Hardware
Hardware
Processor: The processor contains the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
Control Unit: The control unit controls the operation of the memory,
Arithmetic Logic Unit: Carries out the logic system like calculations
System Clock: The system clock is used to produce timing signals on the
control bus
Busses: Carry data through components. The following are its types.
Immediate Access Store: Stores the instructions that are to be processed, which
REGIST
ABBREVIATION DEFINITION
ER
Current instruction Stores the instruction the CPU is currently
CIR
register decoding or executing
MAR Memory address Stores the Address of the instruction, copy
REGIST
ABBREVIATION DEFINITION
ER
register it, and sends it to MDR
Memory data Stores the Data from the address received
MDR
register from the MAR and sends data to CIR
Stores the address of the next instruction
PC Program counter
to be fetched from memory
During calculations, data is temporarily
ACC Accumulator
held in it
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
be fetched
Memory Concept
MEMORY CONTEN
LOCATION T
0101011
10101010
0
Instruction Set:
An instruction set is a list of all the commands that a CPU can process, and the
The clock defines the clock cycle that synchronises all computer operations. By
however.
Overclocking
Using a clock speed higher than the computer was designed for.
The wider the data buses, the better the performance of the computer
Cache
-- stores frequently used instructions and data that need to be accessed faster,
The larger the cache memory size, the better the CPU performance
Cores
The more cores in the CPU, the better and faster the performance
But if any number of cores are used, it could possibly slow down the system
the data cables between each. Which in turn reduces the potential system
performance.
You might have heard about quad and dual cores, not septa or octa cores.
Input Devices
Two-dimensional Scanners:
The image is converted into an electronic form, which can be stored in the
computer
If the original document was a photo/image, then the scanned image forms
Three-dimensional Scanners
light)
Make use of (OCR) to produce digital images which represent the passport
pages
The 2D photograph in the passport is also scanned and stored as jpeg image
The passenger’s face is also photographed using a digital camera and
Key parts of the face are compared (distance between eyes, width of nose)
Barcode readers/scanners
The left and right-hand sides of the barcode are separate using guard bars
o Light is reflected off the barcode; dark areas reflect little light, which
Advantages of QR codes:
Digital Cameras
cell
Keyboards
Each character has an ASCII value and is converted into a digital signal
Slow method
Prone to errors
Pointing devices
Mouse/trackball
Microphones
electric signal
The signal goes to a sound card and is converted into digital values and
stored in a computer
Touchscreens
board microprocessor
Resistive (inexpensive)
o When the top polyester is touched, the top layer and bottom layer
complete a circuit
Sensors
electric pulses.
environment.
o Humidity - This sensor measures the water vapour in the air or any
sample.
object.
o Moisture - This type of sensor detects the water content wherever this
o Proximity - This sensor detects the nearby objects around the sensor
o Temperature - These sensors measure the temperature of the
environment.
(Note: You do not need to know the working principle of the sensor. But have
o Lamp switched on
Output Devices
Inkjet Printers
Data is sent to the printer and stored in a temporary memory (printer buffer)
A sheet of paper is fed; the sensor detects if the paper is available in the
paper tray
The print head moves across paper printing text/image, four ink colours
Once it is done, the printer sends an interrupt to the processor (request for
Laser Printers
Use dry powder ink (toner) and static electricity to produce text and images
2. The printing drum is given a positive charge; as the drum rotates, a laser
beam is scanned across it; removing the positive charge leaves negatively
3. The drum is then coated with positively charged toner; it only sticks to
5. The toner on the drum now sticks to the paper to produce a copy of the page
6. Paper finally goes through a fuser (set of heated rollers); heat melts the ink
so it is permanent
7. The discharge lamp removes all electric charge from the drum, ready to print
3D Printers
2D and 3D Cutters
Actuators
Used in many control applications involving sensors and devices (ADC and
DAC)
Loudspeakers/Headphones
Sound is produced by passing the digital data through a DAC, then through
frequencies
The front layer of the monitor is made up of Liquid Crystal Display (LCD);
these tiny diodes are grouped in threes as pixels (LCD doesn’t emit any light)
LCD monitors are backlit using Light Emitting Diode (LED) because:
o LEDs sharpen image (higher resolution), and CCFL has a yellow tint
light source
Light Projectors:
o LCD Projector
screens/interactive whiteboards
the number of micromirrors and the way they are arranged on the DLP chip
When the micromirrors tilt towards the light source they are on
When the micromirrors tilt away from the light source, they are off
A bright white light source passes through a colour filter on its way to the
DLP chip
LCD Projectors
These three different lights pass through three LCD screens; these screens
When the coloured light passes through the LCD screens, a red, green and
Finally, the image passes through the projector lens onto the screen
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
HDD, SSD, DVD, memory stick, and Blu-ray disc are some examples
Primary Memory:
RAM is used by a system when it needs to store and access data that is
o It can be written to or read from, and the contents of the memory can
be changed
The larger the size of the RAM, the faster the computer will operate
As RAM becomes full, the processor has to access the continually hard drive
Virtual memory
management; thus, the system has a high chance of crashing. This is why
The virtual memory can be either HDD or SSD (these storages are discussed
below)
You may be expected to draw a diagram like the above.
o They can be larger than the physical memory provided in the RAM.
Features of ROM
turned off)
Secondary Storage:
(platter)
A number of read/write heads can access all of the surfaces of the disk
Each platter will have two surfaces which can be used to store the data
Data is stored on the surfaces in sectors and tracks
There are no moving parts, and all data is received at the same time (not
like HDD)
1s and 0s
o Very thin
Off-Line Storage:
CD/DVD Disks
Laser (red) light is used to read and write data on the surface of the disk.
Both systems use a single spiral track that runs from the centre of the disk to
the edge
DVD uses Dual-Layering, which increases the storage capacity (two
Blu-ray Disks
The wavelength of laser light is less than CD and DVD (stores up to five
infringement)
Cloud Storage:
servers
The same data is stored on more than one server in case of maintenance or
repair, allowing clients to access data at any time. This is known as data
redundancy.
data resides in the private cloud, and less sensitive/less commercial data can
Embedded System
A combination of hardware and software is designed to carry out a specific
set of tasks.
chip
memory
o Input from the user is sent to the microprocessor (ADC needed if the
data is analogue)
output
update.
Advantages Disadvantages
Small in size, therefore can
Can be difficult to upgrade
easily fit into devices
Low cost to make The interface can be confusing sometimes
Requires very little power Troubleshooting is a specialist’s job
Very fast reaction to changing Often thrown away as difficult to upgrade
input and faults are harder to find
Dedicated to one task only Increased garbage as they are thrown away
Can be controlled remotely Any computerised system is prone to attacks
Applications of Embedded devices
o GPS systems
o Security Systems
o Vending Machines
o Washing Machines
o Oven
o Microwave
Network Hardware
Network Interface Card (NIC)
A MAC address comprises 48 bits which are shown as six groups of hexadecimal
digits. The first six display the manufacturer’s code, and the second half shows the
These do not change and are primarily constant for every device
there are two types of MAC addresses: the Universally Administered MAC
The only difference between the two types is that UAA is made Universally and
IP Addresses
IP address allocation:
Static IP addresses:
Dynamic IP addresses:
Protocol) server.
o Changes periodically or when the device connects to a different
network.
192.168.0.1).
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
o Address format: IPv4 uses a 32-bit address, while IPv6 uses a 128-bit
address.
autoconfiguration.
Routers
Router functionality:
o A router is a networking device that directs data packets between
different networks.
o It uses routing tables to determine the next hop or the next router on
o The router forwards the data packet to the appropriate next hop.
connected devices.
network management.
internet.
network.
o The router receives data packets from devices on the local network