done in order to sustain our environment while progressing at the same
time?

Key Points
 An ecosystem is the collection of several communities of living organisms interacting with
non-living things.
 There are two types of ecosystems: terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
 Terrestrial ecosystems are ecosystems found only in land; these include tropical
rainforests, deserts, grasslands, deciduous forests, tundra, and taiga.
 Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems found in bodies of water; these include lakes, rivers,
ponds, wetlands, oceans, and seas.
 The linkages between terrestrial-aquatic ecosystems have been established in various
ecosystems.
 The land-sea interface or coastal ecotone is a major ecosystem where a transition area
between the body of water and the shoreline is found. It shows how factors in two
ecosystems interact and affect each other.
 Emergent aquatic insects are important food sources for riparian predators - predators that
reside within the riparian zone or the interface between land and a body of water such as a
river.
 Anadromous salmon has an impact on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems by transporting a
huge amount of nutrients to both aquatic and terrestrial habitats.