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All constituents of the universe can be described in terms of

movement of energy. Energy is an abstract notion which indicates the
presence of disturbances in the universe.
Mass contains energy according to E=m c2. All fields, electromagnetic,
gravitational, contribute energy.
Energy moves through spacetime analogously to a fluid (caloric
theory lives…).
Consider a cell on the trajectory of a moving mass. In a 2d spacetime
xt energy can pass through four walls, two for each coordinate
(doesn’t this entail that energy can move backwards in time?).
However if energy enters one side it must exit the opposite side, so
only two sides are needed to describe the flux (flow) of energy.
If the mass is motionless in space, energy flows only across the
surface associated with time. If the mass moves in space, both time
and space surfaces will be crossed by energy flux. These fluxes are
represented by vectors, each with an x and a t component,

v t=T tt +T tx

v x =T xt +T xx

. These components are organised into the energy momentum tensor.

1
 T tx=
[ T tt T tx
T xt T xx ]
the energy density, is the amount of energy travelling through time,
T tt
how much energy crosses the point moving towards the future,
increasing with quantity of energy.
the momentum density, gives the amount of energy travelling
T tx=T xt
through space over time. This is momentum, transport of spatial
motion over time, increasing with speed of transfer of energy through
space.
is pressure, how much motion through space is transferred through
T xx
space, or the tendency of the energy to push in one direction.
In a 4D universe, the tensor contains 16 components.

[ ]
T tt T tx T ty T tz
T T xx T xy T xz
T μν = xt
T yt T yx T yy T yz
T zt T zx T zy T zz

T tt energy density
T xx T yy T zz pressure
T tx T ty T tz T xt T yt T zt momentum density
viscosity, the tendency that energy has to transfer its
T xy T xz T yz T yx T zx T zy
motion to its surroundings (dragalong).
All these components depend on the coordinates used. Motion os
relative to the point of view from which it is observed.
Example: in an empty spacetime. Given a point crossed by no energy,
all the components of the energy momentum tensor are zero.

[ ]
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
T μν =
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

This approximates the condition of small masses in isolation or

relative to very large masses.
2
Example: Consider a small mass inside a star. The energy momentum
tensor of the small mass is not zero because it is not in a vacuum; we
must consider the matter of the star. If we assume the star to consist of
a perfect fluid without viscosity, in a state of equilibrium (i.e. in a
stable state with no internal forces causing changes in its motion or
temperature distribution), the tensor contains only an energy density d
related to the mass of the star, and a pressure p directed outwards
which prevents the star from collapsing in on itself.

[ ]
d 0 0 0
0 px 0 0
T μν =
0 0 py 0
0 0 0 pz

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The Einstein Equation relates the geometry of the universe, described
by g μν, Γ αμν, Rαμνβ, R μν and R, with the energy content of the universe,
described by T μν . The equation has the usual form
1 8 πG
R μν − R g μν = 4 T μν .
2 c

This cannot be proved in terms of what has gone before, but is

inferred from and tested against observation. It is very difficult to
solve indeed, necessitating assumptions and approximations.
Equivalently, in a 4D spacetime, there is a symmetry between
curvature and content that allows us to rewrite the Einstein equation
as

4
1 c
T μν − T g μν = R μν .
2 8 πG

Example: an exact solution in an empty universe. A spherical static

body of mass M. The geometry of spacetime at a point in the vacuum
outside the object shall be described by time coordinate t and
3
spherical spatial coordinates ( r , θ , ϕ ), with the origin at the centre of the
mass. At the point, T μν =0 (due to its location in a vacuum), and hence
4
c
0−0= R μν ⇒ R μν =0.
8 πG

Under these circumstances,

[ ]
t r θ ϕ
2Gm
c 2− 0 0 0
r
−1
0 0 0
g μν = 2 Gm
1−
r c2
0 0 −r 2 0
0 0 0 −r sin2 θ
2

This is the Schwarzschild metric which depends on the mass of the

object. Where m=0 we recover the Minkowski metric for an empty
spacetime,

[ ]
2
c 0 0 0
0 −1 0 0
g μν= 2
0 0 −r 0
2 2
0 0 0 −r sin θ

Near a massive body, the Schwarzschild metric indicates that

spacetime is curved, and that the nearer we get to the centre of the
mass (r → 0) the greater this curvature becomes. Inside the mass the
Schwarzsild metric is no longer valid.
Given a sufficiently dense and compact object, such as the singularity
at the centre of a black hole, it is possible to approach the centre of
2 Gm
mass. At distance r = c
2 , the time coordinate becomes zero, time
being infinitely “stretched out”. This is a point of no return, the

4
Schwarzschild radius at which the Event Horizon of the black hole is
found.

[ ]
0 0 0 0
0 Und . 0 0

( )
2
2Gm
g μν= 0 0 − 2
0
c

( )
2
2 Gm
0 0 0 − 2
sin2 θ
c

Noter that the coordinate system cannot be used at or beyond the

boundary due to the singularity produced in the r coordinate,
1 1 1
r= = = , undefined
2 Gm c 2Gm 0
2
1− 2 1−
rc 2 Gm c 2

A change of coordinates to e.g. Kruskal-Szekeres coordinates, is

required to show that the Schwarzschild radius is a regular point in
spacetime.

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The steps taken in solving a problem in general relativity.
1. What spacetime geometry is involved? Which metric is to be used?
In an empty spacetime, Minkowski metric, around a spherical static
mass the Schwarzschild metric. There are others.
2. What coordinates should be used? The Minkowski is usually
expressed with Cartesian coordinates. The Schwarzschild metric uses
spherical coordinates.
3. What symmetries are in the problem? This reduces its number of
dimensions. E. g. A mass falling in a gravitational field has one
dimension, the trajectory of fall, with motion in the other two
dimensions symmetrically zero. Or e.g. the orbit of a mass around a
5
star is symmetrically confined to a plane, so only two dimensions are
required.
4. Solve the problem. To find the components of a velocity through
spacetime we use the fact that ‖v‖=c , giving a equation frealti8ng the
components of the velocity to each other. To find how a mass
accelerates we find the Christoffel symbols, so we may use the
geodesic equation.
E.g. 1 Time dilation.
Find the time dilation for an astronaut in a space station. Earth is a
sphere and its rotation is slow compared to lightspeed c . Therefore
spacetime outside the planet is modelled by the Schwarzschild metric.
(In what sense is time outside the planet? Something to think about.)

[ ]
2 2Gm
c− 0 0 0
r
−1
0 0 0
g μν= 2 Gm
1−
r c2
2
0 0 −r 0
2 2
0 0 0 −r sin θ

We will use spherical coordinates measured from infinity, so time is

relative to our clock, altitude r is measured from the centre of the
Earth, and angular displacement is θ south and ϕ east.
Now simplifying the metric using symmetries: assume the station
follows a plane circle around the Earth, so θ is not needed, at constant
altitude so r is not needed. This takes away the rows and columns for
r and θ from the tensor, and reduces the metric to those dealing with t
and ϕ .

[ ]
2 Gm
[ ]
2
gtt gtϕ c− 0
g μν= = r
gϕt gϕϕ 2
0 −r

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That is, only two numbers, t and ϕ are needed to describe the position
of the astronauts in spactime.
The time dilation factor is the ratio of the astronaut’s proper time t to
our proper time t , and hence is the time component of the astronaut’s
spacetime velocity v t.
Now we can use the fact that the norm of the velocity vector is always
equal to c . This norm is found using the metric tensor,
2
‖v‖ =g μν v μ v ν =c 2
2
‖v‖ =g tt v t v t + g tϕ v t v ϕ + g ϕt v ϕ v t + g ϕϕ v ϕ v ϕ=c2

(
⇒ c 2−
r )
2Gm t t
v v +0 × v t v ϕ + 0× v ϕ v t + (−r 2 ) v ϕ v ϕ=c 2

⇒ (c −
r )
2Gm t 2 ϕ 2
2
( v ) −r ( v ) =c 2 2

This directly relates the two components of the velocity, the temporal
v and the angular v . Solving for v ,
t ϕ t

√
2
tc 2+ r 2 ( v ϕ )
v=
2Gm
c 2−
r

And using the fact that the orbital velocity is equal to the anmgular
velocity times altitude v=r v ϕ , we obtain the time dilation undergone by
the astronaut compared to a distant observer,

√
2 2
t c +v
v=
2GM
c 2−
r

For the International Space Station,

6
r ≈ 6.78 ×10 m

8 m
c ≈ 3.00× 10
s
3
M ≈5.97 × 10 kg

7
 3 m
v ≈ 7.66 ×10
s
3
11 m
G ≈ 6.67 ×10 2
kg . s

√
2 2
t ( 3.00 ×108 m / s ) + ( 7.66× 103 )
v=
2 ( 6.67 ×10 ) ( 5.97 ×10 )
11 3
2
( 3.00 ×108 m / s ) − 6
6.78 ×10

¿ 1.000000001

Example 2 Acceleration of a satellite during a vertical fall into the

Sun. Let the Sun be spherical and static, and so described by the
Schwarzschild metric. Again spherical coordinates measured from
infinity, so time is relative to our clock, altitude r is measured from
the centre of the Sun, and angular displacement is θ south and ϕ east.
Symmetry: given a straight fall, θ and ϕ don’t vary and these rows and
columns can be excluded from the metric,

[ ]
2 2Gm
c− 0
r
g μν= −1
0
2 Gm
1−
r c2

The Christoffel symbols are

t r r t
Γ tt =Γ tr =Γ rt =Γ rr =0

r
Γ tt =
2 Gm
r
2 (
1−
2 Gm
rc
2 )
( )
Gm 1
Γ ttr =Γ trt =
r c 1− 2 Gm
2 2

2
rc

( )
−Gm 1
Γ rrr =
r c 1− 2 Gm
2 2

2
rc

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These are substituted into the geodesic equation, giving the temporal
acceleration,

( )
t
∂ v −Gm 1
= 2 2 vt v r
∂τ r c 1− 2Gm
2
rc

and its radial acceleration,

( ) ( )
r
∂ v −2 Gm 2Gm t 2 Gm 1 2
= 1− (v ) + 2 2 ( vr )
∂τ r 2
rc 2
r c 1− 2 Gm
2
rc

If we consider the behaviour of the satellite at a given height, i.e. at a

fixed radius, radial velocity and therefore radial acceleration is zero.
Therefore rewriting the temporal acceleration

( )
t
∂v 2 Gm −Gm t r
1− 2
= 2 2 v v
∂τ rc r c

With r constant ⇒ v r we can obtain

( )
t
∂v 2 Gm
1− 2
=0
∂τ rc

which indicates the conservation of a quantity ( 1−

rc )
2 Gm t
2
v which is
proportional to energy,

E=m c 1−
2
( 2 Gm t
rc
2 )
v

Therefore in the Schwarzschild metric, the energy of the satellite

depends on its altitude and its motion through time.

Exercise 2
r
d v −GM
Given that ‖v 2‖=c 2, recover Newtonian gravity dτ
= 2
r
from the
above.
We use the 2nd geodesic equation :

9
 r 2
(v )
d vr
dτ ( )(
GM
=− 2
r
1−
rc
2 ) ( )
2 GM t 2 GM
(v ) + 2 2
r c ( 1−2 GM / r c 2 )

And the norm of the velocity vector:

‖v‖=g μν v μ v ν =gtt v t v t + grr v r v r

2
‖v‖ = c 2− ( r )
2 GM t 2
(v ) −
1−
1
2GM
(vr )
2

2
rc

We identify that
2
(v r)
d vr
dτ ( )(
GM
=− 2
r
1−
r c2
v ) ( )
2 GM t 2 GM
( ) +
r 2 c 2 ( 1−2 GM / r c 2 )

( )[ ( ]
2
( vr )
GM
¿− 2 2 c 2 1−
r c
2GM ( t )2
r c2
v −
)
( 1−2 GM / r c2 )

( GM ) (
[ )
]
2 GM 1 t 2 r 2
¿− c− (v ) −
2
(v )
2
r c 2
r 2 GM
1−
r c2

And the square-bracketted term is the norm of the velocity ‖v‖2,

d v −( GM / r )‖v‖
r 2 2
=
dτ c2

and since ‖v 2‖=c 2, we obtain the desired result:

r
d v −GM
= 2
dτ r

10
 0
R000
0
R001
0
R010
0
R011
0
R100
0
R101
0
R110
0
R111
1
R000
1
R001
1
R010
1
R011
1
R100
1
R101
1
R110
1
R111

Time travel is not a matter of energy. Energy and time are

complements in action and therefore in a relationship of heisenberg
uncertainty. I don't care how many lightning bolts you use, if you
know your energy requirements exactly, then you cannot choose a
particular time.
force is that which diverts motion from time into space. What is the
temporal equivalent of momentum? There is that which happened at
The Big Bang which continues to drive us through space-time at the
speed of light.

11
But then why the consistency of the speed of light? Bear in mind it
relates to the permittivity and permeability of space-time. Just as
LIGHT is an electromagnetic phenomenon so must motion in time B.
Motion through space-time at the speed of light is a characteristic of
all things as intrinsic as space-time itself.

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