23-200-0208B - BASIC ELECTRONICS LAB

(2023 SCHEME)

LAB MANUAL
 Familiarization of Electronic Instruments

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

Aim

To familiarize with cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) and to study its functions.

Components and equipment required

CRO, function generator, capacitors and resistors.
Theory
The cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is used for the display of electrical signals_ it is one of the
most versatile tools used for the research and study of electronic circuits and systems. It. displays
signals on the screen in X and Y axes as in conventional graph construction. X-axis represents
the time and Y-axis the amplitude of the signal. The oscilloscopes are capable of displaying
voltage variations which take place over a period of microseconds and nanoseconds.
The cathode ray tube (CRT) is the heart of a CRC). It is a vacuum tube which generates a narrow
electron beam which is made to fall on a fluorescent screen at one end of the tube. The electron
beam is deflected horizontally and vertically by horizontal and vertical deflection plates
respectively. The waveform to be observed is fed across the vertical deflection plates while the
horizontal deflection plates elongate the waveform in the time axis. For this purpose, the
horizontal deflection plates are fed with a sawtooth voltage generated by a time-base generator.
The controls and sockets in the front panel of a typical CRO are shown in Figure 1.19.

Div. of EEE, SOE 2

POWER ON/OFF: Turns power ON or OFF. A pilot LED indicates the status whether it is ON
or OFF.

INTENS: The intensity of the displayed electron beam can be varied using this knob.

FOCUS: Using this, the beam can be made sharply defined. This helps to take the readings more
accurately.

Vertical deflection

Y-POS: Y-position knob controls the vertical shifting of the trace.

VOLTS/DIV: Enlarges or scales down the signal in vertical direction. The knob can be set in the
ranges from 2 mV/div to 10 V/div.

ON/OFF: It turns the channel ON or OFF.

ac/dc/GND: This switch selects ac, dc or ground modes. In ac mode, the dc component of the
signal input is blocked by a blocking capacitor. In the dc mode, the signal is directly coupled to
CRO input. In the ground mode, no signal is displayed.

Time-base and horizontal deflection

X-POS: X-position knob controls the horizontal shifting of the trace.

LEVEL: It helps the trace to remain still.

s/ms: In combination with TIME/DIV switch it selects the time coefficients.
MAGN x N: It allows the magnification of the horizontal deflection by a factor n.
TIME/DIV: It varies the length of signal in X direction.
X via A: It provides input to X—X plate of CRT is fed through channel A.
CAL: Knob should be turned to CAL position to take readings.
INT/EXT: Toggle switch selects either internal or external triggering signal,

NORM/TV: In NORM position, normal triggering is obtained. In the TV (Television) position,

TV line or TV frame synchronization is obtained.

Div. of EEE, SOE 3

Procedure

To measure the amplitude of a signal

1. Switch on the CRO. Obtain a sharply defined trace of a horizontal line on the screen by
adjusting INTENS and FOCUS knobs.
2. Adjust the Y-position knob so as to make the trace coincide with the centre line on the
screen by keeping the ac-dc switch in GND position.
3. Connect the function generator output to CRO using a test probe. Switch on the function
generator. [Test probe is a coaxial cord with BNC (British Naval Connector) at its both
ends.]
4. Count the number of divisions spanned by the signal from peak to peak. Multiply this by
the scale indicated by the VOLT/DIV knob. This gives the peak-to-peak amplitude of
the signal. Half of this will give the maximum (peak) value of the voltage.
5. Repeat the above steps for various settings of the VOLT/DIV knob.
To measure the frequency of a signal

1. Obtain a sharply defined trace of horizontal line on the screen by adjusting INTENS and
FOCUS knobs. Feed the signal whose frequency is to be measured, to either of the
channels using a probe and observe the signal on CRO.
2. Adjust the TIME/DIV knob so as to see two or three cycles of the waveform. Count the
number of divisions in one cycle of the waveform. Multiply this by the time-base
setting. This gives the period of the signal.
3. Reciprocal of the period will give the frequency of the signal.
4. Repeat the above steps for various settings of TIME/DIV knob.

Div. of EEE, SOE 4

To measure the phase difference between two signals

1. Set up the circuit on the breadboard as shown in Figure 1.21.

2. Feed a 10 Vpp sine wave to the input of the circuit.
3. Observe the input on channel A and output on channel B. Keep CRO in the transfer
characteristics mode. (This can be done by turning the TIME/DIV knob to X via A
position or pushing X-Y button). Calculate the phase difference using the expression 𝜃
= sin-1(Y1/Y2).

Result

Familiarized with CRO and its knobs and studied how to measure amplitude, frequency and
phase difference of signals.

Multimeters
Aim

To familiarize multimeters and to study how to operate them.

● Measurement of AC and DC voltages

● Measurement of Current
● Measurement of resistance
● Measurement of parameters of diodes and transistors.

Components and equipment required

Digital Multimeter, diodes, capacitors and resistors etc.

Theory:

A multi-meter or a multi-tester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter), is an electronic

measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical
multimeter may include features such as the ability to measure voltage, current and resistance.
Multimeter’s may use analog or digital circuits— analog multimeter (AMM) and digital
multimeters (often abbreviated DMM or DVOM.) Analog instruments are usually based on a
micro ammeter whose pointer moves over a scale calibrated for all the different measurements

Div. of EEE, SOE 5

that can be made; digital instruments usually display digits, but may display a bar of a length
proportional to the quantity being measured.

Digital multimeter may also include circuits for: Continuity tester; sounds when a circuit
conducts. Diodes (measuring forward drop of diode junctions), and transistors (measuring
current gain and other parameters). The analog multimeter has an analog display that uses the
deflection of a pointer on the scale to indicate the level of measurement being made.

dc and ac voltage measurement using multimeter

1. Insert the positive and negative test loads in the proper place.

2. Set the range selector switch to the dc V/ac V range accordingly and connect the test
leads across the voltage under measurement. If the voltage under measurement is

Div. of EEE, SOE 6

 unknown, set the range selector switch to the highest range and work down to lower
ranges.
dc and ac current measurement using multimeter

1. Connect the negative test lead to the COM terminal and positive (red) test lead to the
terminal marked for the measurement of current up to 2 A. For the measurement of larger
current in the range up to 20 A, connect the positive test lead to terminal marked 20 A.

2. Set the range selector switch to the dc A or ac A accordingly, and connect the test leads
in series with the load under measurement.

Resistance measurement using multimeter

1. Insert the positive and negative test leads in proper places.

2. Set the range selector switch to ‘ohm’ position and connect the test leads across the
resistance under measurement.
3. Turn the range selector knob to appropriate range for accurate reading.
Measurements of continuity

After setting up the electronic circuits, it is a good practice to verify the short and open
circuits in the circuit. For this, set the selector switch to the position marked with a symbol of
beep sound. If there is a continuity (short) between the lead tips, a beep sound will be produced.

DC Power Source & Function Generator

Aim

To familiarize different types of dc power sources and function generators used in electronic
laboratories and to study how to operate them.

Components and equipment required

Dual Power Supply, Function Generators

Div. of EEE, SOE 7

Theory

DC Power Source

Almost all electronic circuits need a dc bias voltage. The dc power sources are mainly
categorized into, fixed and variable dc power sources. Some dc sources provide only positive
voltages while some others provide both positive and negative. The dc sources which provide
positive anti negative voltages are called dual power sources. Certain integrated circuits and
discrete circuits need dual power sources, The operator can vary the de voltage output from the
variable do sources using 'coarse' and 'fine' knobs provided. Most of the dc power sources are
either 0 to 30 V variable or ±15 V fixed.

Function Generator
Many of the laboratory experiments mainly need sine waves and square waves. Signal generators
provide various signals with a provision to vary the parameters of the signal such as amplitude,
frequency, de level, duty cycle and so on. Generally, in all of the signal generators, three types of
waveforms are available: sine, square and triangular. The frequency range of the signal
generators is generally 0 to 2 or 3 MHz. A knob named 'offset' is provided to add positive or
negative dc voltage to the generated signal. If the operator does not need any dc shift, by turning
this knob OFF, offset can be nullified and thus the signal can be made to swing exactly with

Div. of EEE, SOE 8

respect to the zero reference. Attenuation knobs (-20 dB, -40 dB or -60 dl3) are provided to
obtain the signals in mV range. The signal generators are also called function generators.

Div. of EEE, SOE 9

 EXP. NO: DATE:

DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
AIM:

To plot forward V-I characteristics of Si and Zener diodes and measure the static and dynamic
resistance.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Forward characteristics Reverse characteristics:

i) FORWARD CHARACTERISTICS

PROCEDURE

● Vary input voltage slowly from 0 to 5v

● Measure the voltage from voltmeter and current from ammeter
● Measure V & I values till 80mA.

Div. of EEE, SOE 10

 COMPONENTS REQUIRED

SL.NO: COMPONENT SPECIFICATION

OBSERVATION:

Si (1N4001) ZENER DIODE

V I (mA) V I(mA)

Div. of EEE, SOE 11

 THEORY

Calculations from the Graph

1. Static Resistance:

To find the forward static resistance, locate a point on the characteristic curve obtained from the
forward bias characteristics which is called operating point Q and draw a line onto the X-axis
and Y-axis to obtain VF and IF. Calculate static forward resistance using the formula.

Static forward Resistance RDC = VF/IF Ω at Q point

Div. of EEE, SOE 12

2. Dynamic Resistance:

The dc resistance of a diode is independent of the shape of the characteristic in the region
surrounding the point of interest. If a sinusoidal input is applied rather than a dc input, the
varying input will move the instantaneous operating point up and down a region of the
characteristics and thus defines a specific change in current and voltage. To find the ac or
dynamic resistance, draw a straight-line drawn tangent to the curve through the Q-point as shown
in the figure will define a particular change in voltage and current that can be used to determine
the ac or dynamic resistance for this region of the diode characteristics.

Dynamic Resistance, rd = ∆ V / ∆I at Q-point

Precautions:
● While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the diode. This may lead to
damage to the diode.
● Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
● Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as
per the circuit diagram.

CALCULATION:

Div. of EEE, SOE 13

GRAPH:

RESULTS:

Div. of EEE, SOE 14

 EXP. NO: DATE:

RECTIFIER CIRCUITS

AIM:

To design and setup half wave, full wave and bridge rectifier circuits with and without filter
and calculate the ripple factor and study the performance characteristics.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
SL.NO: COMPONENT SPECIFICATION

PROCEDURE:

● Connect circuit as shown in figure.

● Connect a Digital Multimeter across R and measure Vdc and Vrms.
● Measure Vm from CRO.
● Calculate the ripple factor and plot the graphs.
● With capacitor: MeasureV1&V2 from CRO.
● Calculate ripple factor for different capacitor values and plot the graphs.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

(i) Half Wave Rectifier:

Observe the output waveform (i) Without Capacitor (ii)With Capacitor

Div. of EEE, SOE 15

 (ii) Full Wave Centre tapped Rectifier:

Div. of EEE, SOE 16

 (iii) Full-wave Bridge Rectifier

THEORY:

Rectifier may be defined as an electronic device used to convert ac voltage or current into
unidirectional voltage or current. Essentially a rectifier needs a unidirectional device. Diodes
have unidirectional property hence suitable for rectifier. Rectifiers are broadly divided into
two categories: Half wave rectifier and full wave rectifier.
In a half wave rectifier only half cycle of applied AC voltage is used. Another half cycle of
AC voltage (negative cycle) is not used. Only one diode is used which conducts during
positive cycle. The circuit diagram of half wave rectifier without capacitor is shown in figure.
During positive half cycle of the input voltage anode of the diode is positive compared with
the cathode. Diode is in the forward bias and current passes through the diode and the
positive cycle develops across the load resistance RL. During the negative half cycle of input
voltage, anode is negative with respect to cathode and diode is in reverse bias. No current
passes through the diode hence output voltage is zero.

Div. of EEE, SOE 17

 Full wave rectifier utilizes both the cycle of input AC voltage. Two or four diodes are used in
full wave rectifiers. If a full wave rectifier is designed using four diodes it is known as full
wave bridge rectifier. Full wave rectifier using two diodes without a capacitor is shown in
figure. Center tapped transformer is used in this full wave rectifier. During the positive cycle
diode DI conducts and it is available at the output. During the negative cycle diode D1
remains OFF but diode D2 is in forward bias hence it conducts and negative cycle is
available as a positive cycle at the output. The direction of current in the load resistance is the
same during both the cycles hence output is only positive cycles.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

Without Filter With Filter

10𝝁F 47𝝁F

V1

V2

Vdc

Vrms

γ(measured)

γ(theoretical)

Div. of EEE, SOE 18

 CENTRE TAPPED FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

Without Filter With Filter

10𝝁F 47𝝁F

V1

V2

Vdc

Vrms

γ(measured)

γ(theoretical)

BRIDGE RECTIFIER

Without Filter With Filter

10𝝁F 47𝝁F

V1

V2

Vdc

Vrms

γ(measured)

γ(theoretical)

CALCULATION:

Div. of EEE, SOE 19

GRAPHS:

RESULTS:

Div. of EEE, SOE 20

 EXP. NO: DATE:

TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS - CE CONFIGURATION

AIM:

To plot the input and output characteristics of a transistor in common emitter configuration and
calculate its various parameters.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

DESIGN:

𝐑𝐁 = ( 𝐕𝐦𝐚𝐱 −D𝐢𝐨𝐝𝐞 𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐩 ) / 𝐈𝐦𝐚𝐱

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

SL.NO: COMPONENT SPECIFICATION

Div. of EEE, SOE 21

 PROCEDURE:

Input Characteristics:

● Keep VCE = 0. Slowly vary the input voltage from 0 to 5v. Measure IB and VBE from
meters. Increase IB till 80 µA.
● Keep VCE constant at 5V. For all readings measure IB & VBE from meter by varying input
voltage slowly. Increase IB till 80µA.
Output Characteristics:

● Keep IB constant at 10µA. By varying output voltage from 0 to 30 V measure VCE & IC
from meters.
● Repeat the procedure by keeping IB constant at 20µA.

OBSERVATIONS:

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

VCE = 0V VCE = 5V IB = 10µA IB = 20µA

IB (µA) VBE(V) IB(µA) VBE(V) VCE(V) IC(mA) VCE(V) IC(mA)

CALCULATION:

(i) i/p resistance :[measure ΔVBE& ΔIB after cut in voltage.]

Div. of EEE, SOE 22

(ii) o/p resistance:[measure ΔVCE& IC after cut in voltage.]

(iii) Common Emitter Current Gain:

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

GRAPH:

RESULTS:

Div. of EEE, SOE 23

 EXP. NO: DATE:

PULSE CIRCUITS - I
A) CLIPPING CIRCUITS

AIM:

To design, setup and study clipping circuits using diodes and observe the waveforms.

THEORY:

A clipper is a device which limits, removes or prevents some portion of the waveform (input
signal voltage) above or below a certain level, in other words the circuit which limits positive or
negative amplitude, or both is called a clipping circuit. A clipper is used to limit the amplitude
of a waveform to a desired voltage level. Hence it is also called amplitude limiter. There are
two types of clipper circuits, the series and parallel diode clipping circuits.

Positive & Negative clipper: A circuit that removes the +ve half-cycle of the signal is called
+ve clipper. Sometimes, it is required to remove the –ve half cycle of the I/P signal, the only
thing to be done is to reverse the polarity of the diode connected across load, such a clipper is
known as a –ve clipper.

Biased clipper: A clipper used to remove a small portion of +ve or –ve half cycle of the signal
voltage is called a biased clipper. A diode is employed in series with a battery of different volts
depending upon the requirement.

Combination clipper: In this circuit a small portion of +ve and/or a small portion of –ve half
cycle of the signal voltage is removed. They are also known as double clippers or slicers.

Div. of EEE, SOE 24

 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

1. Positive clipper with clipping at 0 Volts:

2. Negative clipper with clipping at 0 Volts:

Div. of EEE, SOE 25

 3. Positive clipper with clipping at +2 Volts:

4. Negative clipper with clipping level at +2 Volts:

Div. of EEE, SOE 26

 5. Double clipper with clipping level at +2 and –2 volts:

6. Positive slicer:

Div. of EEE, SOE 27

 MATERIALS REQUIRED:

SL.NO: COMPONENT SPECIFICATION

PROCEDURE:
● Select an input wave (sine) with 10vpp and 1KHZ as frequency from the function
generator.
● Give biasing from the battery or the power supply.
● Observe the output waveforms & transfer characteristics.
● To observe transfer characteristics on the CRO screen, feed Vin to channel X and Vo to channel Y
and set the TIME/DIV knob to XY mode
● Make sure that the input and output is connected to the X and Y channel of the CRO respectively.

GRAPHS:

RESULTS:

Div. of EEE, SOE 28

 B) DIFFERENTIATOR

AIM:

To design and set up an RC Differentiator circuit and study the response to different input
waveforms.

THEORY:

An RC differentiator circuit is constituted with a capacitor connected in series and a resistor

connected in parallel to the output. The time constant RC of the circuit is very small in
comparison with the time period of the input signal. The voltage drop across R will be very
small in comparison with the drop across C. The current through the capacitor is C 𝑑𝑉i𝑛/dt.
Hence the output is proportional to the derivative of the input. Output voltage across R is

For RC << τ, 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑅𝐶 𝑑𝑉𝑖𝑛/dt

For the circuit to work as a good differentiator θ = 900. As tanθ=1/ωRC; tan 90 = infinity. This
result can be obtained only if R=0 or C=0, which is practically impossible. Therefore, a
reasonable criterion for good differentiation is θ = 89.40 if 1/𝜔RC =100. So RC=0.0016T will
give the differentiating practically.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Div. of EEE, SOE 29

SAMPLE WAVEFORMS:

Div. of EEE, SOE 30

DESIGN:

Plot the output waveforms corresponding to different RC time constants.

Let T= 1 ms & C= 0 .01µf

(i) RC ≤ 0.16T: R=

(ii) RC ≤ 0.016T: R=

(iii) RC ≤ 0.0016T: R=

PROCEDURE:

● Set up the circuit as per the diagram of the differentiator.

● Select an input waveform from the function generator of different shapes with amplitude
10VPP, and frequency 1KHz.
● Observe the differentiator output using sine, square and triangular waveforms with:
RC = 0.16T, RC = 0.016T, RC = 0.0016T.
● Plot the output waveforms.

GRAPHS:

RESULTS:

Div. of EEE, SOE 31

 EXP. NO: DATE:

PULSE CIRCUITS - II
A) CLAMPING CIRCUITS

AIM:

To design, setup and study clamping circuits using diodes and observe the waveforms.

THEORY:

Clamping circuits are necessary to add or subtract a dc voltage to a given waveform without
changing the shape of the waveform. A capacitor which is charged to a voltage and
subsequently prevented from discharging can serve as a suitable replacement for a dc source.
This principle is used in clamping circuits. The clamping level can be made at any voltage level
by biasing the diode. Such a clamping circuit is called a biased clipper. Suppose the input
voltage is represented by the expression Vmsinωt

Positive clamper with clamping level at 0V : During one negative half cycle of the input sine
wave, the diode conducts and capacitor charges to Vm with positive polarity at the right side of
the capacitor. During the positive half cycle of the input sine wave, the capacitor cannot
discharge since the diode does not conduct. Thus the capacitor acts as a dc source of Vm
connected in series with the input signal source. The output voltage then can be expressed as
Vo =Vm+Vmsinωt.

Negative clamper with clamping level at 0V : During one positive half cycle of the input sine
wave, the diode conducts and capacitor charges to Vm with negative polarity at the right side of
the capacitor. During the negative half cycle of the input sine wave, the capacitor cannot
discharge since the diode does not conduct. Thus the capacitor acts as a dc source of Vm
connected in series with the input signal source. The output voltage then can be expressed as
Vo = -Vm+Vmsinωt.

Div. of EEE, SOE 32

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

1. Positive clamper at 0 V:

2. Negative clamper at 0 V:

Div. of EEE, SOE 33

 3. Positive Clamper at +2 V:

4. Positive Clamper at -2 V:

Div. of EEE, SOE 34

 5. Negative Clamper at +2 V:

6. Negative Clamper at -2 V:

Div. of EEE, SOE 35

 MATERIALS REQUIRED:

SL.NO: COMPONENT SPECIFICATION

PROCEDURE:
● Select an input wave (sine) with 10Vpp and 1KHZ as frequency from the function
generator.
● Give biasing from the battery or the power supply.
● Observe the output waveforms & transfer characteristics.
● To observe transfer characteristics on the CRO screen, feed Vin to channel X and Vo to channel Y
and set the TIME/DIV knob to XY mode
● Make sure that the input and output is connected to the X and Y channel of the CRO respectively.

GRAPHS:

RESULTS:

Div. of EEE, SOE 36

 B) INTEGRATOR

AIM:

To design and set up an RC Integrator circuit and study the response to different input
waveforms.

THEORY:

An RC integrator is constituted by a resistance in series and a capacitor parallel with the output.
This circuit produces an output voltage that is proportional to the integral of the input. Here the
time constant is very large in comparison with the time required for the input signal to change.
Under this condition the voltage drop across C will be very small in comparison with the drop
across R. The current is Vin/R since almost all current appears across R. Output voltage across
C is

For RC >> τ, 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉0 = 1/𝑅𝐶 ∫ 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑡

Voltage drop across C increases as time increases. A square waveform has positive and negative
excursions with respect to its reference zero. If the input is square wave, the capacitor charges
and discharges from negative voltage to the positive voltage and back. For the circuit to work as
a good integrator θ=900. As tanθ = ωRC; tan 90 = infinity, which is practically impossible.
Therefore a reasonable criterion for good integration is θ=89.40 if θ=89.40 , ωRC = 95.480. So
RC>16T will give the integrating practically.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Div. of EEE, SOE 37

SAMPLE WAVEFORMS:

DESIGN:

Plot the output waveforms corresponding to different RC time constants.

Let T= 1 ms & C= 0 .01µf

(i) RC > 16T: R=

(ii) RC > 1.6T: R=

(iii) RC > 0.16T: R=

Div. of EEE, SOE 38

PROCEDURE:

● Set up the circuit as per the diagram of the differentiator.

● Select an input waveform from the function generator of different shapes with amplitude
10VPP, and frequency 1KHz.
● Observe the differentiator output using sine, square and triangular waveforms with:
RC = 0.16T, RC = 0.016T, RC = 0.0016T.
● Plot the output waveforms.

GRAPHS:

RESULTS:

Div. of EEE, SOE 39

 EXP. NO: DATE:

RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER

AIM:

To design and plot the frequency response of RC coupled amplifier with lower cutoff
frequency 200 Hz for a gain of 100.

THEORY:

RC-coupled CE amplifiers are widely used in audio frequency applications in radio and TV
receivers. It provides current, voltage and power gains. Base current controls the collector
current of a common emitter amplifier. A small increase in base current results in a relatively
large increase in collector current. Similarly, a small decrease in base current causes a large
decrease in collector current. The emitter-base junction must be forward biased and the
collector base junction must be reverse biased for the proper functioning of an amplifier. In the
circuit diagram, an NPN transistor is connected as a common emitter ac amplifier. R1 and R2
are employed for the voltage divider bias of the transistor. Voltage divider bias provides good
stabilisation independent of the variations of β.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Div. of EEE, SOE 40

 DESIGN:

PROCEDURE

1. Connect the circuit as shown in circuit diagram

2. Apply the input of 38mV peak-to-peak and 1 KHz frequency using the Function
Generator
3. The voltage gain can be calculated by using the expression, Av= (V0/Vi)
4. For plotting the frequency response, the input voltage is kept constant at 38Mv peak to
peak and the frequency is varied from 100Hz to 1MHz using function generator.
5. Note down the value of output voltage for each frequency.
6. All the readings are tabulated and the voltage gain in dB is calculated by using the
expression Av = 20log10(Vo/Vi).

Div. of EEE, SOE 41

 7. A graph is drawn by taking frequency on X-axis and gain in dB on Y-axis on a semi log
graph.
8. The bandwidth of the amplifier is calculated from the graph using the expression,
Bandwidth BW = f2-f1 (Where f1 is the lower cut off frequency of CE amplifier, where
f2 is the upper cut off frequency of CE amplifier)
9. The bandwidth product of the amplifier is calculated from using the expression,

Gain Bandwidth product =3-dB midband gain X Bandwidth

OBSERVATION TABLE

Div. of EEE, SOE 42

SAMPLE GRAPH

GRAPH

RESULT

Div. of EEE, SOE 43