THESIS

CODE-SWITCHING IN FILIPINO NEWSPAPERS:

EXPANSION OF LANGUAGE, CULTURE AND IDENTITY

Submitted by

Clark Erwin-Billones

Department of English

In partial fulfillment of the requirements

For the Degree of Master of Arts

Colorado State University

Fort Collins, Colorado

Spring 2012

Master’s Committee:

Advisor: Doug Flahive

Eric Aoki
Fabiola Ehlers-Zavala
 UMI Number: 1510983

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 ABSTRACT

CODE-SWITCHING IN FILIPINO NEWSPAPERS:

EXPANSION OF LANGUAGE, CULTURE AND IDENTITY

This research investigates code-switching beginning with a global, sociolingustic

perspective of borrowed words and narrows down to a detailed examination of insertional code-

switching in formal settings. The data were obtained by selecting and subsequently scanning

English news articles from Philippines’ printed newspapers which built evidence for which types

of terms are substituted for English. The corpus was examined for identifiable patterns of code-

switched lexical items from Tagalog and Cebuano/Visaya, two of the largest spoken languages in

the Philippines. A significant presence of code-switching extends the phenomena from a

bilingual, substitutional tool into a creative linguistic process that reinforces a growing global

language identity out of multiple language speakers in a world of shifting nationalities and

boundaries.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………................ii

Chapter One: Introduction………………………….……………………………………………..1

Chapter Two: Literature Review………………………………………………………………...13

Global English………………………………………………………………………................13

Linguistic Anthropology and Sociolinguistic Theories…..…………………………................19

Historical Basis of English in the Philippines………………………………………………….25

Code-switching…………………………………………………………….…………………..30

Chapter Three: Method…………………………………………………………………………..49

Purpose………………………………………………………………………………………....49

Materials……………………………………………………………………………………….50

Data Collection………………………………………………………………………...............54

Procedure……………………………………………………………………………................55

Summary……………………………………………………………………………………….56

Chapter Four: Results…………………………………………………………………................57

Descriptive Statistics…………………………………………………………………………..58

Discussion of the Results………………………………………………………………………62

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………..64

Chapter Five: Conclusion………………………………………………………………………..65

Research Hypotheses………………………………………………………………………….67

Chapter Organization………………………………………………………………………….67

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 Pedagogical Implications……………………………………………………………………....69

Study Contributions…………………………………………………………………………....70

References..………………………………………………………………………………………73

Appendix A……………………………………………………………………………………....78

Appendix B………………………………………………………………………………………79

Appendix C………………………………………………………………………………………80

Appendix D……………………………………………………………………………………....81

Appendix E...…………………………………………………………………………………….82

Appendix F………………………………………………………………………………………83

Appendix G……………………………………………………………………………................84

Appendix H...…………………………………………………………………………………….85

Appendix I……………………………………………………………………………………….86

Appendix J….……………………………………………………………………………………87

Appendix K……………………………………………………………………………................88

Appendix L..……………………………………………………………………………………..89

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 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

The globalization of English continues to develop in a multitude of

communication and commerce settings. Professionals around the globe now teach, sell, buy and

promote their goods and services in English in an expanding economy available instantaneously

from a location half way around the world. Global business plans export marketing campaigns as

well as manage foreign factories and customer service centers thousands of miles from their

originating locations. With an increase in access to travel, business expectations and

technological gains in the last quarter century have made almost any product or service available

globally. Bhatia & Baumgardner (2008) reported, “the new world economy rests largely on

global bazaars, the global shopping mall, the global workplace, and the global financial network.

English is no doubt the chosen language in these four aspects of the new economic order” (p.

393).

English serves as a conduit language for much of the business and economic growth

contracted among nations and foreign companies. Much of the global English used in business

has been encouraged by the Internet’s US origins which created an English-only medium and

spurred an information system based on English as a lingua franca (Crystal, 2006). However,

since the Internet’s development, many languages have created a web-based presence, albeit a

small one. Crystal, an authority on language, states, “ until a critical mass of Internet penetration

in a country builds up, and a corresponding mass of content exists in the local language, the

motivation to switch from English-language sites will be limited to those for whom issues of

identity outweigh issues of information” (p.233). The strong interdependence between

technology and language sets a standard for academics, research and development. Within the

fields of science and technology the language of its technical materials and manuals builds

1
momentum to create more. Thus, identity and its impact on the future direction of science and

technology development relates to the personal and cultural beginnings of language. The

presentation of cultural identity and its connection to language will be expanded in Chapter Two.

The upsurge of English in business, science and technology created an increase in the

popularity of English language learning and teaching abroad. Motivated young students and

working adults searching for a better quality of life sought out English schools and products to

help improve their English as a Second or Foreign Language skills in hopes of obtaining better

working conditions and/or an increase in salary. Pennycook stated, “English is all too often

assumed to be a language that holds out promise of social and economic development to all who

learn it, a language of equal opportunity, a language that the world needs in order to be able to

communicate” (2010, p.116). As controversial as the expanding reach of English is, the utility of

it has further raised its status in many parts of the world and likewise fostered high rates of

English development and interest.

Global English is a term often used to describe English’s ability to assert itself around the

world in business, academia and through mass media. Sonntag, a political ethnographic

researcher, stated, “this period of change in the mid-1970s is frequently dated by globalization

scholars as the emergence of the current phase of globalization” (2003, p. 5). And since that

time, the economic lure of global English promotes much debate among non-English speaking

nations in terms of their commitment to furthering English as a lingua franca. Kirkpatrick, an

international linguist, stated that, “it is assumed that countries need English in order to modernize

and to participate in and to benefit from globalization” (2010, p. 169).

Global English, or any other chosen lingua franca, operates as an opportunistic language

that increases communication and commercial access across nations and cultures. However, the

2
expense of local language literacy and an overall decline in the numbers of the world’s languages

could be at stake. The rising interest in English and its global connections of rising incomes is

luring interest away from learning indigenous languages and turning increased attention toward

English (Kachru, 2008). In multiple regions around the world, expenses paid toward the learning

of English can result in entrance to a prestigious college or the ability to get a job. Global

English and its potential opposition to local language literacy will be expanded on in Chapter

Two along with English’s ability to affect global change on a political scale.

With an increasing amount of English being spoken around the globe for a multitude of

purposes, it is natural that an expansion of English variations and language mixing also followed.

These new blends of languages that mix English and other languages together encourage the

necessity of creating functional communication among multilingual speakers and in many

locations bridge a gap in communication and local understanding across local borders and distant

nations. As a result, English has been adopted into locally spoken languages as a way of blending

cultures and identities across linguistic mediums. As English teaching and learning occurs at

more localized levels, English language learners (ELLs) have become more adept at using both

English words and grammar and incorporating them into their repertoire of speech. One benefit

of increased language abilities associated with learning English can lead to a more neutral

medium of communication. In some cases where English has become a third party language

between conflicting groups’ negotiations, the uncharged third language, and in this case English,

has resulted in a diffusion of potential conflicts and contributed to successful negotiations (Ha,

2008).

This is especially true in regions of the world where multiple languages are already in

play across geographical and commercial boundaries in the social structure of communication.

3
An important issue arising with the introduction of another language to a community or region

over time is language shift, or the move from speaking one language to substituting it with

another. Noting that language preference can change as well as the utility and status of speaking

that language, Canagarajah (2008) stated that, “community members are troubled by a distinct

language shift toward English and a dramatic decline of Tamil in the diaspora in the U.S.A.,

U.K. and Canada” (p. 145). Although this present research study does not focus on language

shift and instead concentrates on code-switching and issues of language-mixing, the complexity

of language shift is a topic of interest and should not be ignored.

The consequences of language shift toward English and other trends that favor English

over native languages like those mentioned earlier are important issues affecting language choice

around the world. Heller, whose work on globalization and the corresponding commodification

of language, stated, “What we are seeing then is a shift from understanding language as being

primarily a marker of ethnonational identity, to understanding language as being a marketable

commodity on its own, distinct from identity” (2003). In this case, English becomes a medium of

communication around the world in regions where the global market and economic potential

creates a niche for an international language. More information on Heller’s theories involving the

globalization of English and how it affects identity acquisition will be presented in Chapter Two.

Identity, culture and language are intertwined on many levels and their interrelationship

reinforces deep connections on personal, social and global scales. With so many interconnections

between language and a way of life, how does the addition of learning language(s), aside from a

person’s native language, alter one’s identity in the broader sense of culture and society? And

how does code-switching relate to this concept and/or expand it? Multilingual speakers must

move between multiple metacognitive processes, languages and contexts every day to maintain

4
their skills and cultural understanding of what they are speaking about and how they are using

language.

The negotiation of moving between languages becomes a common juncture for code-

switching even though much of it occurs at an unconscious level. But is code-switching just a

syntactical byproduct of speaking more than one language within the same sentence or within the

same stream of thoughts? Or is code-switching a more significant indicator of a creative

linguistic process where multiple languages and vocabulary within those languages are forged

together to create a new form of communication? Yamuna Kachru (1992), a linguist notes, “the

nature of the relationship between language acquisition and/or linguistic competence and

socialization on the one hand, and grammar of language and “grammar of culture” on the other

has been of great interest to sociolinguists” (p. 341). Research and theories presented in this

outline and expanded upon in Chapter Two draw attention to the connections between language

and cultural adaptation and the subsequent expansion of one’s identities within a shifting world

of borders and newly established communication opportunities.

In the latter half of the 20th Century, ethnographic researchers such as Labov began

linking the disciplines of anthropology, sociology and linguistics and theorizing about their

connections. Labov (1978) outlines the logical progression from anthropologists who studied

foreign people which necessitated the learning of their languages. They reported their

understanding of these cultures through a description of the observed grammar and

communication. Field work was conducted and they reported on previously unstudied groups of

people from within the observed group’s social structure. These sociolinguists evolved their

fields of study combining sociology and linguistic analysis simultaneously with empirical roots

5
to anthropology and linguistics. More anthropological and sociolinguistic research will be

presented and expanded on further in Chapter Two.

As the study of language (linguistics) merges with other social sciences over the last 70

years, it is important to define the purpose and function of linguistics here. According to

Gumperz, a U.S. linguist and academic, linguistics is the formal study of grammatical systems

(Gumperz, 1970). Gumperz and other linguists of the time theorized on the links between

linguistics, anthropology and sociolinguistics, or how language and society are interrelated. One

of those linguists, Chomsky, focused on generative and transformational grammar. Chomsky’s

universalist view of language acquisition asserts that, “the existence of deep-seated formal

universals, implies that all languages are cut to the same pattern” (1965, p. 30).

In opposition to Chomsky, Gumperz’s stated, “historically, one of the most important

reasons for the linguist’s interest in the study of language usage has been the fact that such

studies provide information about the interplay between language change and social change”

(1965, p.103). Another researcher who blended sociolinguistics, anthropology and culture was

Hymes. Hymes was interested in the interconnectedness between language and society. Hymes

(1971) stated,

Speech cannot be omitted from a theory of human behavior, or a special theory for the
behavior of a particular group. But whether we focus on the cognitive or expressive or
directive role of verbal behavior, or on the role of speech in socialization, we find a
paucity of descriptive analysis of "ethological" studies of speaking in context
(Conclusion section, para. 1).

Much has been written on the connection between language and culture since that time and more

researchers have investigated the expansion of identity within the multilingual context. Chapter

Two will contain more information on these linguistic theories and their relationship to

sociolinguistics and the formation on identity.

6
 This interlacing of communication and culture not only establishes a link to their

connection, but also defines their inseparability. Indeed, languages do not exist in a dynamic way

without an interlocutor. Speakers and communities of speakers use languages to communicate

and to identify with terms of belonging on an historical, ethnic and cultural level. Gal and Irvine

(1995) explain that, “linguistic features are seen as reflecting and expressing broader cultural

images of people and activities” (p. 973). People and their culture become deeply conflated with

their language and in turn their language(s) reflects their identity. More discussion of this theory

will be presented in Chapter Two.

Fishman, a sociolinguist whose interest is bilingualism and the integration and learning of

multiple languages researched language learning and practices in New York City (1980). He

states that the community propels the study and practice of languages more than academia and

that the speakers of languages along with parents and teachers are the ones who promote

language learning and interest (p.60). In a later work, Fishman (1991) discusses the benefits of

learning multiple languages while explaining how the mother tongue can be maintained,

especially when, “at any given time, at least half of the post-elementary school non-English

mother tongue world seems to be learning English,” (p. 355). Indeed, Fishman and other

researchers note the popularity of English, but at the same time Fishman discusses the reasoning

behind adding languages for different purposes instead of consolidating all of one’s languages

down to a single one and in this case, English. Chapter Two will contain more discussion on

Fishman’s theory.

When one investigates the process of how language is passed on from person to person,

families, caretakers and teachers are the natural choice. Moving from the base of direct language

instruction by caretakers and teachers within a community noted by Fishman, Eckert, a

7
sociolinguistic and ethnographic researcher, expands the learning of language through mass

media exposure (2003). In Eckert’s research, she discusses how people can be exposed to

language(s) by mass media influences and how that exposure builds language, culture and

identity expansion. Eckert states that one’s identity can be constructed after identifying with the

media and music of a particular genre. Viewing movies or seeing advertising and/or listening to

music can encourage one’s language development. The trickle-down effect through mass

media’s introduction to individuals’ usage can raise the status of a new language in one’s own

communication and across sectors of society. Eckert’s research focuses on linguistic variation

particularly among the young as adolescents have often been at the locus of language change.

Young people have often taken easily to new movements within society and been

instrumental in passing them on to other generations. They listen to new music and watch

movies. They spend a lot of their time consuming and communicating about mass media with

their friends and families. The connection to mass media and young people perpetuates the

marketing of materials to that age group thus encouraging the purchase of games, music and

other popular offerings. The dissemination of mass media information through music, movies

and news construct a foundation for what is accepted and utilized by a society. Social usage rules

are spread and expanded through the public channels of information including TV, advertising

and newspapers. And many people’s attention is drawn to what is in the news. Shaw, a mass

media researcher, reports “the agenda-setting theory says that because of newspapers, television

or other news media, people are aware or not aware, pay attention to or neglect, play up or

downgrade specific features of the public scene” (1979). In Chapter Two, more about this topic

relating to mass media will be discussed.

8
 Because newspapers are one sector of mass media’s influence, the data obtained for this

research was gathered in the Philippines from published English language newspapers. The

Philippines is a south-east Asian country of over 7,000 islands and has a history of English being

taught and mixed with other languages within the country since 1900. Like other countries with

business and economic ties to the English language, the Philippines had obvious examples of

code-switching (newspapers, spoken language, ads, etc.) available for research. The examples

chosen will be presented as evidence for the global stretch of code-switching and the expansion

of cultural identities. More of this historical context will be presented in Chapter Two for

establishing an understanding of English as a background to developing code-switching.

Learning a second language creates the opportunity for language mixing or code-

switching (from here this will be written as CS) to occur. Gumperz (1977) defines conversational

CS as juxtaposing two language systems within the same conversational exchange. Bilingual and

multilingual users commonly switch between two or more languages, especially when they use

these languages in daily activities. Language mixing and specifically CS has become a popular

research area in second language learning circles because of the implications of

bilingual/multilingual education and communication needs across community boundaries

(McConvell & Meakins, 2005). Some critics have seen CS as an intrusion to language learning

as the mixing can present itself as unexpected and messy. One assumption made about CS is that

while you are speaking one language, you should use only that language (Heller, 1988).

More examples of CS specifics will be discussed in Chapter Two by other researchers

such as Bentahila & Davies, Sayer, Callahan, Backus and Bhatt. Among the review of CS

literature, a focus on the phenomenon will include an increasing presence of CS among more

formal mediums such as religious services, advertising, courtroom proceedings and newspaper

9
articles. Another important aspect of CS concerns its presence in oral versus written language.

This current study investigates the CS within English published newspapers in the Philippines

across newspaper sections/genres to deduce if particular genres display more or less CS.

Newspapers were chosen for two purposes as they are considered in this case, both a formal

medium and a written text. Both of these descriptors may contribute to the evidence of CS being

an accepted linguistic process proved at finding its way into formalized, historical documents.

My two topics for a research hypothesis are:

1. There will be significant evidence of CS in English published newspapers from

the Philippines.

2. There will be differences in the relative amounts of code-switched words among

selected genres from the Philippines newspapers articles.

The purpose of these hypotheses demonstrates the widespread use of CS within the mass media

realm of newspapers, a published, public document read and understood by a majority of literate

Filipinos. Beyond being a side effect of knowing multiple languages, CS will be viewed as an

accepted method of incorporating multiple languages within a formal medium of global

proportion.

In Chapter Two, the research discussed will review the sociolinguistic basis of

globalization and language from Heller (2003), Labov (1978), Chomsky (1965) and Gumperz’s

(1965) work on the connections of anthropology, sociology and linguistics. Hymes (1971),

Fishman (1980) Gal & Irvine (1995) and Eckert (2003) will show the connection from language

learning to identity development. Gumperz and Cook-Gumperz relate to the interrelationship of

communication and culture. Work from anthropologists to sociolinguists will lead the

development of the self from a beginning language learner to the expansion of one’s identity

10
through language. This concept will then create cultural changes circulating back to language

usage and dissemination.

Chapter Two will also contain a section summarizing the historical basis for English

usage and learning in the Philippines. This history will provide the reader with an understanding

of the context in which this research was obtained. Moving from the particular example of the

Philippines to the wider view of CS, Chapter Two expands the discussion of how Mesthrie and

Bhatt relate CS to world Englishes. Kachru (2005) adds the background of Asian Englishes and

Heller (1998) explicates on the CS phenomenon as a harbinger of language and social change.

Scotton (1998) makes the connection between language and identity. The latter part of chapter 2

brings into focus particular examples of CS in more formal settings. The language sharing on the

border between the US and Mexico (Uriciuoli, 1995), Singlish debated in the classroom in

Singapore (Rubdy, 2007), the presence of CS in Malaysian courtrooms (David, 2003), bilingual

Catholic Mass (Alfaraz, 2009), and Spanish bilingual newspapers (Lewis, 2006) among other

research articles set a precedence for this current research project.

Newspapers in the Philippines were chosen as the focus of research for this study as I am

interested in the integration of CS published in a formal, written context. Although many of the

data examples extracted from the newspaper articles are conversational CS, in essence, their

presence within a written, published, historical document such as a newspaper gives creditability

to the hypothesis that CS has reached a higher stage of acceptance and understanding in the

Filipino context. As I have a connection to the Philippines and traveled to the country during the

summer of 2011, I obtained access to newspapers there where I collected and scanned them for

CS terms. Chapter Three will discuss in more detail the basics of the data collection methods

mentioned here.

11
 Chapter Four contains the statistical and qualitative analysis from the chi-square test used

to measure the significance of CS in the newspaper articles and across the genres as well as

display the results of my research hypotheses. Chapter Five provides a summarized conclusion to

this present endeavor and lists its potential limitations. This chapter also discusses the future

pedagogical and professional implications for CS in a bilingual or multilingual context.

12
 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter the literature reviews and expands on theories and research outlining the

globalization of English and how it creates the framework for identity expansion through

language. This chapter also discusses linguistic anthropology and sociolinguistic issues relating

to multilingual speakers and identity construction. Moving on from the theoretical basis of

multilingualism and identity development, language mixing and in particular, code-switching

with an emphasis on more formal examples in the mass media and society will be discussed.

Since the data for this research project was obtained from newspaper articles from the

Philippines, to better understand the particular multilingual issues facing the Philippines, I will

include a summarized historical context of the country. The historical emphasis will be on

English education and usage from the last century to provide a contextual basis for the upcoming

data interpretation in Chapters Three and Four. I will then expand on the phenomenon of code-

switching with a heavier focus on South East Asian populations. The research methods outlined

in Chapter Three will detail the specific data gathered from the Philippines.

Global English

Why has English become the choice language of global business and development? It is

curious that English has grown in popularity around the world as a much often discussed lingua

franca, especially in Asia where China and India are fast growing economies and have

populations of language speakers who far outnumber the languages spoken in other regions of

the world. Besides all of the possibilities that an Asian language would emerge as a dominant

global language, the request for English teaching and training is as popular as ever. Prendergast

(2008) states, “at the millennial moment, defined by global capitalism and the rise of the

knowledge economy, people around the world are buying into English, investing their money

13
and time in it, hoping for a favorable outcome” (p.1). English has grown to be the illogical

choice as an international language of commerce and technology and foreign language learning.

The free movement of people, governmental power, goods and services also has to do

with information and systems of moving that information. One cannot discuss global English

development in business, politics, language learning or any other purpose without mentioning the

growth of the Internet. As mentioned in Chapter One, the Internet is not only a medium of

transporting information around the world, but it provides access to communication, learning and

technology that may otherwise be expensive and difficult to obtain. Crystal (2006) reports, “the

gap between English and the other languages is notable, and supports the widespread impression,

frequently reported in newspaper headlines, that the language of the Internet ‘is’ English”

(p.229).

As time passes, the truth of the statement above is changing as more and more countries

obtain access to computers and build more websites in their native languages. Crystal states,

“there is no doubt that low-cost Internet use is going to grow, all over the world, as wireless

networking puts the Internet within reach of people in developing nations who will use access

devices powered by solar cells or clockwork generators” (2006, p.234). Until then, however, the

Internet does have a reasonable amount of content in English and if one is interested in obtaining

English language learning resources or connecting with English speaking companies, English

will be a vital tool in that search. Increased Internet usage also raises issues of access to

educational tools, information and a functioning infrastructure equipped to handle power sources

and technology development. These issues of access, education and ability could be the next big

challenges for growing economies around the world.

Politics and English have also been linked through access to information, free speech and

14
democratic movements. Sonntag reports that, “in Nepal, linguistic globalization in the form of

global English is seen as an accompaniment to democracy, not as a detriment. In the South

African case as well, global English and global economic integration have accompanied

democratization” (p.118). More recently, the Middle East uprising known as the Arab Spring has

links to English activism and the Internet. Snider & Faris, writers for the Middle East Policy

Council report that in Egypt, “the emergence of Facebook activism grew directly out of a strong

digital-activist community. This community was initially led by English-language bloggers”

(2012). Internal changes emanating from current events and local issues can impact the world on

a scale that affects billions of people. Multiculturalism and multilingualism can both lead to

beneficial gains, but it is the role of governments and educators to create a place where both

native and foreign languages can thrive.

Examining language and economic connections from the global perspective of

information-sharing raises the question of inequality. In a world that favors global English non-

native speakers of English from developing countries become the global minorities. Non-native

English speakers adopt the role of outsiders in a market that prefers the linguistic native speaker.

Mentioned in Chapter One, Heller’s research focuses on ethnolinguistic minorities and

multilingual identity and reflects on, “how resources are distributed, what the source of their

value is, and how actors are positioned with respect to them, are all relevant dimensions of an

analysis of the relationship of language and identity to the globalized new economy” (2003,

p.476). Through her linguistic work and ethnographic research Heller raises many questions of

access, rights and boundaries in regard to language and identities. Working with francophone

speakers in Canada, Heller examines “the tensions between commodity and authenticity, and the

ways in which those questions are sites of struggle over who gets to define what counts as a

15
legitimate identity, or what counts as an excellent product” (2003, p. 475). Heller asks difficult

questions about when a population begins to view itself as having multiple identities and/or

altering identities in the expanding global marketplace.

Ownership and income generation concerning nationality, language and product creation

incur issues around ethics and identity. These transitioning populations will need to closely

examine how their choices affect their understanding of themselves and their future gain and/or

loss of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, the globalization of English spread by increased

financial and business opportunities are examples of contemporary issues that affect a cultural

group’s identity and draws attention to where their identity may be adjusted. In this case, the

drive for economic advancement and stability is the principle motivation. In other circumstances,

conflict or natural disasters might be the impetus for change toward an English speaking identity.

But wherever the origination for change may stem from, it is the end result that becomes the

principle transformation and/or adoption of another identity.

As mentioned in Chapter One, English has become the opportunistic language tool used

to transcend social and economic stations once thought to be static and imprisoning. The idea

that language is accessible to all is further reinforced by foreign countries adopting national

language policies and opening businesses catering to language tutoring and skill development. In

developing countries, English has become an opportunity to increase one’s socio-economic

status through higher paying positions in business and an increased potential of working abroad.

In developed Asian nations such as South Korea and Japan, private English tutoring has become

the norm. Kim states, “the rampant private tutoring in Korea is a market response to the increase

in educational demands that is not satisfied by the uniform public provision of schooling” (2010,

16
p.261). In South Korea, alone, the estimated household finances spent on tutoring in 2006 totaled

24 trillion Korean wan or the equivalent of $24 billion (Kim, p. 261).

Of course, not everyone has the finances to pay for private schools, extra tutor time or

hours spent at an Internet cafe, but many an impoverished student has learned new language

skills through hard work and determination. Prendergast offers that the interest in English is,

“motivated by the common belief that English, as the language that allows for the free movement

of people, goods, and services that characterizes globalization, is essential for developing

countries to compete on a level playing field with developed ones” (2008, p.1). The increased

interest of English as a skill that brings the promise of financial and professional stability also

brings about an increased loss of local language skills and appreciation. English’s popularity

abroad and the corresponding promise of economic development has funneled educational funds

away from local language literacy and channeled them toward learning English as a foreign

language. This recent policy shift has caused much debate among educators around the world.

In countries with inadequate resources for paying qualified teachers to teach English as a

second or third language, the loss of local language literacy has taken its toll on general

education. A focus on basic, quality education is a struggle for even the most developed and

prosperous nations. The financial expense of training local teachers to learn English as a foreign

language and/or importing native English speaking teachers becomes a high economic price that

only well-structured and committed nations can afford. Kirkpatrick, an international linguist

states, “if English is allowed to increase its dominant position, local languages, especially those

with relatively few speakers, will continue to die out at an alarming rate” (2010, p.171). The

Endangered Languages Project believes that half the world’s languages (3,250) “are under threat

of extinction” (Kirkpatrick, P. 171). Kirkpatrick continues to point out that these regions of the

17
world are at risk of increasing the inequality of education by failing to provide a proper

elementary education in local language literacy. Without local language fluency, linguistic and

cultural diversity will vanish (Kirkpatrick, 2010).

Sonntag, a government and politics researcher also reports that “the concern of

UNESCO, as well as many others, is that the loss of linguistic diversity is akin and related to the

global loss of biodiversity” (p.120). The loss of local languages further erodes the cultural

knowledge that connects languages and people. Sonntag continues, “local languages are often

encoded with information about the beneficial relations between plant and humans. When these

local languages become extinct, it is a loss for global humankind” (p. 120). The loss of diverse

languages and cultures occur when government and education officials lack funding and

planning capacity to promote national policies for their countries. However, linguistic diversity

and culture can be preserved with well-developed research and programs that provides linguistic

enrichment of native languages as well as foreign languages for business and economic

development and in some cases, democratic principles.

The concepts surrounding global English have both positive and negative components.

English is an arbitrary choice as any other language option would also have its positive and

negative issues as well. However, perhaps because of the Internet’s origins or international

business favoring English or its connections to democracy, English is currently the most popular

choice. With language schools and private tutors spread across the world, English is being taught

as a language that will enhance your chances of entering a prestigious school and improve your

chances for financial success in the global marketplace (Kim, 2006). As more international-based

work is conducted as companies and their suppliers spread around the world, travel and

communication continue to be big business. People are constantly moving greater distances for

18
economic growth as well as traveling to distant locations for increasingly newer experiences. Our

world is expanding and the need for more communication and cultural training and multilingual

speakers is more important than ever before.

Linguistic Anthropology and Sociolinguistic Theories

Certain groups of people may be drawn toward learning English or any other applicable

language for economic reasons or for travel and/or cultural knowledge, but can the adoption of

that language fundamentally change one’s identity? And what is the result of having multiple

identities, especially when they are not ethnically connected to one’s heritage? The answers to

these questions may be examined through the lenses of linguistic anthropology and

sociolinguistic theories. As mentioned in Chapter One, Labov (1978) began investigating the

connection of identity, linguistic anthropology and sociolinguistics in the 70s. An early

connection is born among anthropology and linguistics as researchers in the field needed an

understanding of a group’s native language to study its culture and people. Anthropologists

established the grammar of languages and built reference materials that where then borrowed and

expanded on by linguists.

Sociology and linguistics’ connections have historically focused on communication,

social class and speech communities. Analyzing language use and making sense of it in

individual cases and large scale populations while attributing to it social meaning and reasoning

explains the natural development within the field of sociolinguistics. Labov connects speakers of

a language together under “Saussure’s notion of langue: a Durkheimian social fact that is equally

binding on all members of society in both interpretation and production” (1978, p.97). This

means that all competent speakers of a language are members of the same club who understand

19
the rules of the club and know how it works. By learning a new language you are, in essence,

learning how to function in a new society.

As mentioned in Chapter One, Chomskyan views of language acquisition differ from

those advocated for in this research study. The dominant Chomskyan theories of linguistics

rationalized that language capacity was innate and that a universal grammar of syntactical

structure enabled linguistic communication (Chomsky, 1953). Chomsky advocates promote the

theory that all people are knowledgeable of a universal grammar at birth enabling them to

develop language skills when analytical development is still limited (Chomsky, 1953).

Chomsky’s focus is primarily on psycholinguistics, generative and transformative grammar and

much of his research is based on linguistic competence (1965).

Gumperz raises issues with Chomsky’s theory of linguistic competence. Gumperz states

that Chomsky’s theory, “refers to the ability to act, rather than what is done in particular

instances. The goal of a linguistic analysis of competence is not to classify forms appearing in a

particular body of data, but rather to explain occurring patterns in terms of deeper more abstract

regularities” (1970, p. 4). Gumperz expands on Chomsky’s concept of linguistic competence by

including not just how language is utilized and analyzed, but also how the larger social context

may affect how it is used.

When investigating the interaction of languages among each other and across borders,

Gumperz comments on the work of Salisbury and the specific shifting of two New Guinea tribal

languages across a local border. The boundaries separating these languages had shifted over

several generations and the two groups were bilingual. Gumperz states, “the shift does not

necessarily involve the replacement of one language by another or the migration of population,

but rather a shift in attitude” (1965, p. 104). It is this attitude shift and how it relates to language

20
and languages within a cultural context that is important and significant. Like the natural

evolution of a language changing over generations incorporating different usages and vocabulary

to relate to more contemporary times, multiple languages spoken in the same region are likewise

evolving and interacting with each other and their environment.

Similar to Gumperz and also in contrast to Chomsky, Hymes, a sociolinguist and

anthropologist, discusses two views of linguistics. Chomsky’s view is labeled by Hymes (1974)

as, “Cartesian linguistics, not as a historically exact label, but in recognition of a direction given

to the theory of language in the period following Descartes by an emphasis on the nature of mind

as prior to experience and an analytic, universalizing, reconstituting methodology” (p. 120). The

other theory opposing Chomsky’s “Cartesian linguistics” is named “Herderian linguistics” which

again is not a historically exact label, but which names Herder (1744-1801) who placed “an

emphasis on language as constituting cultural identity” (p. 120). Like Gumperz, Hymes

differentiates between the universal origins of language theory proposed by Chomsky and the

cultural identity theory that links to language development.

Hymes asserts that language learning is far more cultural-based and related to identity,

rather than a structural origin based on universal grammar. Beyond being a language speaker of

one language and participating in the culture of associating with that group, multilingual

speakers must learn, master and participate in all of their language and cultural groups

simultaneously. Hymes also expands on Chomskyian views by discussing three linguistic

choices (1985). The first is the structure and history of language and language families. The

second choice brings in the psycholinguistic nature of language. Hymes continues, “a third

choice is to regard the expansion of scope of recent years as requiring foundations deeper than

those that Chomsky is prepared to recognize, foundations that include the social science and

21
social life. From this third point of view, the expansion of scope would not be a reaching out, as

it were, but a reaching down” (p. 11).

In a synthesized work more recently published, Hymes states, “in a multilingual

community, one must thus discover the uses and situations for which each code is specialized if

one is to assess the importance of its semantic patterns in the daily round” (2010, p.574). This

concept may be obvious, but upon examination, the magnified difficulty of using multiple

languages points to the extensive working knowledge of a multilingual speaker. Multilingual

speakers must decode and communicate among multiple groups and cultures knowing precisely

what words to use in the correct form at the correct time. Structurally, multilingual speakers will

not only use the language they are communicating in, but they will have to identify with it to be

productive as language carries cultural components as well as syntactical ones.

Hymes writes more on the discipline of linguistic anthropology with regard to

multilingual speakers, “ethnographically, one must begin, not with the function of language in

culture, but with the functions of languages in cultures” (2010, p.577). The distinction the author

makes is that information can be gleaned across multiple settings. Languages are active within

and across cultures and researchers should not stop at one language’s investigation, but look at

the interplay among the meanings and negotiations among more than one context. Hymes’ vision

is as broad seeking as there are cultures because the intersection of those interactions of language

and their analysis may contribute much to language study.

As mentioned in Chapter One, Gall & Irvine (1995) dissect the early connections of

language and sociology and discuss how many theorists and researches have linked the concepts

of language and culture. Hymes is referenced in their work as being one of the first people to

look at the relationship among multiple languages and cultures instead of attributing one

22
language to one culture. Gal and Irvine state that their work investigates “the ways in which

boundaries between languages and dialects are socially constructed, and the cultural processes by

which linguistic units come to be linked to social units” (1995, p.970). They are arguing that

language and culture are interconnected and created autonomously through social groups.

Although their work is aimed at the researcher and directs attention to how language and culture

should be studied, the larger implication is that communities of language speakers should be seen

as having multiple boundaries of social and cultural significance affecting linguistic ideologies.

Gumperz and Cook-Gumperz (2008) again note the previous connections to Hymes and

Labov and the continuing research in the field of sociolinguistics and linguistic anthropology.

Gumperz and Cook-Gumperz state that, “the ethnography of communication provided the insight

that culture is essentially a communicative phenomenon” (2008, p.536). Many researchers are

coming to the same conclusion. There are inseparable connections among language (linguistics),

culture (anthropology) and society (sociology). The researchers in these fields all point to

examining where the individual disciplines can stand alone, but then conclude that the

connections among these disciplines cannot exist in isolation. If one is studying language or

people, then one needs to look at the other as well. In their conclusion, Gumperz and Cook-

Gumperz encourage the relationship between sociolinguistics and linguistic anthropology, “in

reconsidering the new issues of language politics and postcolonial language, now seen as part of

a changing urban sense of personal identity and belonging” (2008, p.542).

Shifting from the connections seen in the larger realm of sociolinguistics and linguistic

anthropology, Eckert (2003) as described in Chapter One, discusses how individuals create

identity. With a review of the literature, Eckert sees how, “these studies emphasize the

performance nature of social identity and move the focus from the reflection of identity to the

23
construction of identity” (2003, p.112). Sociolinguistics and linguistic anthropology may

research the interrelationships between the fields and among culture, society and language.

However, it is the individual speakers of a language who “perform” the identity associated with

that culture and in a sense, create it. Because language and culture are fluid and constantly

changing, they are also adapting to new inclusions and at the same time transitioning away from

outdated and unpopular choices. Technology, inventions, entertainment and social fads all

contribute to altering what is desirable within a community of people.

Eckert claims that mass media, music and personal conversations are communication

methods which encourage identity changes. The changes can be subtle linguistic markers such as

the insertion or deletion of sounds such as, “the reduction of –ing—a variable that is found

across the English-speaking world and that is class stratified” per Labov 1966; Trudgill 1974

(2003, p.114). And the changes can encompass whole identities in the case of musicians learning

a style of music, song and performance that they may never have been associated with before.

One can learn to play mariachi music or become an urban rapper and come from very different

social and linguistic backgrounds. Either way, people can take on identities based on their

language and cultural adaptations therefore altering and broadening their social and linguistic

abilities. Exposure to music, teachings and/or new innovations can create an interest in a

language previously not utilized by an individual or an entire community.

In some circumstances, a second or third language is learned from caregivers or family

and in other cases through exposure to the language at school or in the external environment

including the influential mass media. In the case of adding a language into one’s already

established communication repertoire, the speaker becomes familiar enough with the syntax and

vocabulary of a foreign language to incorporate it into their everyday usage. This incorporation

24
of another language allows the speaker to become comfortable using it. This bilingual or

multilingual speaker can now interchange words and phrases within multiple languages and may

communicate within those multiple languages within the same sentence or exchange. Code-

switching between languages reinforces that the thought processes and usage of more than one

language are at play. The code-switching acts as a beacon for the identity development of the

speaker. The speaker of more than one language must identify their connection to the language

and culture to all of the languages they speak. This connection aids in expanding the cultural

identity of the multilingual speaker in a world that has grown toward expanding boundaries and

understanding.

Historical Basis of English in the Philippines

As mentioned in Chapter One, a summarized history of the English language in the

Philippines will follow for increased understanding of the current code-switching research

provided in this project. The Philippines, located in the south-east Asia/Pacific, is a country with

a complicated base of languages (over 100) and a diversity of cultures spread throughout more

than 7,000 islands. The Filipino people report an ethnic root of Malay due to the close location of

Malaysia as well as an indigenous Filipino native population, the Aeta. Chinese and Indonesians

have a historical hereditary connection to the islands from an established ancient trade route as

both those countries border the Philippines’ seas and are their closest Asian neighbors to the west

and south, respectively.

Spanish colonizers arrived in the Philippines over three centuries ago and as a result

Spanish heritage and language mixing spread throughout the archipelago. The US was given

authority over the Philippines as a result of the Spanish-American War in 1898 (Schneider,

2007). The US connection to the Philippines has persisted from this original political association.

25
Many Philippines’ institutions such as the education and military systems continue to be based

on US American equivalents with the first school being established in the Philippines in 1901 by

visiting US American teachers named the “Thomasites”. The Philippines was granted

“commonwealth” status in 1935 and Tagalog (southern Luzon Island language see Figure 1) was

made the national language in 1937. Both Japanese and US Americans have had a vested interest

in the Philippine Islands as it was a crucial stronghold during World War II when much of

Manila was decimated by bombings and soldier combat.

Figure 1: Philippines Map

Note. Map is from Bruce Jones Design, Inc. Retrieved March 24, 2012, from http://www.
freeusandworldmaps.com/html/Countries/Asia%20Countries/Philippines.html

26
 Language instruction and preferences in the Philippines changed numerous times during

WWII among Spanish, English, Japanese and Tagalog. The changes were based on current

loyalties and national political identities either being forced on Filipinos or chosen by them in

protest against their colonizers. After WWII, Vietnamese refugees began immigrating to the

Philippines from the Vietnam War era and through to the present. Many of the Vietnamese

refugees arrive illegally in small boats crossing the Pacific and remain in refugee camps on

Palawan Island in the western Philippines (See Figure 1) for many years learning English. More

recently and in an economic tourist migration, Korean and Japanese college students and families

with young children have been visiting the Philippines for extended English language learning in

private language institutes in Manila specifically catering to the Philippines’ Asian neighbors.

Aside from pocket populations of Moslem Indonesians in the Southern Philippines (on

Mindanao Island and specifically, Zamboanga, See Figure 1) and high numbers of Chinese

populations situated in the north of the country (Luzon Island, See Figure 1), there has been an

extensive history of ethnic mixing and language mixing throughout the Philippine Islands.

English has been designated a first, second and a third language throughout the Philippines’

history since 1900. At the date of this research project, English now shares status along with

Tagalog, although the name Tagalog officially changed to Filipino in the 1973 Constitution

(Schneider, 2007).

Contemporary debates are common concerning the role of English and Tagalog in the

Philippines as to what course will produce the best options for future generations as well as

encourage national pride. Letters to the Editor and editorialists as well as political figures often

raise issues relating to Filipino identity and the popularity of English. One side of this multi-

language issue is the potential of English to enhance workers’ skills and enable more Filipinos to

27
work abroad for better salaries. The other side of the language debate questions Filipinos’

allegiance to a non-native language when the Philippines has numerous languages at play for

communication and business purposes. Aside from the debate of English’s status in the

Philippines, the US has been involved in Philippines’ business, politics, military and government

aid for over a century.

There are only estimated to be around 132,000 American Ex Patriots living in the

Philippines currently (US Department of State, 2011) while the Philippine’s population has

grown to over 101 million (US Census Bureau, 2011). However, with a more recent focus on its

own language and national identity issues and concurrent economic difficulties, English fluency

has declined in recent decades. Still, English examples abound throughout Metro Manila and

beyond the main island of Luzon. English appears in signage and is commonly visible in chain

restaurants such as McDonalds and Kentucky Fried Chicken. Visiting malls and watching

American movies are a popular pastime (partly because those venues are air-conditioned) and

English is taught in schools as well as being the medium of instruction for science and math

beginning in the fourth grade.

The Philippines’ deteriorating economy, extended inflation and escalating unemployment

rates have purported English into an economic commodity. Students able to master the language

and partner it with an exportable skilled field such as engineering, mechanics, education or

nursing have been eligible to migrate to foreign countries at high rates through job placement

agencies. More than 8.2 million Filipinos are said to be working abroad (Opiniano, 2006) with

the majority in the Middle East, the UK, Canada, Hong Kong and the United States and across

the seas on cruise ships and commercial vessels. The departure of well-trained Filipinos

searching for jobs and higher income has caused much public commentary. The “brain drain” of

28
Filipino professionals vacating their homeland and leaving the country without skill and talent

contribute to the Philippines’ economic troubles and a lack of political leadership.

However, in terms of linguistic growth and development, Filipinos’ migrations and

associations abroad have created extended travel networks, increased opportunities for

international jobs and connected families spread across multiple borders. Because of these

reasons, English has intermixed in the Philippines long enough to have born an informal Tagalog

dialect, Taglish, which mixes the Tagalog and English languages. Thompson (2003), a Taglish

researcher and author, reports on Filipinos language mixing by stating, “their mixing of English

and Tagalog, first called halo-halo mix-mix, Engalog, and then Taglish, spread rapidly from the

classroom to the general populace through radio and television in much the same way that

Tagalog had spread earlier” (p. 41). The influence and contribution to language mixing through

mass media and young people cannot be denied. Thompson continues about Taglish’s popularity

by stating, “today nearly all educated Filipinos, including those in high places, use Taglish

except in formal situations when only “pure” English or “pure” Tagalog may be used” (p. 41).

Currently in diverse locations across the Philippines, numerous examples of code-switching are

heard in schools, the workplace and politics as well as in informal conversations and formal

contexts such as newspapers. Language mixing such as Taglish and CS is seen as a vital

component of communicating across language and identity boundaries in the Philippines.

Students, families and professionals freely interchange languages as Philippine language and

social contexts have expanded to contain multiple languages that encompass multiple identities.

As previously discussed in Chapter One, the current study examines the research behind

the CS of lexical items in English substituted for Tagalog and Cebuano/Visaya languages in

Filipino published newspaper articles. This study attempts to prove that there is no significance

29
among different CS topics (food/drink, kinship terms, social circles) in Philippines’ published

English newspaper sections in regard to code-switched Tagalog and Cebuano/Visaya lexical

terms and that different newspaper sections show no significant numbers of conversational code-

switching.

Code-switching

In this section I will provide a context of CS within the Philippines and then discuss CS

research and finally end with specific articles that display CS in formalized, written settings and

show how ubiquitous the phenomenon has become within multilingual contexts. In Chapter One

the topic of CS as it relates to global English and identity development was mentioned. Here, in

Chapter Two, these concepts will be expanded and with an understanding of the development of

how these topics relate to the Philippines people, specifically the multilingual speakers of

English and Filipino language(s).

With upwards of seven million Filipinos living abroad in historically popular financial

destinations such as the Middle East, Britain, Canada and the US, English has been a standard

language for communication and commerce both in the Philippines and beyond. A traditional

knowledge of English allows Filipino workers to be employed using a common language abroad

as well as being familiar with a cultural reference that they have shared for over one hundred

years. The island nation of the Philippines may have no direct border-touching neighbors, but

with a flourishing population working abroad and a historical acceptance of intermixing and

blending ethnicities and identities, the Filipino identity has crossed geographical and

communicative boundaries around the world.

Among the Philippine Islands, dozens of native languages give way to communicating in

the national language of Tagalog/Filipino and English, a common second or third language

30
choice. The Illocano speaker of northern Luzon would not be able to relate with the Ilongo

speaker of the Visayas or vice versa without the unifying languages of Tagalog and/or English.

Taglish and constant CS are proof of the language mixing that Tagalog and English are spoken

with a cultural and communicative blending in mind. The research questions behind multilingual

speakers’ language preference and word choice intersect at the phenomenon of CS in terms of

what language speakers choose to communicate with and why one word or phrase from another

language might be substituted in a different language. On a broad level of understanding, the

research from studies on language socialization may present clues to how and why multilingual

people choose to utilize languages.

Continuing on from what was mentioned in Chapter One, code-switching is the use of

more than one language while communicating. This multi-language usage can be within the

same sentence or within the same conversation or paragraph. In the introduction of an edited text

on code-switching, Heller states that,”code-switching is seen as a boundary-leveling or

boundary-maintaining strategy, which contributes, as a result, to the definition of roles and role

relationships at a number of levels, to the extent that interlocutors bear multiple role relationships

to each other” (1998, p.1). The use of the word ‘boundary’ with regard to language and roles is

significant. Code-switching is a communicative technique that enables one to access and

transcend an invisible line that relates to multiple cultures and identities and the languages at use

within those cultures and identities. Heller is saying that the ‘boundary’ crossing of multilingual

speakers creates a relationship between and amongst the languages and cultures and roles of the

individuals. These roles are crossed just as boundaries are crossed by speaking multiple

languages within the same context.

31
 Heller notes that the purpose of her volume of research, “is to illustrate ways in which the

study of code-switching addresses fundamental anthropological and sociolinguistic issues

concerning the relationship between linguistic and social processes in the interpretation of

experience and the construction of social reality” (1998, p.2). Connecting language and the

interpretation of self, CS becomes a medium of reconstruction, a plane where multilingual

speakers share multiple identities. However, one question that arises about CS is why do groups

of people speak more than one language within the same utterance instead of just focusing on

one language at a time to communicate with?

Scotton, a linguist who has specialized in CS (1982) states that, “multilingual communities

remain multilingual because of the function of the different languages as tools of both positive

and negative identification of the subgroups within the community; that is, different codes are

maintained because they serve as social markers for different subgroups” (p. 432). Scotton

argues here that CS is a side-effect of the linguistic process of being multilingual and people use

their multiple languages for different purposes. The CS between languages becomes an

expression of the social markers used to identify differences and showcase other language

functions while communicating. Scotton expands on this concept of multilingual speakers and

CS by adding, “it is as if the switch is made to remind other participants that the speaker is a

multi-faceted personality, as if the speaker were saying ‘not only am I X, but I am also Y’”

(1998, p.170). The line between language speakers and cultural identities is thin, if existent at all.

When a language speaker learns and performs a new language, they are becoming a speaker of

that identity. They are an English, Mandarin or Spanish speaker and incur all that the language

entails in terms of culture and experience. Their expression of their language, in essence,

becomes an expression of their identity.

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 Scotton clarifies the implications behind utilizing more than one language in CS and how

that affects their identity construction, “by using two codes in two different turns, however, the

speaker also has been able to encode two different identities – and the breadth of experience

associated with them” (1998, p.177). Scotton reinforces the magnitude of what it means when

multilingual speakers code-switch. Beyond analyzing the appearance of CS and what it means

syntactically, Scotton’s research provides a theoretical background to the actual practice of CS

and how it stretches ones’ identities through their language usage. Scotton provides the

theoretical background that reinforces a groups’ motivation for being multilingual as well as

discussing the reasons of how CS lends itself to being a creative linguistic output of

communication.

Uriciuoli, a linguistic and cultural anthropologist, expands upon the limits of language

rules and borders. Beyond language mixing and lexical analyses exists a broader sense of

identity, ethnicity, race and class. Languages allow speakers to identify with a concept of

nationhood that unites together all notions of politics, economics and social relationships.

Uriciuoli states that, “the rhetorical purposes that emerge in code-switched discourse are very

much tied into the long-term political economy of language that shapes not only the language

situation itself but social actors’ relations” (1995, p.529). A particular language speaker will

most often identify themselves with the language of their particular country of origin. Reasoning

must follow that speakers of multiple languages build on their native identity/ies with every

additional language they learn.

Uriciuoli argues that traditional measurements of bilingualism leading to policy

alterations contain a focused basis in measurable tests and competencies. The more

encompassing concept of language and national identity is not often measured through

33
communicative tasks and therefore, language and their corresponding borders are more porous

and adaptable than is usually accounted for. Code-switching becomes not only a linguistic

marker of bilingual identity, but a byproduct of multiple identities that create communicative

blendings and opportunities that transect borders. Uriciuoli states, “given that ethnicity has

become nonlocalized as people move into ‘global ethnoscapes’ much of what the ‘border’

represents is in effect deterritorialized, as is, for example, the case with foreign languages,

especially Spanish, in the United States” (p.533).

The global nature of our contemporary world, encompassing the arenas of travel,

technology and commerce is now readily accessible and affordable for many beyond the elite.

With the ease of travel available to all who can afford it, the once geographically limiting access

to languages and the cultural knowledge of distant people have now become popular destinations

for authentic travel experiences. Out of the way locations now market to tourists and have

fostered a financial opportunity for their hospitality and local industries. Uriciuli speaks

specifically about the border area between the US and Mexico in terms of the blending of

Spanish and English and the subsequent culture, food, experiences. However, any diaspora

living beyond their country of origin will blend and merge culture and language across borders.

This is especially noticeable with larger populations settling in one area. The confluence of

cultures limits opportunity to maintain isolated social and linguistic communities abroad in a

potentially global environment of constantly mixing identity.

Garrett and Baquedano-Lopez (2002), discuss the concepts associated with language

socialization in terms of its research and types of study. Drawing on a base of anthropological

works, sociolinguistics, psychological and sociological aspects of human development while also

using the medium of longitudinal and ethnographic studies, the authors attempt to explain the

34
process of holistic reasoning behind what constitutes creation of functional language within a

community. The authors examine the social theory of learning, a practice-based approach that

aids in defining the conceptual tensions between such pairings as, “collectivity and subjectivity,

power and meaning, practice (as socially constituted ways of engaging with the world) and

identity (as a function of the mutual constitution of group and self)” (p. 347). Focusing on the

everyday, mundane details of language, their research focuses on communication socialization

and how language is taught and interpreted within a community.

When looking at language education within a community, parents, children, teachers,

friends and relatives all contribute to the expansion of language and the understanding of its

meaning through socialization. The constant change of language usage and meaning and the

complexity of mixing cultures add to both perpetual exchange and conflict. Language is no

exception as it contributes to socialization and as Garrett and Baquedano-Lopez report,

“researchers are finding that ideologies of language intersect in complex and interesting ways

with local notions of cultural and group identity, nationhood, personhood, childhood, and

language acquisition as a developmental process” (p. 354). Perhaps inseparable, notions of

language learning, individuals and the community and culture all work together to create a

system of being that define who people are and what they know. Garrett and Baquedano-Lopez

conclude their article by stating, “recent studies also emphasize that language socialization is

central to—and in some cases a driving force in—dynamic processes of transformation and

change” (p. 355).

As language and the interaction of multiple languages among members of a community

contribute to transforming communication, language shapes the way people interact and how

they perform the roles within their society. When two languages are used regularly, CS and other

35
combinations of languages emerge. Sayer, a researcher in bicultural-bilingual studies (2008)

reports that, “Spanglish takes three main forms; borrowing words, switching from one language

to another between or even within sentences, and mixing the grammar of one language with the

words of another” (p.97). In this case of a community that speaks Spanish and English routinely,

the population has combined different aspects of both languages to form a new combination of

communication, Spanglish.

Spanglish encompasses both a language and an identity that relates to dual cultures and

their corresponding functions. Sayer comments on this concept by stating, “sociologists study

how language use corresponds to social categories and thus can be seen as an identity marker”

(p. 100). Associating with a particular language also aligns an individual and/or community of

speakers with all that language and culture envelops. Food, dress and cultural experiences such

as spiritual expression, family gatherings and celebrations contribute to marking one’s identity

and defining their communicative practices. Beyond the concept of just combining grammar and

words of two separate languages, Sayer also states that mixing languages can be politically and

socially significant.

Combining languages blends different cultures and can introduce those cultures to other

communities. For instance, by including Spanish within one’s English speaking or writing can

further the linguistic/social agenda of the other culture in schools, art and politics. Many a

politician reaches out to Latino/a voters by flourishing greetings and speeches with Spanish. This

politically charged type of CS attempts to establish a connection between Spanish speakers and

the politicians requesting their votes. In Florida, for instance, the Miami Herald reported that a

politician speaking Spanish is almost a requirement for being elected to a state office. Mitt

Romney recently released a Spanish speaking Ad called “Nosotros” in Florida where, “72 % of

36
registered Republicans are Latino” (2012, HuffPost). Romney and other politicians are using

Spanish to show the voters that they understand them and are sensitive to their issues.

Blending two or more languages across cultures and into different contexts allows for an

expansion of identities. These different identities reach into spheres of communication and

culture that create precedence for their existence and interaction. Take for example, English and

Spanish interacting in both Texas and Florida from large migrations of people from Mexico and

Cuba, respectively. The presence of these languages interweaving among people, media,

products, politics, etc. establish a basis of cultures that act as a conduit of interconnections. The

presence of these languages and their effect on culture can at times increase or decrease

depending on the political and social climate of the times. Likewise, Tagalog and English

blendings work together to promote an ease of communicative language use based on dual

cultural and identity markers. Bilingual speakers of multiple languages that live within or among

two or more cultures have built connections not only to multiple languages, but also to the

corresponding cognitive processes which call upon knowledge and concepts that span across

those multiple languages and identities.

Although combining languages can assist in blending cultures and enhancing

communication for multiple groups, these creole languages can also draw criticism and

complaints. Rubdy, a professor of education and linguistics, reports on the negative views of

Singlish, a creole of English, Malay, Tamil, Punjabi, Cantonese and other languages originating

in multinational Singapore. Rubdy (2007) examined the perceptions and usage of Singlish

among teachers and students in the primary grades and discovered that, “despite this disparaging

view of Singlish as a stigmatized variety and explicit official disapproval, the presence of the

vernacular in the classroom continues to be robust” (p. 308). Investigating the perceptions

37
behind Singlish’ utilization in the classroom, Ribdy used a qualitative approach in interviewing

teachers and students to obtain their point of view. A few teachers reported that Singlish should

not be used at any time within the classroom, but Rigby found, “a majority of them, however,

openly acknowledged its usefulness in making the lesson seem friendlier, building rapport and

solidarity and providing a sense of inclusiveness” (p. 314).

In Ribdy’s evaluation on the use of Singlish in Singaporean schools, the emphasis on the

language was oral and informal in usage. The CS was utilized to draw attention to certain

features of the conversation and/or to make connections to the students in an attempt to build

relationships. These same motivating factors in CS will be seen in evidenced in other articles

following this discussion as this point has been noted by other researchers as well. Although the

Singaporean policies or perspectives on usage of Singlish may be negative and dismissive in

origin, Ribdy acknowledges that little research has been done to determine if Singlish, or various

creoles around the globe for that matter, have proven detrimental to other standard varieties of

language.

The main question raised by Ribdy in his research was if Singlish is a help or a hindrance

to language learning. And as mentioned, because of the polarity of opposition concerning this

contested topic, more research will need to be done to have enough evidence for either side to be

persuaded to join the other. Encouraging more ethnographic research to take place, Ribdy’s

perspective on this issue draws from recent research in applied linguistics that favors creative

and collaborative techniques to aiding language and literacy education. Toward the end of his

article Ribdy states, “Some have proposed that L2 students should learn codeswitching to

succeed in intercultural communication, while others even argue that in an increasingly

globalized world, codeswitching may need to be added as a curriculum objective, a required life

38
skill” (p. 323). It is clear that Ribdy views CS as a method to build language education in a

context of multilingual and multiethnic students.

In another Asian country whose population derives from a multiethnic and multi-

linguistic base, David (2003) examines the presence of CS in the formal court system. In

Malaysia, Malay, Chinese and Indians compose the bulk of the population and English is taught

as a compulsory second language beginning in grade one. Maya Khemlani David, a linguist with

research based on cross-cultural communication, writes on the contextual background of CS

within the Malaysian court system and the perceptions of how this language mixing is viewed.

David’s article (2003) states that, “with differing levels of proficiency and zones of comfort in

English and Malay it is inevitable that code-switching will be used in such a multilingual setting”

(p. 7).

In transcripts collected from Malaysian courtrooms, in which Bahasa Malaysia (BM) is

the official language of the court, English is often used by counsel and witnesses when they are

not able to speak BM fluently. The findings of the transcripts showed that CS was extensive

throughout the hearings and occurred in many different situations. Some people code-switched

habitually and other people switched languages when they were spoken to. Code-switching

occurred to substitute technical terms and some code-switched due to limited proficiency as

others code-switched for emphasis. Other reasons behind CS were sarcasm, coercing witnesses,

and to quote others.

The findings of this study are evidence that CS is found in formal settings and contribute

to the understanding and communication of the proceedings. Although Malaysian courts are

conducted through oral language, witnesses and counsel may have prepared their case and

statements in a mixture of languages fitting a multi-lingual context. David states that as the

39
courtrooms contain CS and code-mixing documents the extensive CS found across most contexts

of communication and interaction within Malaysia. Through documenting CS in such a

legalized, formal context contributes to the significance of language mixing and the

legitimization of its presence and function.

In another example of formal code-switching, Bentahila and Davies (2002) discuss

French and Arabic CS in music lyrics written by rai musicians. Rai music is a folk music

tradition that began in the 1930s in Algeria from Spanish, French, African and Arabic musical

forms. A corpus of 150 songs by the rai artists were examined for code-switching and analyzed.

The authors’ research drew attention to the dual language use as a marker of identities between

the in- and out-group statuses within the North African communities where those songs were

played. The rai musicians have used language to identify their origins and “have in fact explicitly

stated that they see themselves as symbols of their own community” (p.198).

The authors also noted the use of Arabic in some of the rai music was written by

musicians who did not speak Arabic, but included it in their music to relate to her cultural

background and per the musician, “it is a part of her and must be used” (p. 199). This fact is

significant because the use of CS here contributes toward the marketing and/or association of a

certain identity. In this case, a song contained Arabic because the singer/songwriter wanted to

relate to the identity of being Arabic. Adopting a language through music promotes the identity

and culture of a particular group of people as well as their culture, background and struggles.

Bentahila and Davies make other observations of the musical genre in terms of

conversational and formal CS types. Conversational CS, they report, “has an intimate quality” (p.

192) and the intended audience of a conversation is restricted. Opposed to this is a public

performance or other literary works which are intended for a broad and far-reaching audience.

40
The significance of conversational CS v. more formalized CS is that the formal CS is composed

of more purpose with regard to language and meaning. When one writes for publication or

performance, they create with forethought and intentionality. Their formal product carries with it

a targeted meaning and in this case, the rai music was meant to cross cultures and identities to

relate to more people and their interrelationships. The musicians may or may not be bilingual,

but the purpose of their music is to reach and relate to the bilingual identities of the listeners.

Another case of formal CS in a published medium is the newspaper. Newspapers have

long been a consumable product made for targeted audiences. Newspapers are as varied as their

readers as they comprise multiple socio-economic levels as well as professional and educational

differences. As identity is central in the use of language, CS expands both the languages used

and the identities that individuals and/or a whole community may belong to in both

conversational and formal forms. Lewis (2006), a journalist reporting on the bilingual nature of

newspapers in northern Spain describes, “where a ribbon of regional languages has made the

area a hotbed for linguistic risk-taking” (p. 88). Spain is publishing papers which consist of three

different kinds of bilingualism. The first is production bilingualism which publishes news in both

Spanish and a regional language within the same paper. Content bilingualism publishes in

Spanish and then mixes the local language throughout the story and sometimes reports on a

particular story in the language of the region where it occurred or where it will affect more

readers.

The third type of bilingualism is a tailored bilingual paper which may have a section

within it that is in the regional language and/or report on certain stories in the regional language.

One editor said that if a witness gives a quote in the regional language and the story will be

published in Spanish, that they will keep the quote as it was given because, “the reader

41
understands perfectly, and it’s more realistic” (p.90). Reporting the news in multiple languages

becomes a reflection of how people negotiate their day to day lives and their communications

with others. Bilingual people would naturally feel comfortable reading and discussing the news,

politics and events in a bilingual context because that is how they communicate and that is how

their identities, cultures and languages mix together.

With an exposure to the larger concept of global exchange of language sharing and

cultural identity it is important to narrow the scope of bilingualism to the specific concept of CS

in terms of definition and theory. Backus’ article (2003) moves through assumptions from

cognitive grammar, cognitive linguistics and construction grammar to establish a lexical status of

multimorphemic units that may help build a more unified CS theory. Working with CS examples

between Dutch and Turkish, Backus focuses on insertional CS and specifically shows that lexical

units should be seen as a whole element because in the majority of cases displayed, these whole

elements are recurrent and idiomatic. The evidence Backus exhibits are examples of

multimorphemic units such as plural nouns like ‘business people,” compound nouns such as

“straightforward,” idioms and verb object collocations which all share both the recurrence and

the idiomaticity to separate them as individual lexical units.

Backus states that, “though prototypical nouns, verbs, and prepositions obviously have an

important place in the lexicon, they exist side-by-side with larger units, which combine

morphemes in all kinds of syntactically possible ways and have achieved a degree of

entrenchment high enough to be lexical units in their own right” (p. 124). This article provides

evidence that enlarges the view of insertional CS to include the multimorphemic units Backus

would like to see included as independent lexical units. This is important data when analyzing

42
CS and language insertion because the explicit descriptions and examples name the occurrences

that will appear in the following articles.

With an ever tightening perspective, the global language sharing of sociolinguistics

narrows to specific grammar and lexical units of insertional CS and language alternation as the

data review moves to specific examinations. Code-switching can be seen as a larger phenomenon

across linguistic contexts where bilingual communication takes place on multiple levels of

engagement and it can also be syntactically dismembered and theorized on a micro level.

Looking at specific examples, Backus helps to piece together why and when CS takes place and

that, in turn, increases the development of more extensive understanding of the broader

connections to multi-language usage and sociocultural intermingling.

Callahan, a professor of Hispanic Linguistics, writes on the presence of CS within fiction

and non-fiction prose. The focus on the majority of CS in her research features Spanish and

English, but she does reference other data including Hindi/English, Danish/English and

French/English. Investigating the evidence of conversational CS within these genres, Callahan

examines the differences that compose formal and informal registers, their connection to genres

and the results of the communicative goals of the text. Callahan asks if CS signals a less formal

register than a text in one language. Callahan states, “texts that encourage a higher interpersonal

involvement are frequently written in an informal register, often approximating casual speech,

whereas texts in which the primary goal is to convey content exhibit features of formal register,

including more complex syntactic structures such as, for example, more embedding and less

coordination” (p. 14). The majority of fiction prose evaluated by Callahan proved to be more

informal and conversational in structure.

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 The more formal CS was found either in oral form such as speeches directed to the

Latino/a community or in written, nonfiction prose examples such as newspaper articles,

academic writing, critical essays and reviews. Callahan notes, “here it can be observed that

nonfiction will more often feature a focus on the communication of content” (p. 15). Callahan

also notes that one of her criteria for the determining the informality of a text is the presence of

taboo terms. Callahan states, “that the percentage is much smaller in the nonfiction corpus

supports a general correlation between nonfiction and higher level of formality,” (p. 15). The

results of Callahan’s investigation show that CS is exhibited in more informal, conversational

prose examples. However, it is important to note that Callahan regards newspapers as an

example of more formal prose. Although Callahan’s data shows limited presence of CS in

nonfiction, formal sources, this basis of data can be used to compare the presence of CS in the

future for tracking the potential progressive appearance of CS is formal prose such as

newspapers.

Alfaraz’s (2009) article examines language choice, register and code-switching on a

macro-level within bilingual Catholic masses performed by priests over a nine month period in

Miami, FL. The masses were evaluated and noted to contain different sections marked by both

ritual and non-ritual language in regard to factors of language alternation and choice. The six

masses were recorded totaling approximately 60 minutes each and transcripts were produced and

evaluated. Alfaraz looked at the overall frequency of both English and Spanish languages being

spoken and if they were spoken more in the ritual or non-ritual sections of the mass as well as

language alternation, code-switching within sections of the mass, openings, closings, pauses,

responses and language choices.

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 As part of the data collection, Alfaraz also debriefed the priest on her data collection and

interviewed him about his decisions and motivations for his language choices. She said that her

interview with him validated her own analysis and did not alter any interpretation of the findings.

During their debriefing interview, the priest related to Alfaraz that he planned every language

switch with the church committee that he met with each week. This confirmation shows not only

the extensive thought and decision-making of language switching in the planning stages of the

mass, but this fact also reiterates the formal register of both the ritual and non-ritual language

used.

Utilizing a formal register and ritual language, the Catholic mass is considered a more

regulated form than the journalistic choices made by writers of news articles that are part of this

present study’s data, but Alfaraz’s article did relate to language switching in a larger sense. The

author examined not what specific lexical tokens were being switched, but when and where the

code-switching occurred and for what purpose. Alfaraz notes that switching within the ritual talk

marked the opening of a linguistic routine and that switching at the start of an activity

consequently reinforced the activity and drew attention to both the language and physical actions

required. She said, “One effect of the switch between the directive and the ensuing linguistic

activity is that it heightens the audience’s attentiveness and increases its focus” (p.437).

Similar to some of the motivating reasons behind CS present in Malaysian courtrooms,

the CS used by the priest also drew attention to particular points of the mass. This utilization of

CS notes a significant function of the bilingual phenomenon. Code-switching can serve the

purpose of not only setting a tone for inclusivity among its readers or observers’ identities, but it

can also serve as a guided technique to serve the author’s or speaker’s purpose. News writing can

also validly have this effect with lexical term CS within an article. The CS draws the readership

45
into the text with a change of language. Any change may act as a transition, as was a technique

used in the mass and the court proceedings, and also as an attention getter or a concentration

technique to keep the mind alert and the observer or reader interested.

Focusing on CS in Indian newspaper articles, Bhatt (2008), a linguistics professor whose

research encompasses minorities and multilingualism, code-switching and world Englishes,

investigates language mixing, identity representations and third space. Bhatt expands upon the

sociolinguistic orientation of code-switching and news articles in an analysis of Hindi switches

in English language Indian newspapers. Basing his examinations on the context of a third space,

Bhatt argues that the Hindi code-switching represents a safe place for the old and new of India to

converge and be expressed in a publicly accessible medium.

Bhatt states, “the negotiation of cultural identity in this space involves sociolinguistic

performances (e.g. English-Hindi code-switching) that in turn produce a mutual and mutable

representation, and recognition, of cultural difference and of cultural meaning” (p. 181). Bhatt’s

concept of the third space becomes a literal place within the newspaper articles where multiple

identities can exist side by side. Bhatt also notes the significance of his research medium when

he states, “code-switching in newspapers, I therefore argue, offers one of the ways in which

cultural texts participate in the construction of wider cultural values and ideologies” (p. 182).Not

only is the third space a shared space, but it is also a published, public and formal medium of

representing numerous identities of individuals and their cultural background. Hindi and

Sanskrit substituted for English in the articles of interest are used to express terms and

philosophies related to Indian religion, class (caste) systems and cultural beliefs that would be

too space consuming or linguistically awkward to explain in English.

46
 Bhatt’s analysis looks specifically at where the junctions of code-switching occur or,

where “the local and the global co-exist with each other, textually established by code-

switching” (p.189) to identify the coexistence of this third space of cultural identity and political

and social reporting. Bhatt’s analyses state that code-switching accomplishes multiple purposes

throughout the articles examined including the expression of multiple domains of social

language, creating a socio-political consciousness of its readers, supporting a new voice of

modern India (the third space) and blending a bilingualism into a public forum instead of forcing

distinct languages into separate realms.

Examples of CS within newspaper articles in India and the Philippines accomplish

similar purposes. Bhatt relates that, “code-switching under this view is the mechanism used to

annihilate difference in a synthesis of antithetical forms, e.g. between colonial English and

indigenous Hindi, and its function is to serve as a linguistic diacritic of a new, class-based

cultural identity” (p. 182). Like India, the Philippines has multiple identities of cultures and

languages merging together in marked ways. The visible representations of culture and identity

blending together can be witnessed by two languages also meeting at the same intersections.

Bhatt reasons that this intersectionality is called a third space that transcends the newspaper and

creates in itself an expression of combined identities. My purpose in drawing attention to the CS

found in the newspaper articles in the Philippines is not necessarily to connect their presence

with a third space, but to show their formal acceptance in a published medium and to claim that

the CS is evidence of acknowledged multiple identities visible through the use of language.

Bhatt’s article contributes to the present study’s analysis of code-switching that takes

place in English newspaper articles in the Philippines due to the multiple shared similarities

between India and the Philippines and using similar data collection methods and the medium

47
researched. With many differences between the two countries, they do share the fact that they are

both Asian countries with democratic governments and an extensive history of colonization and

developing world status. They both have strong religious histories and deep cultural roots with a

growing globalizing trend emphasizing technology, cheap labor and the growing popularity of

English. My hypotheses, like Bhatt’s, relate to the connection between language and identity and

the evidence draws from the presence of CS in newspaper articles.

Similar to Bhatt’s data collection, my methods were scanning newspapers for CS tokens

and will be described in detail in Chapter Three. Both Bhatt’s research and this present study

attempt to document evidence for the formalized presence of CS within a specific context to link

multilingual communities with identity expansion. The base of my assertion is that the CS

examples in Filipino newspaper articles will show evidence to the multilingual presence in the

Philippines. An investigation into their occurrence and will attempt to ascertain if the results are

significant across types of CS categories and in their presence in general. The method collection

will be presented next in Chapter Three.

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 CHAPTER THREE: METHOD

This chapter outlines the study’s purpose and research questions, the details of the data

collection, and finally, the resources used for the data collection are described.

Purpose

The purpose of this research study is to determine if a significant amount of CS exists in

articles across different genres within the newspapers gathered. I theorize that the presence of CS

terms within nationally distributed, English language newspapers in the Philippines is proof that

CS is commonplace in newspapers (a mainstream mass media source) and accepted by the

Filipino population as a function of multilingualism. The presence of CS in a formal, published

medium creates a standard of language mixing. The CS found in such mediums (newspapers,

ads, signage) shows that multiple languages, and in this case English and Tagalog and/or

Cubuano/Visaya, are commonly used together in multiple mass media and understood by the

general population of the Philippines. And, furthermore, the precedence of language mixing and

specifically CS creates a theoretical link that parallels multiple identities, expanded and

reinforced through the use of language.

My two topics for a research hypothesis are:

1. There will be significant evidence of CS in English published newspapers from

the Philippines.

2. There will be differences in the relative amounts of code-switched words among

selected genres from the Philippines newspapers articles.

I theorize that the data collected will show evidence for possible patterns across topics of

CS terms between lexical items code-switched for Tagalog and Cebuano/Visaya from English.

49
 Materials

The criteria for which this study was chosen was determined by the CS terms obtained

through the definitions of CS found in Chapter Two. The medium through which the obtained

CS examples were gathered were mainstream national newspapers available to the average

Filipino both on Luzon Island in Metro-Manila and in a major metropolitan city, Cagayan de Oro

City, located on the northern coast of Mindanao Island, the largest island located in the

Philippines. With Metro-Manila as the origin location for Taglish, it will be interesting to

determine if Tagalog and/or Cebuano/Visaya will be inter-mixed into the newspapers available

in either location. On Mindanao, however, doubts exist as to the presence or the extent of the

code-switching of Cebuano/Visaya visible in the English language newspapers. On average,

people are less exposed to English on Mindanao and the U.S. American ex patriots’ presence is

fairly uncommon on this most southern island of the Philippines.

To investigate the presence of CS in newspaper articles from the Philippines a

preliminary investigation of online sources was conducted. Numerous examples of online

articles contained Tagalog and Cebuano/Visaya tokens and quotations within English articles.

Confirming a strong potential of available CS terms within English language newspapers travel

to the Philippines in June 2011 allowed for three weeks of English language newspaper

collection to search for CS examples for this current research study. Much like Bhatt’s article

and the research into the presence of CS in Indian newspapers mentioned in the latter part of

Chapter Two, this study also utilized scanning of newspaper articles by hand to examine the CS

phenomenon for patterns and examples.

It is anticipated that most of the data will originate from the Metro-Manila region. There

are no target subjects or participants, per se, besides the different newspapers collected and

50
analyzed. However, there are quite a few types of newspapers produced in the Philippines

including many sensational papers and gossip papers. The newspapers chosen for this study will

be only the largest circulating daily papers that feature a news focus and would perhaps be

equivalent to a large, metropolitan US city’s daily paper such as the Denver Post or Chicago

Tribune.

I have broken down the materials’ collected into two separate categories. The first

category of data, composed of a collection of 160 articles, contain CS words in isolation

embedded in the articles. That is, the words in these articles were most often nouns or adjectives

or one to two words tokens. These tokens commonly substituted Tagalog or Cebuano/Visaya for

an English noun, named an event or described a reaction. The CS terms were incorporated into

the text of the article either as an addition by the journalist or as part of a quote from someone

interviewed. These articles may have the CS word appear just once or repeated multiple times,

but it was inserted in isolation and on average no other Tagalog or Cebuano/Visaya was noted in

the article. I will refer to this section as insertional CS.

Some examples of insertional CS terms most commonly counted in this section were

examples of single nouns such as “barangay” (neighborhood) or “estero” (drainage ditch) or

“baon” (lunch you pack at home). This insertional category also contained annual events written

about in the articles such as, “Brigada Eskwela,” (a community service week of cleaning,

repairing and painting classrooms held before school begins) or regional spiritual/cultural

practices such as “boklug” which is a time of ritualized offering to the spirits to encourage

forgiveness in Zamboanga, Mindanao. Also included in the insertional CS category are short

one or two word Tagalog or Cebuano/Visaya sayings or quotations common to the Philippines

such as, “sayang naman,” (too bad) or “wang wang” (complainers).

51
 Many of these insertional CS terms were food and culturally-based words referring to

Filipino cuisine and cultural folk festivals and/or religious events common to the Philippines. As

the data was examined and counted within this category, the subject types were sorted according

to word meanings and syntactical structure. Some words appeared multiple times and have their

own category group such as food/drink while other categories are general such as nouns or

adjectives. This category of insertional CS terms was divided into three subcategories based first

on the appearance of a CS token and then according to the meanings or types of words. The three

topics are food/drink, kinship and social circles. Samples of these topics are located in

Appendices A-F. These three subcategories were sorted into article groups of approximately

5,000 words in each category and analyzed with through the percentage of appearances in the

article and a chi-square for significance both between categories and spanning across the

newspaper sections. The results are presented in Chapter Four.

The second main category of data sorted out from the newspapers articles contained

conversational CS. Compared to the insertional CS made up of individual terms in the first

category these articles had expanded Tagalog or Cebuano/Visaya language tokens imbedded in

them. Beyond the examples of multiple words or longer phrases, direct quotations from political

figures, opinion writers, celebrities and/or interviewed witnesses were often not translated into

English. In some examples whole paragraphs appeared in Tagalog or Cebuano/Visaya within the

English article as the interviewee responded in a Filipino language to an English question and

this direct quote was not translated. Some articles that contained conversational CS would

include the CS quote and then the translation in parentheses immediately after the quote (see

Appendix I, example 3).

52
 Most examples of conversational CS included longer phrases or insertions of Tagalog or

Cebuano/Visaya interspersed within the English article. However, in two of the articles occurring

in the Philippine Daily Inquirer on different days, the journalist noted that the quotation used in

the paper was translated. The first article written by Esguerra (May 7, 2011) stated, “He added in

Filipino: “So our appeal to our Muslim brothers is to look at the consequences of terrorism and

not just because Osama bin Laden [was] a Muslim.” The second article by Castillo (May 12,

2011) stated, “I thought I could post a sweep,” Orcollo said jokingly in Filipino.” In both cases

the writer translated the quotation and mentioned it was translated. Of all the articles read from

33 different newspapers, these were the only two examples of writers stating that the original

quotation was in Filipino (Tagalog). The writer’s admission of translating quotes raises a

question about other English responses/quotations in the articles and if they too were translated.

However, the original language of the quotations is an inquiry not investigated in this research

study, but a question worth critically examining at a later date or in future research.

This second section of the conversational CS data contained 112 articles. Compared to

the categorization of the first group of insertional CS which was sorted by the topic of the CS

term present in the articles, the second category of conversational CS consisted of CS content

which was too varied to be categorized by the same method. Instead, the conversational CS

group of articles was categorized by the newspaper section in which the article appeared.

Conversational CS was detected in six different sections spread throughout the newspapers

including entertainment/lifestyle, news, opinion, sports, business and school sections.

Conversational CS was also found in numerous half-page and full-page ads appearing

throughout the paper. These ads were originally sorted into a separate category to analyze.

However, only three of the collected seven categories contained articles with enough data to

53
measure at 5,000 words or above. These sections are Entertainment/Lifestyle, News and

Opinion. Samples of the collected conversational CS data appear in Appendices G-L. This

second collection of articles was also examined for the presence of conversational CS data by

section and analyzed through a percentage of CS appearances in the article and a chi-square

analysis with reported results in Chapter Four.

Data Collection

The data gathering was obtained by manually scanning a non-fiction, written corpora of

English newspapers published in the Philippines for CS terms. Collected over the course of a 17

day period from June 1 to June 17, 2011, the data totaled 33 newspapers. The individual papers

contained between approximately 56 and 150 articles based on the number of pages and sections

within each paper. The variance in length of the paper depended on the day of the week and the

individual size of each paper examined.

Out of 33 papers collected, 23 papers were the Philippine Daily Inquirer and 10 other

newspapers were composed from the Daily Tribune, Malaya, Manila Bulletin, the Manila

Standard Today and The Philippine Star. In total, seven different newspapers were collected

within the time frame and scanned for CS articles. The majority of the papers collected were the

Philippine Daily Inquirer. It was not anticipated to amass one particular newspaper, but because I

was able to collect papers that people previously purchased their preference created the larger

base of the Philippine Daily Inquirer. The newspapers were dated from March 14, 2011 through

June 15, 2011. As mentioned above, because I was able to find newspapers that had been

purchased previous to my arrival and kept around the house or business explains why some of

the papers were dated earlier than my arrival to the Philippines.

54
 Similar to this research study’s data collection, Bhatt’s (2008) methods discussed in

Chapter Two, also involved gathering newspaper data during month long visits. Bhatt’s research,

however, spanned over five years and while my study scanned 33 newspapers, Bhatt scanned a

total of 289 papers during the research period collection time. Again similar to Bhatt’s research, I

will also be examining multiple newspaper genres for specific types of articles as well as for CS

terns within the articles.

Procedure

The literature review from Chapter Two was used to define CS. In this research I will

count a CS term as the presence of a Tagalog or Cebuano/Visaya word or phrase in an English

language article from a Philippines’ published newspaper. After scanning the newspapers and

counting the incidents of CS terms, data analyses for the two research questions was conducted

using the percentage of tokens appearing in articles and a chi-square test to calculate the

significance, if any, of the CS terms from the various newspaper articles. The data collected from

the Philippines’ newspapers was sorted into two separate categories. The first category of data

was titled insertional CS and the second category was titled conversational CS.

The insertional CS category contained individual terms and words that were counted at

least once within the text of an article or title. The same term and/or word may have been

repeated within that same article and was counted again for as many times as it appeared. The

conversational CS category contained data of longer embedded statements or phrases of CS

within the articles scanned. This section was sorted by the newspaper section it was contained

within and again all of the Tagalog and/or Cebuano/Visaya tokens were counted. The

conversational CS category often contained higher counts of CS tokens as the CS consisted of

phrases, whole sentences and/or whole paragraphs in this category. Results of the significance of

55
this data investigation will be reported in the next chapter through percentages and a chi-square

analysis.

Summary

This current research examines if there is significant presence of CS terms found within a

formally published, non-fiction corpora from the Philippines. For this purpose, CS terms were

counted and analyzed for possible significance across two different categories, insertional and

conversational CS. The potential results of noted CS significance within published newspapers in

the Philippines may show that CS is present in a formal mass medium. This presence may be

further documentation that multiple languages are interchangeable within a context of

multilingual speakers. Thus, the multilingual speakers identify with multiple languages and the

subsequent identities of those cultures and contexts simultaneously.

This chapter describes the research questions and the purpose of the study. The data

collection methods were detailed through a materials discussion, procedure collection description

and subsequent explanation of data categories. The result of this data computation is reported in

Chapter Four.

56
 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS

As mentioned in Chapter Three, the purpose of this research study investigates the

presence of possible significance in CS terms found in Philippines’ published English

newspapers. The significant presence of CS terms contributes to evidence for the acceptance of

English language usage and comprehension among other native languages within the Filipino

context. And furthermore, this usage and comprehension of multiple languages within published

newspapers establishes a theoretical baseline for expanding the concept of identity expansion. In

other words, the formal, published evidence of CS contributes to a sociolinguistic basis of

understanding and relating to the culture of multiple languages learned and used within a single

context.

In terms of verifying the quantitative data, the ratio of CS within the collection of 5,000

word articles was analyzed as well as the potential significance of the CS tokens. According to

Hatch and Lazaraton (1991), the assumptions underlying chi-square analysis for this study were

met. The chi-square analysis was utilized for computing significance in this research study

because the variables are frequencies of nominal data. The nominal data are in logical

classifications, independent and there are no repeated measures associated with the calculations.

Furthermore, the sample size is large enough to obtain the expected cell frequency of five or

above.

This chapter contains two different results sections. The first section presents statistical

results that calculate the percentages of CS within the English articles. This section also analyzes

the potential significance of CS topic categories present in the scanned articles as well as

evidence of CS significance across newspaper sections. The second section discusses the results

57
of the analysis. Potential pedagogical implications as a result of the research analysis as well as

recommendations for consequent research relating to this topic will be presented in Chapter Five.

Descriptive Statistics

As discussed in Chapter Three, the data collected for this research was obtained from CS

present in a total of 272 newspaper articles and sorted into two categories. The articles in the

insertional CS category were compiled by topic terms with three main subtopics identified.

These subtopics (food/drink, kinship, social circles) were grouped into a collection of articles

totaling approximately 5,000 words each. The subtopics analyzed comparing ratios between

code-switched tokens and English tokens within the article. Finally, a chi-square test was used to

check for significance. The second category of conversational CS data was sorted by identifying

CS examples within particular newspaper sections (entertainment/lifestyle, news, opinion).

These articles were also examined in quantities of 5,000 words per article category and again

compared ratios of code-switched tokens to English tokens and analyzed using a chi-square

computation to test for possible significance. The following statistical outcome for each research

hypothesis is presented below.

Hypothesis 1: There will be significant evidence of CS in English published newspapers from

the Philippines.

Table 2.1 reports the ratios of code-switched tokens to the English tokens within the articles’

subtopics. The highest percentage of code-switched tokens appears in the subtopic category of

food/drink. Table 2.2 shows the descriptive statistics of the presence of CS terms resulting from

chi-square analysis of the insertional CS articles’ data taken from the Philippine newspapers.

58
Table 2.1

Subtopics Insertional Percentage of

Code Switched Tokens/ Code-Switched Tokens
English Tokens Appearing in Subtopics
Food/Drink 108/5050 2.13

Kinship 50/4991 1.00

Social Circles 39/4907 .79

Table 2.2

Subtopics Insertional Totals

Code Switched Terms
Food/Drink 108 27.57

Kinship 50 3.66

Social Circles 39 10.72

The descriptive analysis in table 2.2 reports the results of Hypothesis 1. A chi-square test of

independence was performed to examine the frequency of insertional CS within the newspapers

examined. The frequency of these variables was significant, X2 (df, 4) = 41.96, p <.01. The

presence of insertional CS within the newspaper articles was significant.

Looking at the number of insertional CS terms in each of the three categories, the

food/drink category contained the most CS terms followed by kinship and social circles. The

food/drink category results shows double the terms counted from the next nearest sized category.

With regard to sorting the data, an attempt was made to calculate the results of the insertional CS

terms within the newspaper sections examined with the conversational CS category. However,

when the insertional CS data was sorted by the sections they appeared in

(Entertainment/Lifestyle, News and Opinion) similar to the conversational CS data, the results

59
were low enough to see insignificance at this level and the pursuit of calculating the insertional

CS data according to this criteria was abandoned. The results of Hypothesis 1 will be discussed

further in the subsequent section, Discussion of the Results.

Hypothesis 2: There will be differences in the relative amounts of code-switched words

computed among selected genres from the Philippines newspapers articles. Table 2.4 shows the

descriptive statistics of the presence of CS terms resulting from chi-square analysis of the

conversational CS articles data taken from across the different genres/sections in the Philippine

newspapers.

Table 2.3

Newspaper Section Conversational Percentage of Code-

Code Switched Tokens/ switched Token
English Tokens Appearing in Section
Entertainment/Lifestyle 1775/5133 34.5%

News 382/5064 7.54%

Opinion 291/5044 5.76%

In Table 2.3 the entertainment/lifestyle section reports the highest number of conversational CS

terms within the newspaper articles. This category’s data more than quadruples the second

highest category of conversational CS terms in the news section. Clearly, evidence for

conversational CS is present in the entertainment/lifestyle section of the English published

newspapers in the Philippines.

60
Table 2.4

Newspaper Section Conversational Totals

Code Switched Terms
Entertainment/Lifestyle 1775 1127.06

News 382 230.82

Opinion 291 337.77

The descriptive analysis presented in table 2.4 reports the results of Hypothesis 2. A chi-square

analysis of independence was performed to examine the frequency of conversational CS within

the newspaper articles examined. The frequency of these variables was significant, X2= (df, 2) =

81.6, p <.01. The presence of conversational CS within the newspaper articles proves to be

significant. The highest presence of CS within the newspaper sections appears in the

entertainment/lifestyle section.

The types of articles in this section were dominated with celebrity, author and artist

interviews. Another type of article that contained extensive CS was gossip or commentary

articles that reviewed movies or discussed celebrities. I only included one or two of these into the

data, but one commentary article had so much CS that I highlighted the English words first as

most of the article was in Tagalog. The entertainment industry in the Philippines is very popular

across the country’s regions. Likened to India’s Bollywood, Filipino movies, mass media

advertisements and TV shows provide daily doses of the country’s favorite celebrities from

actors, to show hosts, to musical entertainers.

The Philippines has an active movie industry and is constantly airing a rotating cast of

variety shows during the day and television dramas at night. TV, newspapers and magazines all

give celebrities a lot of publicity. The data made up of the entertainment/lifestyle section of the

61
newspapers was extensive in length and variety. Although many of the articles’ authors used

English for the majority of the articles in this section, the celebrities or interviewees’ responses

to questions contained extensive CS. The CS used in these articles may reflect the celebrities’

language choice or preference. Their CS may also be used as a tool to relate to a particular

audience or to associate themselves with Filipino identity and/or English identity based on their

CS choices and intended purpose. The reason behind the choice to CS was not examined in this

research study, but a future project could examine the rationale and motivation behind CS

choices made by Filipino celebrities, artists and authors.

The insertional CS data was also examined again to look for significance across the

categories of food/drink, kinship and social circles while comparing those categories among the

different newspaper sections. This data also showed that the two variables are related (the

presence of CS tokens within the articles and the newspaper sections). With 4df for the .01 level

the probability level listed is 13.27 (Hatch & Lazaraton, 1991). I am confident in rejecting the

null hypothesis because my x2 of 48.79 is larger than 13.27.

The results of Hypothesis 2 will be discussed further in the subsequent section.

Discussion of the Results

The above descriptive analysis introduces the results of both hypotheses. The following

discussion expands the discussion of the results taking into account the corresponding null

hypotheses:

1. There will be no significant evidence of CS in English published newspapers from the

Philippines.

2. There will be no differences in the relative amounts of code-switched words among

selected genres from the Philippines newspapers articles.

62
The statistical results concerning the insertional CS data presented in Table 2.1 and 2.2 reject the

first null hypothesis because the results report that insertional CS showed a significant presence

in the newspaper articles examined in this study. The significant results of Table 2.2 point to the

presence of insertional CS tokens within newspaper articles through a chi square test. This

analysis helps to prove the utilization of multilingual tokens among newspapers, a common mass

media source within the Filipino context.

In the case of the second hypothesis, again the results display a significance of conversational

CS present when examining the occurrence of different counts of conversational CS terms

analyzed across three sections of newspaper genres. Both tables 2.3 and 2.4 demonstrate

significant results in this research study and confirm both hypotheses presented in regard to the

conversational CS data. Also disproving the second null hypothesis is the chi square test

performed on the insertional CS data. This analysis compared the amount of insertional CS data

present in the newspaper articles and then examined the differences among the presence of

tokens across the newspaper sections.

Similar analysis was attempted for the conversational CS category. The data for

conversational CS was examined first for the presence of CS among the articles and then sorted

across the newspaper sections. However, since the conversational CS data was not chosen for the

specific type or meaning of CS tokens within the article, initial analysis comparing the

conversational CS tokens to the categories of the insertional CS data was not successful. The

data collected of conversational CS tokens did not contain significant numbers of CS tokens

related to the categories of food/drink, kinship or social circles. This part of the analysis was

discarded.

63
 Conclusion

This chapter contained the results and discussion associated with the study’s research.

The results discussion utilized ratios comparing CS tokens to English tokens within the articles

as well as a chi-square analysis to report the significant findings from both of the hypotheses.

Data related to insertional CS and conversational CS was presented, tested and discussed. The

previously presented analyses will be discussed further in Chapter Five along with this study’s

limitations, possible pedagogical implications and potential for future research.

64
 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION

The purpose of this study identifies the significant presence of CS terms within a formal

published medium and establishes the presence of the CS phenomenon within the Philippines.

The purpose of pursuing code-switching research on Tagalog and Cebuano/Visaya languages in

English published papers located in the Philippines is similar to Bhatt’s (2008) research

presented previously in Chapter Two. Bhatt’s research relates to the concept of speaking multiple

languages within the expanding domains of home and reasons how identity can be construed as a

linguistically-based link connecting code-switching and a third space. In this research study, I

analyzed the significance of CS occurring in different subtopic groups of articles within English

published newspapers as well as the significant presence of conversational CS terms found

across different newspaper sections.

By examining the presence of CS terms within the medium of the common newspaper,

the premise of the hypotheses act as an attempt to note significance with regard to this CS topic.

The mixture of English and Tagalog and/or Cebuano/Visaya languages within a readily available

and popular mass medium follows a global phenomenon that speaks to a larger concept of mixed

identities and cultures visible across nations and borders. With ever-expanding relocations due to

political reasons such as war and famine, economic and academic opportunities, people are

traveling the world more frequently. As a result of this increased travel and interaction among

employees, teachers, students, business and government staff, more people have experienced

foreign languages and the cultures and identities that are connected to them.

Kachru (1992) states that, “it is a very culture-bound concept. To understand a bilingual’s

mind and use of language, one would have, ideally, to be ambilingual and ambicultural,” (p.

65
306). This is an interesting observation and essentially Kachru notes that for someone to be

bilingual and bicultural, that individual also needs to be equally fluent in moving among both of

their languages and cultures. The concept of developing a cultural identity through language

learning has now impacted many individuals, communities and regions around the world.

Repeated exposures to new languages and interacting with the people and their cultures over

time have created opportunities of learning that reach into realms previously unexplored in

homogeneous contexts.

Another contributing factor to the growth of identity and cultural knowledge is the

presence of the internet and modern business and technical fields. Crystal (2006) quotes the

Internet’s creator, Tim Berners-Lee, in his preface by stating, “The Web is more a social creation

than a technical one,” (p. ix). Indeed, the development of new, technologically based products

and services made possible through the medium of the Internet creates the need for more highly

skilled people to communicate in more languages and locations. The social implications of

communication and understanding across cultures have spurred more interactions and research

based on cultural negotiations, conflicts and meaning.

In review, the data presented in Chapter Four was obtained by scanning 33 Philippines

newspapers published in English for CS terms present in articles across multiple genres. The CS

terms were then sorted into two categories. The first category contained insertional CS tokens

from articles that totaled approximately 5,000 words per category. These terms were further

sorted into subcategories by their meaning and include food/drink, kinship and social circles.

This category of insertional CS shows that the food/drink category displays one CS token for

every 46 English tokens or 2.13% of the tokens in the article are CS tokens. The kinship category

66
showed one CS token to ever 99 English tokens or 1% of the article and the social circles

category showed one CS token for every 125 English tokens or .79%.

The second category concerned conversational CS. This category contained phrasal or

sentence level CS that was sorted according to the newspaper section it appeared in. The three

sections that registered with articles totaling approximately 5,000 words were

entertainment/lifestyle, news and opinion. Within the entertainment/lifestyle section there was

one CS token for approximately every 2.89 English tokens measuring the CS tokens as 34.5% of

the article’s total tokens. The news section contained one CS token every 13.25 English tokens

or 7.54% of the article’s total tokens and the opinion section contained one CS token every 17.33

words or 5.76%. The CS terms were then counted and analyzed using ratios and a chi-square test

to look for significance.

Research Hypotheses

The following research hypotheses were presented in Chapter One:

1. There will be significant evidence of CS in English published newspapers from

the Philippines.

2. There will be differences in the relative amounts of code-switched words among

selected genres from the Philippines newspapers articles.

Chapter Organization

Chapter One introduced the thesis topic and highlighted the main areas of research and

development. This research began with the globalization of English, a review of sociolinguistic

and linguistic anthropology research as it relates to identity and culture development and a brief

introduction to the use of English in the Philippines. The next section introduces the theories

67
behind CS and expands on the research done on that topic from various sociolinguists and

multilingual researchers.

Chapter Two presented the literature review in detail. In the same sequence as outlined in

Chapter One, the presentation of research discussed global English, theories on culture and

identity, a longer summary of English usage within the Philippine context and articles on CS and

multilingual research. This literature review presented the theoretical and research-based

background to establish a link between the learning of language and the subsequent adoption of

that language’s cultural identity.

Chapter Three detailed the research methodology employed in investigating the research

hypotheses for this project. The information presented in this chapter explains the techniques

used to collect, measure and analyze the data obtained from the CS terms present in the

Philippines’ newspaper articles.

Chapter Four contained the results to this research study and discussed the results. The

results showed significance and confirmed both hypotheses. Although the results were

significant, it is difficult to quantitatively prove the larger, theoretical issue of CS as a conduit for

cultural identity expansion in this research. It was not my intention to prove that cultural identity

is acquired with language. Instead, my purpose was to raise the possibility of language

acquisition and cultural identity being intertwined and inseparable. The concept that language

learning incurs cultural identity will require more substantial research. In this study, it is the

basis for the theoretical background of multilingual adoption and usage. And analyzing the

presence of CS may be one of the empirical research collection points to prove this theory in the

future.

68
 Pedagogical Implications

The significance of the data presented in this study suggests certain implications for

pedagogical use in the future. These implications can contribute to classroom instruction in the

following ways:

1. Code-switching can be used as a tool for learning multiple languages and cultures.

Students and educators can utilize CS examples as a medium for learning about

translation, interpretation, cultural differences and the uniqueness of multiple languages

at use within a culture and/or region.

2. Working with journalists and editors in the Philippines to establish

written/communication policies on language mixing, CS and/or bilingual reporting in

newspaper publishing sectors.

3. Journalism and mass media students can study the use of CS within their medium.

Discussions on CS/language mixing and policies relating to the presence of CS can

increase understanding of practice and philosophies regarding the phenomenon within the

multilingual context.

4. Elementary students across the Philippines take part in a journalism competition

(Presscon) writing articles, features, news stories, etc. for regional and national awards.

These students can also set policies and rules about the use of CS within their writing

competition which reflect on and/or expand the discussion of national policies.

5. Focusing on CS and its existence within the classroom will draw attention to its practice

by both educators and students. Developing a concentrated attention on the practice of CS

may help define linguistic usage within multilingual countries or regions and create

opportunities for further research within a particular context.

69
 6. On a broader scale, English teachers concerned with the extensive use of code-switching

among certain languages can be more aware of how and when students code-switch and

for what purpose. Educators can tailor more lessons around the phenomenon of CS and if

not to promote awareness of it, than to limit the code-switching in professional or

academic settings, if that is a goal or priority for them or their institution.

7. Evaluate and research the concept of portmanteau words as a growing blend of

sociolinguistic and/or linguistic anthropological phenomena. Identify the roots of

language and identity development and specifically, research where language and culture

co-exists to create a “third space” and/or expansion of one’s language, culture and

identity.

Study Contributions

The focus of this research study has two components. One is the research hypotheses and

how CS in a public record and formally published newspapers shows a significant statistical

presence. The data collection and results clearly document a phenomenon that future researchers

may be interested in expanding on. The second component of this study proposes to establish a

link between multiple languages being spoken by an individual and how those languages relate

to the subsequent increase in their identities related to those languages. This component of the

study is a concept based on a theoretical premise taken predominantly from previous linguistic

research studies and a combination of psycholinguistic, linguistic anthropologists and

sociolinguistic experts. The premise that identities and language have inseparable connections

creates the most potential for future contributions.

As in every study, this current research has limitations that may be altered and corrected

in future works. The following list contains some of the noted limitations:

70
1. With regard to the data collection of newspaper articles and the amount of collection time

spent on this endeavor, more newspapers could have been collected over a longer period

of time to establish more evidence with more data related to the hypotheses.

2. More detailed data could have been collected to analyze a single paper’s total words and

compare CS with non-CS data.

3. Also relating to data collection and expanding the scope of the current study, newspapers

could be collected from different countries or regions of the world to confirm the

presence of CS in other contexts and among different languages.

4. A further investigation of data other than newspapers could have been collected such as

public and private signage that displayed CS, government publications and/or other

written information and documents. This further evidence of CS in multiple mediums

could provide increased data for a similar study.

5. Qualitative methods could be added to this study involving questionnaires, observations

and interviews of journalists and readers of newspapers. An ethnographic approach with

data collected over a longer period of time could help track changing perceptions over

time. This data could also be collected to ascertain intentions, perspectives and beliefs

about including CS in the newspaper articles and how they may be interpreted by the

general public.

6. Another qualitative component could be to include data collection on identity

development/expansion and multilingual speakers. Again questionnaires and interviews

as well as observations of students in different settings could contribute much to how,

when and if a multilingual speaker identifies with another culture. An ethnographic study

could be done to examine the connections between identity and language.

71
In future studies related to this research, all of these suggestions can be accomplished in the

Philippines or any location displaying clear evidence of bilingualism/multilingualism. With a

continuing global expansion of languages and established multilingual and bilingual contexts,

numerous regions around the world show strong evidence for established CS practices. This

phenomenon can and should be studied extensively. This research could have valuable

implications with regard to language mixing, CS, cross cultural communication and identity

ideation to name just a few examples.

Future research on CS trends can also examine language mixing changes over time.

Within a particular region or context, language mixing can be studied over longer periods or

generations to gauge if the phenomena has grown or diminished. Factors affecting the change in

language mixing can be evaluated and used for future language studies on cross-cultural

communication, identity ideation, altering borders and a wide variety of related topics and fields

including linguistic anthropology and sociolinguistics. A written or recorded corpus from a

variety of sources examined over an established period of time may provide continued evidence

for dynamic language changes affecting multilingual speakers and global identity in our

continually shifting world of boundaries and nations.

72
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 APPENDIX A

Samples of Insertional Codeswitched Terms (Food/Drink)

1. Bibingka: rice cake

2. Balut: fermented duck egg

3. Pata: a front or hind leg of the pig including the knuckles

4. Adobo: soy, vinegar and garlic sauce mixed with meat and served over rice

5. Adobong puti: meat cooked in white vinegar and water

6. Mongo: high protein mung bean, originating in China that is cooked with water, garlic,

squash and served over rice

7. Taho; tofu that is eaten for breakfast with a sweet sauce

8. Siniguelas: a salty, juicy summer fruit

9. Suman: rice cake

10. Talangka: freshwater crablets

11. Duman: traditional sticky rice treat from the Pomponga region

12. Malagkit: sticky rice

13. Butong pakwan: pumpkin seeds

14. Pancit: noodle dish with vegetables and meat

15. Merienda: snack time usually at 10 am and 3pm

16. Lugao: rice porridge

17. Lelut manuc: chicken rice porridge

18. Sotanghon: white rice noodles

19. Buco: coconut

20. Tuba: alcohol extracted from the coconut tree

78
 APPENDIX B

Data Sources for Samples of Insertional Codeswitched Terms (Food/Drink)

Samples 1-2,

Tan-Zubiri, A., (2011, April 20) How to plan a meaningful, ‘child-friendly’ Holy Week.

Philippine Daily Inquirer.

Samples 3-5,

Tayao, A.S. (2011, March 27). Heirloom recipes, “revolutionary’ menu. Philippine Daily

Inquirer.

Samples 6-19,

Ocampo, A.R. (2011, April 20). Food and circumcision. Philippine Daily Inquirer.

Sample 20,

Villa, H.P. (2011, May 7). Boracay’s slick drink: ‘tuba’ popsicle. Philippine Daily

Inquirer.

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 APPENDIX C

Samples of Insertional Codeswitched Terms (Kinship)

1. Anak: child

2. Yaya: nanny

3. Ninyo: boy child

4. Nanay: mother

5. Ate: older sister

6. Inday: woman acquaintance

7. Tita: aunt

8. Kuya: older brother

9. Lola: grandmother

10. Ako: myself

11. Ninongs: godparents

12. Apos: grandchildren

13. Pare: male buddy

14. Lolo: grandfather

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 APPENDIX D

Data Sources for Samples of Insertional Codeswitched Terms (Kinship)

Samples 1-5,

Babao-Guball, C. (2011, May 8). Growing up with my ‘artista’ mom. Philippine Daily

Inquirer.

Samples 6-10,

Carvajal, D.A. (2011, May 9). Celebrities’ favorite memories with mom. Philippine Daily

Inquirer, p. F4.

Samples 11-12,

Goloy, A. (2011, March 27). A ‘homespun’ wedding. Philippine Daily Inquirer.

Sample 13,

Yuvienco, J. G. (2011, May 25). The art of hiring (and keeping) a ‘yaya’. Philippine

Daily Inquirer.

Sample 14,

Lazaro, T. S. (2011, May 23). The true value of war. Philippine Daily Inquirer.

81
 APPENDIX E

Samples of Insertional Codeswitched Terms (Social Circles)

1. Poblacion: town center

2. Barangays: neighborhood

3. Barrio: out of town neighborhood

4. Tagakaolos: mountain dwellers

5. Bayanihan: community spirit

6. Pakikisama: sense of teamwork

7. Pakikipagkapwatao: common cultural belief of generosity and respect directed toward

others

8. Paggalang: respect toward others

9. Filipino: someone from the Philippines

10. Cuartel: bunkhouse for farm workers

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 APPENDIX F

Data Sources for Samples of Insertional Codeswitched Terms (Social Circles)

Sample 1-4,

Alcantara, J. (2011, May 29). Davao del Sur’s hidden wonders. Manila Bulletin.

Samples 5-9

Tamayo, R. B. (2011, May 14). Why save Filipino culture. Philippine Daily Inquirer.

Sample 10,

Romana, P. D. (2011), May 31). Unchanged social divide. Philippine Daily Inquirer.

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 APPENDIX G

Samples of Conversational Codeswitched excerpts (Opinion)

1. “In a TV interview, Dial said, “Lahat po ng inmates ay nag-oobserve ng policy. Wala

pong exemption. He explained that inmates can receive visitors, limited to immediate
families and friends and explained the process. Puwede naman po iyung dumalaw, bawal
iyung inuman. Dapat pagpasok pa lamang nila, kinukuha na iyung pangalan. Ika
countercheck po iyan.

Translation: “In a TV interview, Dial said, “All of the inmates need to observe the policy.
Without any exemption. He explained that inmates can receive visitors, limited to
immediate families and friends and explained the process. Visits are allowed, but
drinking is not allowed. The names of the visitors are checked right away after entry and
they are counterchecked again.”

2. “When I got home, everyone in the family was upset at the sight of the “new me.”
My eldest bro reprimanded me: “Kung anu-ano ang ginagawa mo sa sarili mo. Gago!”
My sis mocked me “Mukha kang itlog!”
The youngest broke into laughter.
And Mama wailed, “Sa hitsura mong iyan, hinki ka na irerespeto.”

Translation: 2. “When I got home, everyone in the family was upset at the sight of the
“new me.”
My eldest bro reprimanded me: “You look like an idiot with the things that you do to
yourself.
My sis mocked me “You look like an egg!”
The youngest broke into laughter.
And Mama wailed, “You won’t get any respect with the look that you have.”

3. “I know my craft and the social discourse of my film. I have great disdain over
melodramas. Tapos na ang melodramas ng 1980s, nasa telebisyon na lang ito at wala na
sa matitinong indie films. My audience will get affected with my dramatizations but they
will also reach a certain point of critical consciousness. Kailangang nag-iisip at masaya
ang audience paglabas ng teatro at hind luhaan at naghihinagpis,” Mardoquio said, of his
decision to pull out from Cinemalaya 2010.

Translation: “I know my craft and the social discourse of my film. I have great disdain
over melodramas. The melodramas of the 1980s are gone, they only exist on television
and not in serious indie films. My audience will get affected with my dramatizations but
they will also reach a certain point of critical consciousness. The audience nowadays
should come out of the theatre happy and at the same time continue to contemplate about
the movie’s message, not teary eyed and depressed.

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 APPENDIX H

Data Sources for Samples of Conversational Codeswitched excerpts (Opinion)

Sample 1,

Villanueva-Ong, Y. (2011, May 28). Jailbirds that fly. Philippine Star.

Sample 2,

Andrion, C. H. (2011, May 21). Kalbo. Philippine Daily Inquirer.

Sample 3,

Zarate, C. I. T. (2011, May 30). Shieka’s vindication. Philippine Daily Inquirer.

85
 APPENDIX I

Samples of Conversational Codeswitched excerpts (News)

1. “Data from CHEd showed that tertiary enrollment remains steady. “Hindi naman
masyadong bumaba ang enrollment. Magkakaroon lang ng pagbabago kung saan mag-
eenrol. Marami pa din ang mag-aaral sa college pero maghahanap sila ng mura or hind
nag-increase ng tuition.”

Translation: “Data from CHEd showed that tertiary enrollment remains steady. “The
enrollment went down, but not much. There will just be a few changes depending on
where they enroll. Many will still go to college, but they will look for cheaper schools or
schools that did not have a tuition increase.”

2. “May nakikita na mga vehicles with red plates na wala nan gang logo wala ring nakasulat
na for official use only, minomonitor na naming ‘yan and I will call the attention of the
auditors assigned,” Reyes said.

Translation: “We are seeing vehicles with red plates, but also no for official use only
written logos, we are monitoring those vehicles and I will call the attention to the auditors
assigned.

3. “Simbolo ito ng paggalang at pagmamahal sa ating bansa na tayo ay proud, na tayo ay

Pilipino (This is a symbol of respect and love for our country, of demonstrating that we
are proud to be a Filipino), said Gamma Lauriol, who has been a vendor at the Rizal Park
for seven years now.

Translation: Added in text by writer.

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 APPENDIX J

Data Sources for Samples of Conversational Codeswitched excerpts (News)

Sample 1,

Aquino, L. A. & Malipot, I. H. (2011, May 30). Shift course, nursing students urged.

Manila Bulletin.

Sample 2,

Sun Star Cagayan de Oro. (2011, May 30). Report misuse of gov’t vehicles: COA.

Sample 3,

Hilomen-Velasco, S. (2011, May 28). Philippine flag symbolizes freedom, unity. Manila

Bulletin.

87
 APPENDIX K

Samples of Conversational Codeswitched excerpts (Entertainment/Lifestyle)

1. “Ang tatay ko kasi nagtratrabaho. Bihira kong makasama si erpats dahil ang dad ko, may
trabaho. Nagkikita kami sa gabi,” she recalled. “Namulat din ako sa showbusiness na
playground ko siya. Parang gusto kong may taping, I looked forward to it kasi nakikita ko
‘yun mga playmates kong matanda.”

Translation: “Father is working. I seldomly have his company because he is working. We

only see each other at night,’ she recalled. “I grew up in show business and felt like it was
my playground. I always wished there was tapings. I looked forward to it because I see
my old playmates.”

2. “Describing their unborn child as “malikot,” Alcasid gushed that these visits to the
OB/GYN (Obstetrician/Gynecologist) allow them to see “…na gumagalaw yung kanyang
mga kamay, yung kanyang mga paa, yung ulo niya…”

Translation: “Describing their unborn child as “always moving around,” Alcasid gushed
that these visits to the OB/GYN (Obstetrician/Gynecologist) allow them to see “…that
the baby’s limbs are moving and the head…”

3. “And she wants things to stay the same even when he becomes a teenager. “Feeling ko
pag-alis ni Kuya ng bahay, “O eto pambili mo ng yosi, eto ang condom mo, eto ang
pambayad ng gas.” Ganun ako. Kesa itago pa. Mas mabuting sa akin na lang sabihin.
Pero syempre lahat yan regulated. Kailangan lahat yan alam ko.”

Translation: “And she wants things to stay the same even when he becomes a teenager. “I
feel like when my brother leaves the house, “Here’s money for your cigarettes, here’s for
condom, and here’s for the gas.” I’m that way. I don’t hide it. It’s better for me to say it.
But all that is simply regulated. It is important that I know everything.”

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 APPENDIX L

Data Sources for Samples of Conversational Codeswitched excerpts (Entertainment/Lifestyle)

Sample 1,

Lim, R. S. (2011, May 29). Have you seen their childhood? Manila Bulletin.

Sample 2,

Matabuena, J. C. (2011, May 29). Ogie: Regine, baby doing ok. Manila Bulletin.

Sample 3,

Pastor, P. (2011, May 7). Mamma mia: super transforms young celebrity moms into our
favorite tv moms. Philippine Daily Inquirer.

89