Hardware 3.

1: Computer Architecture

3.1: Computer Architecture

Von Neumann Architecture
Stored program computer:
• The idea is to hold programs
and data in memory.
Data would then be moved
between the memory unit and the
processor.
Features of Von Neumann
Architecture
 Concept of CPU
 CPU was able to access the memory directly.
 Computer memories could store program as well as data
 Stored programs were made up of instructions which could be executed in
sequential order.
Components of Von Neumann
Architecture
 Control Unit
 Arithmetic Logic Unit
 System Clocks
 Registers (CIR, ACC, MAR,MDR,PC)
 Memory registers (Memory
address, memory data, buffer
register)
 System buses (Address bus, Data
bus, Control Bus)
 Input Output Devices
Central Processing Unit
 Installed as an IC or single microchip in computers.
 Responsible of execution of all the instructions.
 Components of CPU are:

ALU  Allows required Arithmetic (+,-,shifting) & Logic (AND, OR etc)

operations.

CU  Reads instruction from memory

 The CU ensures the synchronization of data flow & program
instructions throughout the computer.

SYSTEM  Produce timing signals on control bus to ensure this vital

CLOCK synchronization takes place.

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 Looking at Von Neumann Architecture, idea of addresses and registers comes in

our mind
 Address are: where the data is stored (each address is unique)
 Registers are: high speed storage within the compter (needed so that data can
be manipulated in computer).
 Registers can be general purpose & specific purpose :

REGIST
ABBREVIATION DEFINITION
ER

Current
Stores the instruction the CPU is currently
CIR instruction
decoding or executing
register

Memory address Stores the Address of the instruction, copy it,

MAR
register and sends it to MDR

Memory data Stores the Data from the address received from
MDR
register the MAR and sends data to CIR

Stores the address of the next instruction to be

PC Program counter
fetched from memory

ACC Accumulator During calculations, data is temporarily held in it

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Memory
 Computer memory unit is made up of number of partitions. Each
partition contains address and its content.
 For example, in this figure: 8 bit address(location)
 and 8 bit of its content(binary value of data)

Fetch decode execute:

To carry out a set of instructions, the CPU first of all fetches some data and
instructions from memory and stores them in suitable registers. Both the address
bus and data bus are used in this process. Once this is done, each instruction needs
to be decoded before finally being executed. This is all known as the “Fetch–
Decode–Execute cycle”.

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Core, Cache & Internal Clocks:

 Factors that effect the performance of CPU:
 System Clock: clock defines the clock cycle that synchronizes all computer
operations. By increasing clock speed, processing speed of computer is also
increased. (typically 3.5 GHz or 3.5 billion clock cycles in a sec).
Clock speed can be changed in BIOS settings.
 Width of Address bus & Data bus
 Over locking
 Use of Cache (memory inside CPU)

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 Use of Different number of Cores (1 core= ALU+CU+ registers)

Instruction Set:
 Instructions: set of operations which are decoded in sequence.
 Instruction sets are low-level language instructions that instruct the CPU how to
carry an operation.
 Each operation will instruct the ALU &CU.
 An operation is made up of opcode & operand.
 Opcode: operation needs to be done.
 Operand: the data needs to be acted on.
 Since the computer needs to understand the operation to be carried out, There is
limited number of opcodes that can be used; this is called Instruction Set.
 All software running on computer will contain a set of instructions.
 One example of instruction set is x86, A common CPU standard used in many
computers.
 For Example, Intel, Pentium & AMD Athlon CPUs use identical x86 Instruction sets
even though they adopt their own electronic designs.

Embedded Systems

 Combination of hardware & software which is designed to carry out a specific set
of functions. The hardware is electronic, electrical or electro-mechanical.
Embedded systems can be based on:
 Microcontrollers
 Microprocessors
 System on Chips (SoC)

Microcontrollers:
This has a CPU along with RAM & ROM and other peripherals all embedded onto a
single chip. (Together they carry out a specific task)

Microprocessor
Integrated circuit which only has a CPU on the chip. (There is no RAM, ROM or
Peripherals- need to be added)

SoC
This may contain a microcontroller as one of its components. (Include CPU, memory,
I/O ports, and secondary storage on single chip)

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An embedded system will have a specific set of tasks as summarized in

the figure:
 Input from any operator (e.g take manual i/p temperature using keypad) or from
sensor.
 Output: carrying out functions of embedded system by sending the signals to
components that are being controlled.
 Embedded systems are either programmable or non-programmable.
 Non-programmable devices: Needs to be replaced if they require a software
upgrade
 Programmable devices: Permit upgrading by 2 methods:
1. connecting the device to a computer and allowing the download of
updates to the software (for example, this is used to update the maps on
a GPS system used in a vehicle)
2. Automatic updates via a Wi-Fi, satellite or cellular (mobile phone network)
link (for example, many modern cars allow updates to engine
management systems and other components via satellite link).
With Internet Connectivity:
It is possible to control them using a smartphone or computer.
Example: Central Heating Systems: To switch ON or OFF while away from
home.

Motor Vehicles:
It has many parts that rely on embedded systems to function correctly,
For example,
GPS System, In-car entertainment system, Airbags, Fuel Injection System,
Traction Control, ABS Braking and many more.

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Setup Box:
 For recording or playback of TV programs. This can be operated remotely by
user when not at home using internet-enabled device or by using the
interface panel when at home.
 Inputs from:
o SSD (where TV programs are stored).
o Satellite (where it will be necessary to decode the incoming signal).

Security system:
 Security code is set in RAM.
 Alarm is activated or deactivated using keypad.
 Data from sensors is sent to controller, that checks against values stored on
SSD.
 Output can be a signal to flashlights, sound an alarm or send a message to
home owner via mobile phone.

Lighting System:
 The system controls lighting by considering:
o The time of day/day of the week (in an office environment since energy
is saved if system switched to low lighting levels when unoccupied)
o Whether the room is occupied (Correct lighting level will be restored)
o The brightness of the natural light (If brightness is high, the system
coulkd automatically dims the light).
 Controls the lighting using Inputs like light sensor and key data stored in
memory.

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 These can also be used to trigger emergency lighting in. For example, Some
lighting systems use Bluetooth light bulbs that control each bulb
independently.

Vending System:
 Use microcontrollers to control number of functions .
 Input from keypad (item selection) and sensors (to count coins inserted by
customer, temp inside machine and a tilt sensor for security purpose)
 Outputs are:
1. Actuators: To operate motors, that drive helixes to give customer
their selected item
2. Signals: To operate cooling system if temp is high
3. LCD Display panel: For item description and any change due
4. Data: Sent back to machine company, so that they can remotely
check sales activity

Advantages and disadvantages of using Embedded Systems:

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