The Episcopal University

St. John’s college–Wau

---------------------------------------------------------------
Course title: Communication Skills
(3 credit hours)

Prepared by:

Mr. Paulino Aguer Bol

● Diploma of Computer Applications, Don

Bosco Kenya
● BSC Agric (Hons), Catholic University of
South Sudan

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INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Communication skills is a skill-based course. Just as we could not teach you how to
ride a bicycle by drawing a picture on the chalkboard and explaining the different
components, likewise, we cannot teach you how to read, write and process information
effectively by lecturing to you. But communication skills will guide you how to organize
your thoughts in a coherent and effective manner, so as to develop good arguments in
your essays and examinations. It will teach you how to gather information: how to
interpret it and how to present it in different ways for different audiences. Lawyers read
extensively and listen closely to clients so that they can present a well-argued case.
Social workers must take case histories from clients and must interpret their
understanding in each situation. Development workers must use written and oral
expression to explain new initiatives to communities and to persuade donors to fund
these initiatives. Teachers and pastors must explain concepts to their audiences. No
matter what your profession is, clear and effective communication will play an
important part in it.
Course objectives:
1. Enabling the students to acquire skills in writing well-organized arguments in
essay and examinations
2. Equipping the students with information gathering, how to interpret and present
them.
3. Enabling the students to improve their reading comprehension and note-taking
skills and life skills
4. Improving the students’ reading and writing ability
5. Enabling the students to have skills of effective communication in all the course
they are undertaking
Concepts of communication
Before we dive into the history of communication, it is important that we have a shared
understanding of what we mean by the word communication. For our purposes in this
book, we will define communication as the process of generating meaning by sending
and receiving verbal and nonverbal symbols and signs that are influenced by multiple
contexts. This definition builds on other definitions of communication that have been
rephrased and refined over many years. In fact, since the systematic study of
communication began in colleges and universities a little over one hundred years ago,
there have been more than 126 published definitions of communication (Dance &
Larson, 1976). Communication is essential for achieving managerial and organizational
effectiveness. Good communication helps employees become more involved in their
work and helps them develop a better understanding of their jobs. Clear, precise, and
timely communication of information also prevents the occurrence of organizational
problems. Without communication, employees will not be aware of what their coworkers
are doing, will not have any idea about what their goals are, and will not be able to
assess their performance. Managers will not be able to give instructions to their

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subordinates and management will not receive the information it requires to develop
plans and take decisions, hence communication acts as nervous system for any
organization.
Definitions
What is communication?
In simple words we can say that communication is “just to convey the message”
If we go in more details, we can take one of the following definitions:
1. Communication is the process of passing information from one person to
another or we can say;
2. Communication is the process of transmitting an understandable message from
a sender to a Receiver through certain media.
In everyday life, we pass information and messages from one person to another through
talking, writing, running errands, singing, dramatizing, and signaling.
Effective communication is vital for smooth business operations.

Importance of communication
community. Below are other major reasons as to why we communicate:-
a) We communicate in order to educate and give instruction to the people we are
communicating with.
b) To provide knowledge for instance in schools, churches, political rallies etc.
c) To give expertise and skills for smooth functioning of people in different
settings.
d) To create awareness and give opportunity to people to actively participate in
public life.
e) We communicate for Information in case you want to know something you have
to ask and be told
f) We depend on communication for self-awareness.
g) Communication helps us to understand ourselves and others
h) To develop meaningful relationships - it is through communication contacts that
i) human beings basic and social needs are met like marriages and many others.
j) Influence and persuasion - human beings spend most of their time trying to
k) influence each other to think as they do, act as they do and like what they like.

ENGLISH VOCABULARY:
1. NOUNS (n.)
A noun is a word those names persons, places, things, or ideas.
• Persons- John, Peter, Alice, Deng, Akello, Batista, Gatluak, a boy, a girl, a man, a
woman, a teacher…
• Places – Wau, Juba, Rumbek, Awil, Baselia, Marial baai, Mapel, Kuajok, Rivers,
mountain, a house…
• Things – a book, hair, soil, food, water, animals, weapons, furniture ..etc.

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 • Ideas - service, leadership, courage, Monday, sickness, pain, love, anger, hatred etc.
Many nouns can be identified by their suffixes or endings.
Suffixes are like: -ness, -ation, -tion, -ment, -tude, -hood, -ence, -ance, -ity, -dom

Examples of nouns with common suffixes: happiness, capitalization, recreation,

government, aptitude, fatherhood, existence, defiance, celebrity; freedom; wisdom;
gratitude; kingdom, carefulness
• Many times the articles/adjectives a, an, or the appear before a noun.
• The article/adjective an can only go in front of a noun that begins with a vowel,
such as an elephant.
• Many times nouns are modified, or changed, by adjectives, so be careful to
identify the noun and not the adjective.
• The hairy dog. Dog is a noun, but hairy is an adjective.
Quiz 1
Circle the nouns. Do not include any adjectives that modify the nouns.
1. Doris is a beautiful woman, but she has five bratty children.
2. What is all this craziness?
3. My patience is running out.
4. Martha, please be careful with the silver platter and the crystal glasses.
5. The improvement in your essay is amazing.
6. On Tuesdays, Mary likes to go to the museum to see the exhibits.

Types of Nouns
(a) Common Nouns
A common noun names any person, place, thing, or idea. They are nonspecific. A
common noun always begins with a lowercase letter unless it is the first word in a
sentence.
Examples: school, boy, car, dog, country
(b) A Proper noun names SPECIFIC persons, places, things, or ideas. Proper nouns
always begin with capital letters.
Examples: Wau, Juba, New York, Mapel, Bazia, Aweil, Jur River, Nile River, Imatong
mountain, God…
Quiz 2
Directions: There are twenty-five nouns in the following paragraph. Circle the common
nouns, then underline the proper nouns. USE A PENCIL.
Rebecca Motte was a great patriot. During the Revolutionary War, British soldiers
seized her mansion in South Carolina and set up defenses. General Harry Lee told
Motte that the Americans would have to burn her home to smoke out the enemy. Motte
supported the plan and was glad to help her country. She even supplied fire arrows and
a bow for the attack. The enemy raised the white flag, and the house was saved. That
night, Motte invited both sides to dinner.

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(c) Concrete Nouns
A concrete noun names something you can see, hear, smell, taste, or touch.
Examples: water, a person, a car, a house etc..
(d) An abstract noun names ideas, feelings, and characteristics. These are
things that cannot be
physically touched. Examples: Monday, trip, happiness, bravery, freedom, name, date,
time, thought, love, hatred, leadership, patience, etc..
Quiz 3
Directions: Circle the concrete nouns, then, underline the abstract nouns.
1. Martha is a beautiful name for a baby, but only time will tell if Martha will grow
up to be a beautiful girl.
2. My aunt Sarah believes that peace in the world is the most important thing.
3. I can hear the wind blowing outside my window.
4. Last summer I went to Juba city, and the heat was unbearable.
5. In the movie, Martians were invading the planet.
6. The soccer our team won the first place in the African Cup of Nation
championships.
7. Justin decided to attend the college at the Episcopal University in Wau.
8. Last year, I had earned points on my average for completing extra credit.
9. The music in the auditorium(Audience place) was so loud that my ears rang the
next day.
10. Can you see the ice forming on the windows because of the cold?
2. PRONOUNS (pro.)
A Pronoun is word that takes the place of a noun.
Instead of repeating the same noun or name over and over again, we use pronouns to
replace the nouns. Examples: John loves cake. John especially loves ice cream cake.
What is the proper noun used above? ______________________
What pronoun can replace the proper noun?_______________________
In the example above, the pronoun he replaces the proper noun John. Therefore, he
refers back to John. The noun which the pronoun refers to is called the antecedent. John
is the antecedent in the above example.
Another example: Jimmy baked the cookies, but he did not clean the pans.
Jimmy = antecedent he= pronoun
Example 1: Grace drank two bottles of beer, and she did not get drunk.
Pronoun: ___________________ Antecedent: _______________
Example 2: Bob threw the bat at Joe, but it didn’t hit him.
Pronoun #1: _________________ Antecedent #1: _____________
Pronoun #2: _________________ Antecedent #2: _____________

TYPES OF PRONOUNS
Subjective pronouns: he, she, I, you, we, they, it

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These are the ONLY personal pronouns that can be used as subjects in a sentence.
They can do things.
Examples: He goes to the park. She eats onions. We love carrots.
Objective pronouns: me, you, him, her, it us, them
These pronouns have things happen to them. They receive action.
Examples: He gave the gift to her. Mom borrowed the cash from us.
Directions: Circle the pronoun that correctly completes each sentence.
Remember to use the notes above.
Subjective pronouns are the “doers” and objective pronouns are the “receivers.”
1. Bob gave the hat to (he, him).
2. Mom wouldn’t let (we, us) go to the park.
3. Martha, John and (I, me) love carrots.
4. We gave (ourselves, themselves) a treat.
5. (She, her) got a new car.
6. They, Us) told (they, them) to go to the party.
7. The class and (he, him) are competing for the title.
8. The teacher gave the class and (we, us) lots of homework.
9. Yesterday, (he and I OR him and me) went to the mall/market.
10. Please don’t tell (she, her) about the broken glass.
Reflexive Pronoun
A reflexive pronoun is a pronoun that refers to back to the subject: Examples; himself,
herself, yourself, yourselves, themselves, itself, ourselves.
Possessive pronouns
A possessive pronoun is a noun that is used to show ownership: Examples; his, her, our,
ours, their, theirs, hers, your, yours, my, mine, its
Examples:
● The book is mine.
● That is jacket is hers.
● Please get her jacket.
Interrogative Pronouns
An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun that is used when we ask questions: like; who,
whom, what, which, whose
Examples:
● Whose book is that?
● Who called?
● For whom is that gift?
Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative pronoun is a pronoun that is meant to demonstrate or point to
something: Like those, these, this, that
Examples:
● This is my essay.

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 ● Please give these to him.
● Can you hand me that?
Indefinite Pronouns (those in the chart below)
An indefinite pronoun is a kind of pronoun which does not refer to a definite person or
thing:
Example:
Each, either, neither, everyone, everybody, everything, anyone, another, anybody, anything,
nothing, little, much, nobody, no one, one, someone, somebody, something, few, many,
both, several, others, all, any, none, some, most, more
Indefinite Pronouns are tricky to use as subjects in a sentence. Use the chart to help
with the exercise below.
Singular Plural Singular or Plural
another each little both all
anybody either much few any
anyone everybody nothing many most
anything everyone several none
neither everything others some
nobody something more
no one someone
one somebody

Quiz 4
Directions: Use the Indefinite Pronoun Chart above to select the correct matching
pronoun.
Underline each subject/antecedent in the sentence. Each antecedent is a pronoun from
the Indefinite Pronoun chart.
If the pronoun that is the antecedent is singular, you must select a singular possessive
pronoun.
If the pronoun that is the antecedent is plural, you must select a plural possessive
pronoun.
Singular Possessive Pronouns: (her, his, it, hers, its)
Plural Possessive Pronouns: (their, theirs)
1. Each brought (his/her, their) book.
2. Many of the kids have (his/her, their) class in room.
3. Anybody who wants to may bring (his/her, their) notes.
4. Neither is bringing (his/her, their) own lunch.

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 5. Someone in the corner gave (his/her, their) a cell phone to me.
6. Several of the singers in the choir gave (his/her, their) best efforts.
7. Is everyone coming to (his, her, their) party?
Quiz 5
Identifying pronouns
Directions: Circle all the pronouns. They can be ANY of the pronouns listed on the
pages before. Refer to all of the pages on pronouns to guide you. There may be more
than one pronoun in each sentence.
1. I don’t know which test to give those who were absent.
2. Mike thinks he knows everything, and that is what makes me angry.
3. Martha asked her friend Mary which movie she would like to see.
4. Neither the Jets nor the Giants played well last week.
5. Did Ali find any in those?
6. Everyone can do his homework because it is so easy.
7. I built this by myself.
8. Courtney borrowed the pen, but she returned it to me.
9. Both of us saw it.
10. Many are called to do it, but few are chosen.
3. ADJECTIVES (adj.)
An adjective is a word that describes a noun or pronoun. • An adjective modifies, or
changes, nouns, or pronouns to make them more specific or exact.
Examples: happy, fat man, thin, tall, short, long, thick, beautiful, ugly, red, black, white,
etc..
● He is sad.
● That meal was amazing.
An adjective tells what kind, how many, how much, or which one(s).
What Kind/Which Ones
beautiful, empty, first, last, those, these, happy, short, flat, long
Some of these words are pronouns, but pronouns can act like adjectives.
These books are mine. (The pronoun, these, is describing the noun, books.)
These are mine. (In this sentence, these is a pronoun because it is not describing
anything.)
How Many/How Much
several, twelve, many, nine
● A, an, and the, are special adjectives called articles.
● Many adjectives can be identified by their suffixes, or endings:
-ful, -ish, -able, -y, -less, -ous, -some, -ic,- iant, -ient
Some examples of adjectives:
comfortable, selfish, laughable, joyous, happy, careless, wholesome, patient, stoic
Proper Adjectives
•Proper adjectives are formed from proper nouns.

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•The proper noun Spain is the name of a country.
•The proper adjective Spanish describes someone or something that comes from Spain.
•Just like proper nouns, proper adjectives always begin with a capital letter.
Examples: Spanish flag, Mexican food, South Sudanese pounds, etc..
Directions: Circle all of the adjectives in the following sentences. Remember,
sometimes pronouns can act like adjectives.
1. The small, misbehaved boy was pushing his mother.
2. Many bugs like to come out at night.
3. Thirteen girls are coming to my sweet sixteen party.
4. The slimy, smelly, no-good alien stole my new CD player.
5. In the Spanish language adjectives are placed after nouns.
6. He is happy.
7. She is beautiful.
8. The room looks like a crystal palace.
9. The brown pants are thrown over the folding chair.
10. Creaky doors don’t scare monsters.
11. He and I love to eat Chinese food.
12. Most children enjoy fast-paced, adventurous rides at the amusement park.
4. VERBS (v.)
A verb is a word that tells of an action or a state of being.
● The verb tells what is happening in the sentence.
● Verbs also have tense. Tense is the time expressed by a verb. The form of the
verb tells when something occurred.
Example of tense with the verb, to fly: fly, flew, will fly, flying, have flown, had flown.
● Verbs can act as action verbs or linking verbs, depending on the sentence.
ACTION VERBS are verbs that tell what a noun or a pronoun is doing. They tell physical
or mental actions.
Examples: run, jump, singing, played, enjoyed, thought, worshiped
● I run in the park.
● He worshiped Miss Steinberg’s awesomeness.
● Dut ordered a pizza.
● I wished on a star.
● The baby slept in her car seat.
LINKING VERBS are verbs that tell us about the state of being of a noun or pronoun.
There is no action. Many linking verbs are forms of the verb, to be: be, being, am, is, are,
was, were.
Other common linking verbs: like, seems, remains, become, grow, stay, turn, sound, smell,
feel, appear, look. Notice in these examples how each verb is a link between the words
on either side of it.
● He is annoying. (He = annoying)
● We are the winners. (We = winners.)

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 ● The sum of two and four is six. (six = sum)
● That barbecue smells good. (good barbecue)

Linking verbs can be used as action verbs as well:

● The cookies tasted sweet. (linking verb – cookies = sweet)
● I tasted the cookies. (action verb)
● I grew bored. (linking verb – I = bored)
● The old man grew corn. (action verb)
● He looked angry. (linking verb – he = angry)
● I looked at the calendar. (action)
● I felt sleepy. (linking verb – I = sleepy)
● I felt the dog’s fur. (action verb)
● The movie star appeared conceited. (linking verb – conceited movie star)
● The movie star appeared in a play. (action verb)
● The light remained red. (linking verb – light = red)
● They remained at the table. (action verb )
Directions: Circle all of the verbs in the following sentences. Some sentences may
have more than one verb.
1.The dog ran after the mail man. ___________________________
2.Our favorite costume was the old witch. ___________________________
3.My sister became a doctor. ___________________________
4.He called the police because I told him about the burglar. ______________________
5.Mary seems tired._____________________________
6.The most useful book is the dictionary_______________________
7.We flew kites last Saturday._______________________________
8.John is one of my closest friends.____________________________
9.Yesterday was a long day._______________________________
10. Jack dropped the phone in terror__________________________________
11. The baby cried loudly._____________________________
12. Timmy looked at the clock__________________________
13. I hate cookies, but she loves them.__________________________
14. I grew a mustache.___________________________________
15. My anger became stronger as I watched him eat the last slice of
pie.______________________
5. ADVERBS (adv.)
An adverb is a word that Modifies, or describes, verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs
● They answer one or more of the following questions:
● When/Time, How, Where/Place, To what extent/Degree
● Many end in -ly
HOW: fast, slowly, well, poorly, oddly, crazily
Walk fast. (How do you walk?)

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 How did you spend your vacation?
Please walk carefully.
WHEN/TIME: always, usually, never, forever, now, then, later, soon, tomorrow
o Now I will go to the park. (When will I go?)
o He went to the park now.
o He will now go to the park.
WHERE/PLACE: away, here, inside, there, up, down,
We are inside. (Where are we?)
The car is outside.
Here is Lou.
TO WHAT EXTENT/DEGREE: too, very, so, more, least, quite, not, almost
o We are almost there. (To what extent am I there?)
o That is quite all right.
o It is very cold outside.
o It is so boring in here.
o I am too tired.
Adverbs can modify adjectives.
Her gown is too beautiful. (The adverb too describes the adjective, beautiful.)
Adverbs can modify adverbs.
o The fire blazed too dangerously. Too tells “to what extent” the fire blazed and
dangerously tells “how” the fire blazed.
Adverbs may come before or after the word that they modify.
o We often complain about the cooking.
o We complain often about the cooking.
Adverb_________________ Question Answered ____________ Word modified____________
When adverbs modify verb phrases, they often come in the middle of the phrase.
Linda did not know the answer to the riddle.
Adverb_________________ Question Answered ____________ Words modified_________
Falling stars are often seen in September.
Adverb_________________ Question Answered ____________ Words modified_________
For emphasis, sometimes a writer begins a sentence with an adverb, separating it from
the word it modifies.
Suddenly, the door opened.
Adverb_________________ Question Answered ____________
Word modified____________
Finally, after hours of climbing, we came to the end of the trail.
Adverb_________________ Question Answered ____________
Word modified____________
When does school start?
Adverb_________________ Question Answered ____________
Words modified___________

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 Directions:
A.Circle the adverbs in each sentence. Sentences may have more than one adverb.
B.Draw an arrow from the adverb to the word that it modifies (describes).
C.On the line, write what question (How, When, Where, To What Degree) the adverb
answers.
1. In 2013, Ms. Steinberg joyously welcomed chickens to her home. ________________
2. The chickens, Minnie, Mia, and Lucy, ate through the grass very ________________
greedily.
3. The visiting duck had been waddling peacefully for weeks before. ________________
4. The duck was completely confused as to what these birds were ________________
doing.
5. The duck loudly quacked for Ms. Steinberg to remove the chickens. ________________
6. Unfortunately, Ms. Steinberg grew to love the furry friends. ________________
7. Then, the duck flew off to a less crowded yard. ________________
Ms. Steinberg was saddened that the duck left, and she walked inside ________________
solemnly
The chickens did not even notice the duck was gone. ________________
Later, Ms. Steinberg was amazed to greet a new arrival, a skunk ________________

Directions:
Circle the adverb in each sentence. Draw an arrow from the adverb to the word that it
modifies.
One sentence contains two adverbs.
1. Squirrels can usually be seen in Ms. Steinberg’s yard.
2. Most squirrels do not seem to be afraid of people.
3. Often, they enjoy human company.
4. They can chatter noisily among themselves.
5. They search endlessly for things to eat.
6. People who feed squirrels frequently, like Ms. Steinberg, find that squirrels
recognize them.
7. Fluffy squirrels are the most attractive squirrels.
8. Ms. Steinberg also has many birds that come to visit.
9. Some birds are completely yellow while some are red, blue, or orange.
10.They can glide beautifully from a tree to the ground, and some like to come
close to eat peanuts from the deck.
6. PREPOSITIONS (prep.)

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 o Words that point
o Words that show the relation of a noun or pronoun to some other word in a
sentence.
o They never stand alone.
Common Prepositions: aboard, about, above, across, after, against, along, among,
around, as, at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, by, down, during,
except, for, from, in, in front of, inside, instead, into, like, near, next to, of, off, on, out, out
of, outside, over, past, since, though, throughout, to, toward, under, underneath, unlike,
until, up, up to, upon, with, within, without
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE
Prepositions never stand alone. They are always used with a noun or pronoun that is
called the object of the preposition. The noun or pronoun usually comes after the
preposition.
The preposition and its object are known as a prepositional phrase. • A phrase is a
group of words.
Examples:
He jumped over the mountain. The phrase is over the mountain. The
preposition is over, and its object is mountain. The preposition over shows the
relationship between He and mountain.
The girl in the heavy coat was very warm. The phrase is in the heavy coat. The
preposition is _______________ and its object is_______________.
1.The plane flew through the thick clouds in the rainstorm. The phrases are through the
thick clouds and in the rainstorm. The first preposition is _________ and its object is
______________.
The second preposition is _____________ and its object is _____________.
Directions: For each sentence, list three prepositions that could complete the sentence.
Make sure that they make sense. (Notice how different prepositions change the
relationship between the words.)
1. She saw the cartoons __________ dinner. ___________, __________, ______________
2. Two friends walked ___________ the river. ____________, ____________, ___________
3. My fishing tackle is ___________ the box. _____________, ______________,
4. The scout crawled ____________ the fence. _____________, _____________, _______
5. I could hardly see the woman _______ the window. _____________, ___________,
_____
Directions: Below are several groups of words that contain prepositional phrases. Circle
the prepositional phrase.
1. a pad of paper 6. a cottage on the lake
2. searched at night 7. one of you
3. a friend of mine 8. two among many
4. delighted by the good news 9. the display of books
5. a bird outside my window 10. flying far above the clouds

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Directions: Find the prepositional phrases in each sentence. Underline the prepositional
phrases. Circle the preposition in each phrase. Sentences may have more than one
phrase.
1. Ms. Steinberg’s house located in eastern Suffolk County.
2. She is grateful to have many creatures that come to her yard.
3. She has seen fox and deer from her deck.
4. Often, chipmunks scurry across the lawn.
5. For fun, Ms. Steinberg likes to feed all the creatures.
6. The creatures have to watch above their heads for signs of the hawks.
7. Ms. Steinberg also enjoys feeding the fish in her pond.
8. In the winter, the fish can survive without help.
9. When it gets warmer, they come to the surface ready for food.
10. There is never a dull moment at Ms. Steinberg’s house.
Adverbs and Prepositions
Some words may be used as prepositions OR as adverbs.
A preposition always has an object. An adverb never does.
Examples:
● The woman got off her horse. Off is a preposition because its object is horse.
● The woman rode off. Off is an adverb. There is no object. Off tells where.
● The bear walked around and then went inside. Around and inside are used as
adverbs. They modify the verbs walked and went.
● The bear walked around the yard and then went inside the cabin. Around and
inside are used as prepositions. Their objects are yard and cabin.
Directions: The italicized and bolded words are adverbs or prepositions. Identify the
word as an adverb or preposition and write adv. or prep. on the line.
1. In the story, the boy fell off and was washed ashore.
2. The island was greatly feared by all sailors who passed by.
3. Among sailors the lighthouse was feared to be haunted
4. He looked for several hours and then he gave up.
5. A man with a revolver in his hand answered the door.
6. I went inside and was amazed by the mess I saw.
7. The boy wished he could get out, but he was stuck inside the box
8. The flour is above the cabinet
9. Did you look under the table?
10. The ship went under, but we managed to get into a lifeboat
7. CONJUNCTIONS (conj.)
A conjunction is a word that can join words: It can join words, phrases, and it can also
join two sentences
Examples
● Jim and Peggy are friends.

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 ● That gift was pretty but useless. Mail is delivered rain or shine.
● We neither ate nor drank at the party.
Conjunctions can join phrases:
● We listened to the code and reported it accurately.
● We were all alone but not bored. You can’t find it so stop looking.
Conjunctions can join sentences.
● Melba is waiting for the mail, and Mother is expecting a call.
● I love pizza, yet I don’t really care for spaghetti.
● I danced while he sang.
● Because I work hard, I do well in examinations.
● I will go if you go.
There are two types of conjunctions: coordinating and subordinating. Coordinating
conjunctions join independent clauses, while the subordinating conjunctions join
dependent clauses.
SUBJECTS, PREDICATES, CLAUSES
● A subject can ONLY be a noun or pronoun. A subject is who or what the
sentence is about.
● To find the subject, ask who or what is doing something or whom or what is
being talked about.
Some examples of subjects are:
● John planned to go fishing.
● The tire went flat.
● A bird ate all the tomatoes.
● An eagle has sharp talons
● Savannah and Mallory went to the beach about an hour ago.
● The boy and his dog ventured across the open field.
● A man with his child tried to survive the winter.
● The fox and the wolf stalked the hen house together
● A predicate MUST include a verb. It may also include other words that relate to
the verb. A predicate is the part of the sentence which has a verb and more
information about the subject or the action that is being performed. Examples:
● Marley plays for the International Volleyball Team.
● Mazeeka, Raimy and I are meeting next weekend.
● The school is closed today.
● Jenita and her sister / will be moving to Hyderabad by the end of this month.
● My mom takes care of our every need.
● The children were playing cricket.
● No one had arrived.
● The pencil tip was broken.
● I baked a cake and gave it to my friends
● This is everything I expected

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 A clause consists of a subject and a predicate. It is categorized into,
independent, dependent, or subordinating clause.
An INDEPENDENT CLAUSE is a subject and predicate that expresses a complete
thought. In other words, it is a complete sentence.
A DEPENDENT or SUBORDINATING CLAUSE depends on another sentence to
help it express a complete thought. It is a clause, so it contains a subject and
predicate, but it begins with a subordinating conjunction, and it DOES NOT
express a complete thought without help. It is a fragment.
INDEPENDENT CLAUSES are independent because they do not need “help” to
express a complete thought.
Examples of a clause:
● As soon as I reach the office (dependent or subordinate clause)
● I did not bring my umbrella. ( independent clause)
● When the little boy saw his mom (dependent or subordinate clause)
● Collect your parcel from the courier office. ( ...
● Though we left home early (dependent or subordinate clause)

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS can be used to join two independent clauses.

The coordinating conjunctions are easy to remember using the acronym
FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so . When you join two independent clauses
together using one of the FANBOYS, there must be a comma before the
conjunction.
If you do not put a comma, you create a run-on. A run-on is when two clauses are
joined incorrectly.
Example 1:
Kyle read. (independent clause)
Martha slept. (independent clause) Combined: Kyle read, and Martha slept.
The two clauses are joined with the FANBOY and. Notice that there is a comma before
the conjunction.
Example 2:
Jim ran quickly. (independent clause). Jane walked slowly. (independent clause)
Combined:
Jim ran quickly, but Jane walked slowly. The two clauses are joined with the FANBOY,
but. Notice, there is a comma before but.
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS introduce dependent, or subordinating, clauses that
cannot stand alone. These clauses create fragments unless they are “fixed” by adding
another clause to them to complete the thought.
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS include the following:
after, although, as, as if, as long as, as much as, as soon as, as though, because, before,
even though, how, if, in order, that, since, so that, than, though, unless, until, when,

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whenever, where, wherever, while. Example of a subordinating or dependent clause:
While Jim ran.
This is a dependent clause because it has a subject, Jim, and a verb, ran. HOWEVER, it
is dependent on another clause to complete the thought because it begins with the
subordinating conjunction “While.”
We don’t know what Jim did WHILE he ran. You must add another clause to complete
the thought.
Example of two clauses joined together: While Jim ran, he listened to music. The
second clause, he listened to music, tells us what Jim did while running. Now, the
thought is complete.
Notice that there is a comma in between the two clauses. If you begin a sentence with a
subordinating conjunction, you must have a comma after the first thought is
completed.
The same two clauses are joined here in a different way:
Jim ran while he listened to music. No comma is necessary because the subordinating
conjunction is in between the two clauses.
EXERCISE A: Highlight the conjunction in each sentence.
1. Use or to join two adjectives.
2. Use but to join two sentences.
3. Use and to join two adverbs.
4. Use after to create a subordinating clause.
5. Use for to create a prepositional phrase.
What is a Paragraph?
The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines “paragraph” as “a subdivision of a written
composition that consists of one or more sentences, deals with one point or gives the
words of one speaker, and begins on a new usually indented line”.
The Oxford English Dictionary defines it as “[a] distinct section of a piece of writing,
usually dealing with a single theme and indicated by a new line, indentation, or
numbering.”
8. The Structure of a Paragraph
Topic Sentence (T.S.)
Supporting Sentences (S.S.)
Closing Sentence (C.S)
Topic Sentence (Main Idea)
A topic sentences usually at the beginning of a paragraph. It expresses the main idea of
the paragraph. It Provides additional information related to the characteristics of the
paragraph (narrative, expository, descriptive, and persuasive).
Supporting Sentences
A supporting sentence provides information that strengthens the topic sentence. It
typically consists of a minimum of three sentences. It elucidates (explains clearly) the
main idea by explaining, describing, stating a consequence, or providing examples.

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Closing Sentences
A closing sentence tells the reader that your paragraph is ending. It summarizes the
discussions of your paragraph. It includes the key points of your paragraph. It creates a
transition to the next paragraph. The supporting sentences are also called concluding
sentences.
EXAMPLE #1:
My hometown is famous for several amazing natural features (T.S.). First, it is noted for
the Wheaton River, which is very wide and beautiful (S.S.#1). On either side of this river,
which is 175 feet wide, are many willow trees which have long branches that can move
gracefully in the wind (S.S.#2). Also, on the other side of the town is Wheaton Hill, which
is unusual because it is very steep (S.S.#3). The third amazing feature is the Big Old
Tree (S.S.#4). This tree stands two hundred feet tall and is probably about six hundred
years old (S.S.#5). These three landmarks are truly amazing and make my hometown a
famous place (C.S.).
About Example #1:
The first sentence introduces and states the main idea: Natural features that make the
person’s hometown famous. The supporting sentences mention three natural features
and gives details about each one. The closing sentence re-states the main idea.
The Paragraph Outline:
Paragraph #1
Topic Sentence (main idea of the paragraph)
Supporting sentence #1
Supporting sentence #2
Supporting sentence #3
Closing sentence
Paragraph Outline Example:
Topic Sentence:
Although most people consider piranhas to be quite dangerous, they are, for the most
part, entirely harmless.
Supporting Sentence 1:
Piranhas rarely feed on large animals; they eat smaller fish and aquatic plants.
Supporting Sentence 2:
When confronted with humans, piranha’s first instinct is to flee, not attack.
Supporting Sentence 3:
Far more piranhas are eaten by people than people are eaten by piranhas.
Closing sentence:
If the fish are well-fed, they won’t bite humans.
Summary, Coherence, and Order in a Paragraph
What Does Having Unity in a Paragraph Mean?
● The paragraph focuses on the main idea expressed in your topic sentence.
● The supporting sentences explain and build on the main idea.

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 ● The closing sentence ends the paragraph with the same idea.
What is Coherence in a Paragraph?
● It establishes a relationship among the ideas presented in a paragraph.
● It uses transitions to show the connection among ideas. You may use
transitional phrases or words, as well as sentences that point towards the next
idea.
● It uses details to ensure the relationship among ideas is clear.
● It helps the reader to understand the paragraph.
We also have a great module on transitions on our webpage!
What is Order in a Paragraph?
Establishes a logical and clear train of thought.
Indicates how your ideas will be expressed.
Denotes why these ideas are expressed in a specific manner.
Steps for Building a Paragraph
Narrative Paragraph
Narrates an event. Example:
Last year was the first time I had ever been the new kid at school (T.S.). For the first four
days, I was completely alone (S.S.). Finally, at lunch on the fifth day, Karen walked past
me (S.S.). Even though I was new, I knew Karen was popular (S.S.). Soon, her friends
were sitting right next to me (S.S.). I never became great friends with Karen, but after
lunch that day, it seemed like they were happy to be my friend (S.S.). You cannot
convince me that Karen did not know what she was doing (S.S.). I have a great respect
for her, and I learned a great deal about what it means to be a true leader (C.S.).

Expository Paragraph
Informs the reader about a subject of your choice. Example:
On July 16, 1969, the Apollo 11 spacecraft launched from the Kennedy Space Center in
Florida (T.S.). Its mission was to go to the moon (S.S.)! The crew consisted of Neil
Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Buzz Aldrin (S.S.). The spacecraft landed on the moon
in the Sea of Tranquility, a basaltic flood plain, on July 20, 1969 (S.S.). The moonwalk
took place the following day. On July 21, 1969, at precisely 10:56 EDT, Commander Neil
Armstrong emerged from the Lunar
Module and took his famous first step onto the moon’s surface (S.S.). He declared,
“That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind!” (S.S.). It was a
monumental moment in human history (C.S.)!
Descriptive Paragraph
Describes something in detail. Example:
Sunset is the time of day when our sky meets the outer space solar winds (T.S.). There
are blue, pink, and purple swirls, spinning and twisting, like clouds of balloons caught in
a whirlwind (S.S.). The sun moves slowly to hide behind the line of horizon, while the
moon races to take its place in prominence atop the night sky (S.S.). People slow to a

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 craw, entranced, fully forgetting the deeds that must still be done (S.S.). There is a
coolness, a calmness, when the sun does set (C.S.).
Cause and Effect Paragraph
States a cause and its consequences (effects). Example:
The lack of rain and snow has horrible effects on farmers (T.S.). With no rain their land
dries up, and it is very difficult to grow anything (S.S.). When the crops fail, the farmers
do not have any choice but to get a second job in order to make the money they need
(S.S.). Farming is a full-time job and with a second job, farmers are overworked,
stressed, and even depressed (S.S.). Many farmers end up selling their land (S.S.). That
is why when there is no rain, you notice that most of the farmers are upset (C.S.).
Persuasive Paragraph:
Tries to convince the reader of a specific topic. Example:
Hunters, hikers, and park recreationalists should turn in poachers (T.S.). Poachers are
people who kill animals illegally by hunting without a proper permit (S.S.). Not only is it
cruel to leave an animal carcass, but it can also spread disease among other animals
(S.S.). That is why it is important we turn poachers in (S.S.). The first thing that can be
done is calling the authorities (S.S.). When a call is placed, the operator will ask some
questions. So when you see this happening, write the information of the person down
(S.S.). The second thing a person can do is try to get on the Internet (S.S.). There you
can find out more information about what you need to do (S.S.). If anyone sees one of
these illegal acts being done, now

FORMS OF COMMUNICATION: VERBAL AND NONVERBAL

The communication process can take any of the four forms—verbal and nonverbal.
Both forms usually operate together in the majority of messages you send and receive.
Spoken or oral and written are both forms of verbal communication while nonverbal
consists of visual and audio-visual.
VERBAL COMMUNICATION
1.Oral
2.Written
3.Visual
4.Audio visual
Types of verbal communication
1.Face to face communication: involves the speaker and the listener interacting face to
face such as in dyadic, small group or public speaking.
2.Telephone conversation: involve two people interacting by use of telephone though it is
possible for a small group by means of teleconferencing.
3.The radio: makes it possible to speak to a large number of people at the same time.
4.Written communication: involves use of written forms of communication such as letters,
memos, reports, circulars, etc.
Spoken and Written Communication

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Oral communication is more natural and immediate; we speak to communicate in
natural and informal situations. We also speak in formal and official situations such as
making a presentation or taking an interview when the target audience is present.
Written communication has to be used when the other person is not present and is not
available on the telephone. Long and complex messages are best conveyed in writing.
Attributes/Features of Spoken and Written Communication
Oral and written communications have different attributes which have to be taken into
account in choosing which one to use in a particular situation.
(i) Speed: Written communication is slower in preparation
(ii)Record: Written communication serves as a record and can be used for future
reference. i.e. as legal evidence.
(iii) Precision and accuracy: Written communication is more precise and accurate
than oral.
(iv) Choice of precise words is possible in written communication because the writer
has the time to look for suitable words and phrases,
(v) Length: A written message is usually shorter than an oral communication. The
situation of oral communication requires some preliminary and closing remarks
(vi) Expense: Written communication requires stationery, preparation, and
transmission, all of which cost money.
(vii) Body Language: Oral communication is supported by the speaker's body
language and paralanguage.
(viii) Feedback: Oral communication allows immediate feedback
(ix) Formality: Spoken language tends to be less formal than written language.

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
Nonverbal communication is all communication that is not spoken or written.
Nonverbal communication has a great impact and influence on the receiver’s decoding
or interpretation of any message.

Types of nonverbal communication

1. Body Movement (body language)
The study of body movement is known as kinesics and it deals with all the ways people
use their bodies to communicate or enhance their verbal communication. Body
movement includes posture, gestures, facial expressions, and eye contact.
2. Paralanguage
Paralanguage is how we speak. Paralanguage includes pitch, volume, rate, and quality.
Pitch refers to the highness or lowness of our voice. The pitch of our voice is primarily
determined by the physical length and thickness of our vocal chords, but it can rise if
we are frightened, anxious, or excited, and it can lower if we are attempting to sound
more powerful or authoritative.
Volume refers to the relative softness or loudness of our voice. We often speak in a

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 characteristic volume; some individuals talk loudly, whereas others talk in almost a
whisper.
Quality refers to the overall sound of our voice. Each human voice has a distinctive
tone. The quality of one’s voice may be characterized as soothing, harsh, strident, or
calm. We each have a distinctive quality to the way we sound. Can you recall your
mother’s voice? Your father’s voice? Your best friend’s voice? Often, when answering the
telephone, we immediately recognize the caller by his or her voice quality.
3.Personal Presentation
Our clothing is one of the most obvious and public displays of who we are and what we
want to communicate to others. The primary consideration is popularity, attractiveness,
and status. We can create a variety of public images simply by the clothing we wear.
4.Proxemics
Proxemics, the study of our use of space, and was first introduced by anthropologist
Edward Hall in his book The Hidden Dimension. By observing conversations between
people, Hall discovered that our personal space could be broken down into four zones
or distances:
Intimate distance (0 to 18 inches) is reserved for intimate activities include making
love, holding intimate or confidential conversations, hugging, kissing, and snuggling.
This is often referred to as our “personal bubble.” Only our most intimate relationships
are permitted into this area. If an uninvited person invades our personal bubble, whether
it’s a stranger sitting next to us on an empty bench or a person getting too close for
comfort during a conversation, we usually move away slightly to maintain our intimate
distance.
Personal distance (18 inches to 4 feet) is used for most conversations with family,
friends, and most acquaintances.
Social distance (4 to 12 feet) is the distance we feel most comfortable with
transacting business, sitting during committee meetings, and interacting with the hotel
clerk, the supermarket cashier, or the police officer giving us a ticket.
Public distance (12 to 25 feet) is used for public ceremonies, speeches, large group
meetings, and class lectures.
Sign language is a form of non-verbal communication commonly used for the
hearing impaired. It involves the use of hands to make symbolic gestures which have
specific meanings.

Importance of nonverbal communication

(a) Non-verbal methods have quicker grasp by the receiver.
(b) Visual non-verbal methods aid verbal communication; maps, charts and graphs are
necessary for conveying information or plans related to geography, locations, data, and
most of the sciences.
(c) Response to visuals and plain sounds is more powerful than to language. A cry of
agony arouses stronger response than a sad story; a film is more effective than a

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 written story. TV news is more interesting than on radio.
(d) It is the best method to convey information to illiterate people. Containers of
poisons are marked with a skull and cross-bones as a warning; illiterate drivers manage
with the non-verbal traffic signals. Films are used to explain processes to people who
may not follow oral explanations easily. Nonverbal communication can overcome the
barrier of language.
(e) Sign language helps the hearing impaired to communicate, learn and be able to
work like any other physically normal persons.

Functions of non-verbal communication

a)Message reinforcement or complementation of verbal messages, for example, a warm
welcome and a firm handshake.
b)Negation of the verbal message.
c)Message substitution, i.e. using nonverbal without verbal communication such as
pointing.
d)Message accentuation/intensification i.e. smiling as you say, “It is nice to meet you.”
e)Message regulation, i.e. lowering the voice to mark the end of a turn or eye contact to
nominate the next speaker.

9. STUDY SKILLS
Study skills or the study strategies are approaches applied to learning. They are
generally critical to success in school and are considered essentially for acquiring good
grades and are useful for which students may tackle the process of organizing, retaining
information or dealing with assessments. They include mnemonics which is the
retention of lists of information, effective reading, and concentration techniques as well
as efficient note taking. Any planning skills can be termed as study skills, and this could
include time management and motivational techniques (Educational Resources
Information Center, 2009).
Study Skills are discrete techniques that can be learned, usually in a short time, and
applied to all or most fields of study. They must therefore be distinguished from
strategies that are specific to a particular field of study e.g. music or technology, and
from abilities inherent in the student, such as aspects of intelligence or learning style.
9.1 Effective study
Good study habits include many different skills such as time management, self-
discipline, concentration, memorization, organization, and effort. That desire to succeed
is important, too. For you to be able to study effectively and be successful in your
studies consider following the following tips to effective studying:-
1. Attend class lectures - this is the simplest way to learn how to study effectively.
If you do not go to class, you will not know which items are absolutely crucial to

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 study (Gerhard, 2011). In addition, you will not be able to listen to the lectures or
obtain handouts (Gerhard, 2011)
2. Sit in the front of the class to avoid distractions if talkative students in the back
of the class disturb you, try to sit where you won't notice them (Blogger, 2012).
3. State your intention on why you are studying and what do you intend to gain
from it? Ask yourself this question every time you sit down to study. Half-hearted
or distracted studying is a waste of time. Relate studying to your life goals. If
your life and future depended on how well or how much you studied, would it
make sense to do it well? If you cannot see the point in studying, it will only make
it boring and tedious.
4. Set goals – if you don’t know what you want to achieve as a student, you won’t
know how to get there/if you have accomplished it.
5. Prioritize your time and put off other activities to allow for adequate study time.
You may find it necessary to postpone or eliminate certain activities in order to
fulfill your goals as a student. Take responsibility for yourself and recognize that
in order to succeed you need to make decisions about your priorities, your time,
and your resources (Cottrell, 2011)
6. Know your learning style - develop techniques and strategies for compensating
for possible differences between your learning style and your instructor’s
teaching style
7. . Be an active reader; be a text detective: ask your text good questions and it will
yield good answers.
8. Ask questions - It is important to make sure that you get the answers to your
questions right away. Do not wait until you have studied the material several
times and you still do not understand it. Get help right away (Gerhard, 2011).
9. Make friends - having a friend in your class can be an invaluable resource. You
could help each other learn how to study effectively together by quizzing each
other on the material.
10. Take notes – make small notes of all the chapters you have learned and revise
them regularly (Gyanguru, 2009). Condense and synthesize reading, lectures, and
discussions. Write down everything you think is important. If you hear an
unfamiliar term, write it down so that you can look up the definition later
(Gerhard, 2011). Try to make them attractive by adding flow charts, diagrams and
sketches which will help you revise quickly (Gyanguru, 2009).
11. Organize your study materials - if you organize your materials as you proceed
through a course, you will retrieve information with greater ease later
([email protected])
12. Read ahead - although this can seem hard to do when you are already so busy,
try to read the material before you attend the class (Gerhard, 2011). If you
accomplish this, then you will be exposed to the material a second time. It could
begin to cement new concepts and terms. In addition, you can ask for

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 clarification of anything you did not understand during your readings (Gerhard,
2011).
13. Take breaks every hour - It is important to take a break before you feel tired and
lose your concentration completely. Regular breaks at least once an hour helps to
sustain your concentration. If the work is not going too well and you have
difficulties in concentrating, you may need a long break and go back to it later
(StudentHacks.org, 2007). Stretch during your breaks. Know and respect your
concentration span which will vary from hour to hour and from day to day. When
you sit for long periods, gravity draws the blood to the lower part of your body
(StudentHacks.org, 2007). When you take a break, take a few deep breaths, and
get more oxygen to your brain: try walking around and doing some light
stretching for a few minutes. It will help to release tension in your body and help
your circulation.
14. Use the Available Resources - if the lecturer has included additional reading for
you to look into, it is important to take advantage of the resources that you have
available. xv. Seek out old exams - you can use old exams and study guides as
the basis for learning how to study effectively in university. Even if the answers
are not available, you will still learn on how exams are set.
a) Do not wait until the last minute ± Do not try to do all your studying the night
before the test (TestTakingTips.com, 2003). Instead space out your studying,
review class materials at least several times a week, focusing on one topic at a
time. This will help you to avoid cramming all your studying into one or two days
(Gerhard, 2011). Study begins on the first day of class. Successful students read
and review notes before each class to recall information from the previous class
and to warm up for learning. Review your notes immediately after each class to
reinforce learning or within a 24-hour period for best recall. Repeated exposure to
the material will store it in your long-term memory (Mayland Community College,
2002).
b) Studying one hour immediately after a class will do better in developing an
understanding of the material as several hours a few days later. Studies show
that as much as 80 % of material learned in class is forgotten within 24 hours if
there is no review (Mayland Community College, 2002).
c) At the ends of the week go over your notes for the week. This refreshes your
memory and promotes better recall of the material. Repetition is the key to
remembering. The more times you look at the material, the stronger you make the
neural (brain) pathways that lead to the material. This makes recall much easier.
d) Study when you are at your peak, when you are more awake and alert and able
to absorb new information. If you are a morning person, your best study time is in
the morning. If you are an evening person, study at night. If you cannot find time
to study at your peak time, try to study when you are feeling relatively awake and
alert (Mayland Community College, 2002).

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 15. Study in a calm and peaceful environment. Always study in a place which is
isolated from any sort of internal or external noise. Find a comfortable and quiet
place to study with good lighting and little distractions: avoid your own bed since
it is very
tempting to just lie down and take a nap (TestTakingTips.com, 2003).
16. Study ahead of the lecturer. Start out by studying the most important
information. Learn the general concepts first, don't worry about learning the
details until you have learned the main ideas. Consider yourself in a win-win
situation - when you contribute your best to a class, you, your fellow students,
and even your teacher will benefit. Your grade can then be one additional check
on your performance
9.2 Presentation of Academic Work
A student in college or university is required to do a lot of assignments, CATs, term-
papers and so on. The work to be presented to the lecturer should be presentable with
legible handwriting. Typed work always look presentable but since a student cannot
come with a computer or a laptop and a printer while doing a CAT, so the best thing to
put in mind is, let your work be presentable.
How it should be written
Name of the College/University:
Department/specialization:
Academic year:
Class:
Semester:

Course unit:
Assignment topic:
Assignment No.
Prepared by (student’s name):
Reg. No.

Submitted to or supervised by Mr. /Mrs. /Miss/Lect. /Dr. /Prof. /Prof. Dr. etc.…
Date of submission:
By so doing, you are assured that your work is safe, it will be handed to the required
person if they were lost and found etc.

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9.3 Planning Your Academic Work
For everything you have desired to achieve or have in life, you must wake up and go get
it. There is nothing that come easy, hard work and determination make things happen. A
good student should priorities his/her study and work smartly. Dr. Bob Kizlik has said in
his article on effective study skills that study skills must be practiced for you to improve
(Kizlik, 2012). He added and said, practice doesn't make perfect; perfect practice makes
perfect. To ensure you become successful person in life through education, here are
some guides that you can try to perfect your work.
i. Make a Plan - many people usually make New Year resolution. A good student
should have a plan which is supposed to be followed strictly without failure. More
time to leisure means less time for study thus high chances of stress, panic, and
failure.
ii. Timetable - The timetable should have all the subjects studied in school without
allocation more time to your favorite subjects and denying time to your weak
subjects. Follow your timetable strictly.
iii. When to study - According to Kizlik, 2012, the problem of when to study is
critical. A good rule of thumb is that studying should be carried out only when you
are rested, alert, and have planned for it. Last minute studying just before a class is
usually a waste of time (Kizlik, 2012).
iv.Make a Deadline - procrastination is a thief of time, my standard 8 English teacher
always said. Now that am grown, I know for sure procrastination is a thief of time.
Time waits for no man, so in case you have things, assignments you must handle,
do them today not tomorrow.
v. Note-taking ± take note from lecture note to sermon by a pastor, seminar
conferences etc. this note will be so useful to you today and in the future. covering
everything from listening well and following directions, to managing, presenting, and
organizing information, to practical note taking.
vi. Reading and studying - be a reader. Read through all kind of materials such as
newspapers, textbooks, reading strategies across school subjects, researching, and
writing reports, and subject-specific study techniques .
vii. Discussion groups ± it is always good to work in groups, many hands make
work light. Look for colleagues whose priority is study and work with them.
viii. The environment/location for study - You can study anywhere, only that some
places are better than others. Make sure the place you study is noise free. Libraries,
study lounges or private rooms are the best. Above all, the place you choose to study
should not be distracting. Distractions can build up, and the first thing you know,
you're out of time and out of luck. Make choosing a good physical environment a
part of your study habits.

9.4 Notetaking during lecture

Note taking is the practice of recording information captured from a transient source,

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such as an oral discussion at a meeting, or a lecture. Notes of a meeting are usually
called minutes.
How to go about note taking
● Arrive to your lecture room on or in time, this enables one to settle before the
lecturer.
● Arrive when organized with all the requirements/materials e.g. pen, ruler,
● pencils, notebook etc. that is avoid borrowing.
● Make sure you sit in a position where you can see the lecturer and the board
properly.
● Listen actively - listening is a factor of effective communication, do not switch
off, that is, do not get your mind out of the lecture hall.
● Take notes using short forms if possible.
● Never remain a passive listener if you fail to grasp an explanation ask the
teacher to go over it again.
● Take note of important questions during an oral presentation - questions may be
asked but no answers given.
● Take note of the contributions from the other students during the discussion
group meetings.
9.4.1 Challenges of note taking
While taking notes you are required to listen and at the same time write. In the process
one undergoes a lot of challenges. Here are some of the challenges the note taker goes
through
i. Misspelling the words
ii. Not hearing properly maybe because of noise or physical maladies
iii. Poor pronunciation from the teacher
iv. Speed of the lecturer at which he is lecturing
v. Dozing in class
vi. Misinterpretation of points
vii. Attitude towards the lecturer/subject/lecture hall .

9.5 Formation of discussion groups

A student in the university cannot work alone; he need help from others reason for
discussion groups. The students also encourage each other to read and study. Know the
members you wish to avoid or include, try to listen to others and correct them. Do not
shout at each other, this may lead to depression and feeling inferior. Meet when
convenient to all members and avoid destructive members. Leave out5 leisure during
discussion time.
Characteristics of a discussion group
While choosing the members of your discussion group consider:-
i. The characteristics you will like the group to have
ii. Group dynamics

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iii. They should have common interests
iv. Committed to the group
v. Manageable group, about 4-8people ± should have a chairperson
vi. Respecting one another
vii. Oriented to the same goal/interest
viii.Time conscious
ix. Allow each other a chance to discuss (active participation

9.6 Critical Thinking

As a student you may feel that, having only done a few hours of reading on a topic, you
can't argue against an author who has spent many years writing a book (Fisher, A.,
2011). Yet one of the main purposes of a degree is to enable you to evaluate critically
what you read. Critical thinking is disciplined thinking with accorded or accepted given
principles. It focuses on designing new strategies on what to do. It is attitude of mind,
and it brings to focus problems and their solutions and help one to learn to make one
more stimulating. Problem solving is referred to as critical thinking because at the end
one must solve his problems.
Characteristics of Critical Thinkers
▪ A person who is conscious with his work and want to be well informed
▪ He is enthusiastic - always wanting to gain and he is understanding.
▪ Reasonable and fair minded in judgment
▪ Critical thinker is efficient in problem solving.
▪ He is clear in communicating ideas and feelings
▪ He asks creative questions
▪ He is sensitive to the feeling, level of knowledge and degree of sophistication of
the others
▪ He is an effective team member
▪ They base judgments on evidence - he takes position and changes position
depending on the evidence; when evidence is sufficient to do so.
▪ He looks for alternatives
▪ This people use credible sources and mention or refer to them.
▪ They are honest with themselves
▪ They resist manipulation
▪ They overcome confusion
▪ They look for connections between subjects
▪ They are intellectually independent

10.0 LIBRARY SKILLS

10.1 What is a library?
According to Casson, L. (2002) a library is an organized collection of books, other
printed materials, and in some cases special materials such as manuscripts, films, and

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other sources of information. Its collections can be of print, audio, or visual materials,
including maps, prints, documents, microform (e.g. Microfilm/microfiche), CDs,
cassettes, video tapes, DVDs, video-games, e-books, audio-books and many other types
of electronic resource. The places where this material is stored include public libraries,
subscription libraries, and private libraries, and material can also be in digital form,
stored on computers or accessible. A library is a collection of information, sources,
resources, and services: it is organized for use and maintained by a public body, an
institution, or a private individual. In the more traditional sense, a library is a collection
of books (http://wiki.answers.com/) . In short we can then conclude and say that, a
library is a place in which literary and artistic materials, such as books, periodicals
newspapers, pamphlets, prints, records, and tapes are kept for reading, reference, or
lending. Library is also defined as collection of literary documents or records kept for
reference or borrowing.
10.2 Types of libraries
We have various types of libraries where people can go and read, research, reference,
borrow books, manuals, newspapers, magazines and so on.
10.2.1 National or state library
A national library keeps all documents of and about a nation under some legal provision
and thus represents publications of and about the whole nation (Dr. Gupta, J. (April 28,
2012).
According to Line, Maurice B. and Line, J. (1979), a national or state library serves as a
national repository of information, and has the right of legal deposit, which is a legal
requirement that publishers in the country need to deposit a copy of each publication
with the library. Unlike a public library, they rarely allow citizens to borrow books. Often,
they include numerous rare, valuable, or significant works. Many national libraries
cooperate within the National Libraries Section of the International Federation of Library
Associations and Institutions (IFLA) to discuss their common tasks, define, and promote
common standards and carry out projects helping them to fulfill their duties (Lor, P. J.
and Sonnekus, E. A. S., 1997). The first national libraries had their origins in the royal
collections of the sovereign or some other supreme body of the state.
Examples of national library in the world are:-
National Library of India-Kolkata
British Library-London
Library of Congress- Washington
The Russian State Library-Moscow
National libraries perform the following functions:-
i. Producing a national bibliography
ii. Holding and keeping up to date a large and representative collection of foreign
literature, including books about the country
iii. Acting as a national bibliographical information centre
iv. Compiling union catalogues

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 v. Publishing the retrospective national bibliography
vi. It works as a national referral and bibliographic exchange centre
vii. It coordinates with the other libraries in a country to develop a national
viii. library system.
ix. It exchanges data and documents at national and international level
x. It produces national union catalogues, current, retrospective, and subject
bibliographies
xi. It makes provision for practical training of library professionals
xii. It procures and preserves manuscripts
xiii. It also keeps photocopy collection of available documents for national and
international library lending
xiv. It provides reading, lending, consulting facilities to researchers, writers, and other
users

10.2.2 Academic library

An academic library is a library found in school, colleges, and university. A library
associated or connected with a school and used by the students, teachers and staff of
that school is called a School Library (Dr. Gupta, J. (April 28, 2012). Some academic
libraries, especially those at public institutions, are accessible to members of the public
in whole or in part of a college/university. Nonacademic materials are not found in an
academic library. The main functions of an academic library are to provide resources
and research support for students and faculty of the educational institution. Specific
course-related resources are usually provided by the library, such as copies of textbooks
and article readings held on 'reserve' (meaning that they are loaned out only on a short-
term basis, usually a matter of hours). Academic libraries also offer workshops and
courses outside of formal, graded coursework, which are meant to provide students with
the tools necessary to succeed in their programs
http://main.library.utoronto.ca/workshops/. These workshops may include help with
citations,
effective search techniques, journal databases, and electronic citation software. These
workshops provide students with skills that can help them achieve success in their
academic careers (and often, in their future occupations), which they may not learn
inside the classroom.
The academic library provides a quiet study space for students in campus and college;
it may also provide group study space, such as meeting rooms. The library provides a
"gateway" for students and researchers to access various resources, both print/physical
and digital. Dowler, L. (1997) said that academic institutions are subscribing to
electronic journals databases, providing research and scholarly writing software, and
usually provide computer workstations or computer labs for students to access journals,
library search databases and portals, institutional electronic resources, internet access,
and course- or task-related software (i.e. word processing and spreadsheet software).

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They are increasingly acting as an electronic repository for institutional scholarly
research and academic knowledge, such as the collection of digital copies of students'
theses and dissertations http://unllib.unl.edu/LPP/anunobi-okoye.htm. Larger academic
institutions may have subject-specific libraries, like a science library, a law library, and a
medical library.
10.2.2.1 The functions of an academic library in a school, college, and university
i. To provide facilities for all teaching, learning, educational and research
programmes of the school, college, and university
ii. To cater for the information needs of teachers, students, researchers associated
with the institution
iii. It provides facilities to its users for intellectual development which is a power of
acquiring ideas through individual efforts iv. It conserves knowledge
iv. By putting knowledge to use for research purpose it makes extension of
knowledge
v. By providing latest knowledge to teachers in their field for effective teaching it
makes transmission of knowledge possible.
vi. By procuring comprehensive range of documents including books, manuscripts,
journals, magazines, newspapers etc. on varied subjects, it conserves knowledge
and ideas.
vii.By processing the procured documents with the help of classification,
cataloguing, proper shelf arrangements it gives easy and open access to
knowledge to its users
viii. To organize huge collection of documents it keeps them in different
sections based on their categorization like textbook section, reference section,
journal section, thesis section etc.
ix. It provides facility of inter-library loan to its users if document desired by user is
not available in the library
x. A modern library interacts with different information networks to give easy
access to resources/data to more users so that they could access the desired
information even from their workplace.
xi. It also provides entertainment and healthy leisure to users by providing different
newspapers, magazines, short story books, fiction, internet facility etc.
xii.It gives the user orientation training to new enrolled users to make them feel at
home and to acquaint them with the library system so that they could make
maximum use of library services
xiii. With the help of display of new arrivals, old book exhibitions, information
bulletins about new library services etc. it keeps the users updated with the library
activities
xiv. It provides reference service through reference section to establish a contact
between the right reader and the right document in a personal way to attract
more user

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10.2.4 Special libraries
According to American Library Association (ALA) glossary of library and information
science, supported and administered by a business firm, private corporation,
association, government agency, or other special interest group or agency to meet the
information needs of its members or staff in pursuing the goals of the organization.
Many private businesses and public organizations, including hospitals, museums,
research laboratories, law firms, and many government departments and agencies,
maintain their own libraries for the use of their employees in doing specialized research
related to their work. Special libraries may or may not be accessible to some identified
part of the public. Branches of a large academic or research libraries dealing with
particular subjects are also usually called special libraries. They are generally
associated with one or more academic departments. Special libraries are distinguished
from special collections, which are branches or parts of a library intended for rare books,
manuscripts, and other special materials.
10.2.4.1 The functions of a special library
i. It selects and procures documents and other sources of relevant information ii.
It processes the procured information or documents with the help of
classification, cataloguing, shelf arrangements etc. (Gupta, J., 2012). to make
them easily available for the users
ii. It subscribes to a good number of journals related to its area iv.It provides
indexing and abstracting services to the users to save their time
iii. It provides reference services to the users by telephone, by post or by e-mail vi. It
gives current awareness service (CAS) regarding new arrivals and latest services
to the users
iv. provides Selective Dissemination of Information (SDI) service to the users as per
their subject interest and requirement viii. It also gives document delivery service
to its users at their doorstep
v. It brings out library bulletins weekly/fortnightly/monthly to keep the users up to
date with latest information
vi. It gives translation services to provide the desired information to the users in
their convenient language
vii. It also provides intranet as well as internet facility to the users to access the
library collection and catalogues at their desktop
viii. It responds to the reference queries and make retrospective search of literature
as per the
ix. It compiles bibliographies, union catalogues, documentation lists, newspaper-
clippings, accession lists etc. to save the time of its users xiv. It provides inter
library loan (ILL) facility to the users xv. It gives user orientation training through
personal interaction with users and by library brochure and pamphlets to make
the users familiar with the library collection and
services.

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 10. 2.5 Research libraries
A research library contains an in-depth collection of material on one or more subjects,
(Young, H., 1983). A research library supports scholarly research and will generally
include primary as well as secondary sources; it will maintain permanent collections
and attempt to provide access to all necessary material. A research library is most often
an academic or national library, but a large special library may have a research library
within its special field and a very few of the largest public libraries also serve as
research libraries. A large university library may be considered a research library (Young,
1983). A research library can be either a reference library, which does not lend its
holdings, or a lending library, which does lend all or some of its holdings. Some
extremely large or traditional research libraries are entirely reference in this sense,
lending none of their material.
3.2.6 Reference libraries
A reference library does not lend books and other items; instead, they must be read at
the library itself. Typically such libraries are used for research purposes in the university.
Some items at reference libraries may be historical and even unique (Ehrenhaft, 2004).
Such references sections may be referred as historical and periodicals (Champneys,
2007).
10.2.7 Public libraries
According to Dr.S.R.Ranganathan Public Library is a public institution or establishment
charged with the care of collection of books and the duty of making them accessible to
those who require the use of them. According to Dr. Gupta, J., 2012) a social institution
established by law, financed by public fund, open for all without any discrimination, for
general and free diffusion of knowledge and information in the community. It is also
seen as the obligation of the government to establish a public library system throughout
the country at national, state, and local levels.
Besides this, the rural and suburban areas should also be covered by branch and mobile
libraries.
A public library provides service to the public and makes at least some of its books
available for borrowing, so that readers may use them at home over a period of days or
weeks. Public libraries issue library cards to community members wishing to borrow
books. Many public libraries also serve as community organizations that provide free
services and events to the public, such as reading groups and toddler story time. Public
library is a nonprofit library maintained for public use whereas rental collection is a
collection of books that can be rented by readers in return for a small daily fee. Popular
best-sellers, self-help books, repair manuals, and the like are found in public libraries.
Public libraries rarely have scholarly books or research journals and therefore academic
research should be done at an academic library.
10.3 Sections of a library
There are many service units/sections of the library, the sections are determined by the
size of the library and its ability. The following are the most common sections in the

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library.
10.3.1 Acquisition Section
This unit is concerned with the selection and purchase of reading material. The books
demanded by different departments are purchased by the acquisition section. Books are
accessioned in this section. It keeps a complete and up-to-date record of such books
and other reading materials.
This section performs the following role:-
i. Registers new members, issue membership cards for borrowing books and
renews them Issue and receive the books to and from the members only
ii. Collects delay fines for over-due books
iii. Settles cases
iv. ding the books lost or damaged by the members.
v. Issues the Library Clearance form
vi. Checks incoming and outgoing materials thoroughly
vii. Helps the library users in finding the required material Guides library user on the
use of library catalogue
viii. Keeps statistics of the daily transactions i.e. the books borrowed, the number of
people who used the library etc.
10.3.2 Cataloguing Section
After purchasing, accessioning, and labeling of the reading material in the Acquisition
section, it is sent to the cataloguing section for technical processing. Main responsibility
of this section is to classify and catalogue the reading material. The reading material is
being classified according to Dewey Decimal Classification Scheme or the Library of
Congress classifications which are used in so many libraries in the world (see library
classification).
10.3.3 General-Readers Section/circulation section
It is also referred to as the long loan section. This Section is the backbone of the library;
here teachers and students come to study. All registered members borrow materials
from here subject to the lending regulations indicated in the lending policy. This area
contains materials which can be borrowed and/or read within the library. It is arranged
in systematic way. It is referred to as open access in the shelf. It can be said that this
section has a unique role for providing the latest information to the readers. The duties
and responsibilities of this section is registration of library users, orientation of new
users and visitors, issuing and receiving of books and other information materials
including periodicals, and generation of the user statistics
10.3.4 Short-Loan Section
Contain materials that are in high demand but are limited in number. These materials
include past-papers, abstracts from books etc. The materials here are borrowed for
limited time i.e. 1day and 1material. It offers closed access material.
10.4.5 Technical Section
This section is charged with the duties and responsibilities of acquiring information

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materials and processing them. It classifies books, catalogue, OPAC and any other
documents in the library. The section also liaises with other academic departments in
the acquisition of
information materials.
10.4.6 Reference Section
This section stock books that are read or referred to in the library and left there; you
cannot borrow them. They are very expensive books. This section keeps reference
questions and to keep a record of the reference questions asked and answered. The
reference questions may range from simple reference question to complex research
questions. It provides reference service to fulfill the information needs of the teachers,
the students, and the researchers. It also answers the questions like who is, what is
what, how and where etc. to save the time of the users. The librarian at this section
educates readers on how to access reference information from reference sources. The
reference librarian judges what information is required, by who, in what form, how
quickly it is required, what details are necessary and from which source, he then report
to the acquisition section and the book is bought. Examples of reference books that are
in the reference area are: - Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, Directories, thesaurus,
biographical dictionaries, handbooks, almanacs, directories, atlases, gazetteers, indexes,
quotation books, bibliographies, accession lists, guides, maps, etc.
10.4.7 E-Resources Section/ Multimedia Section
Because of the rapid growth and developments in information and communication
technologies (ICT), many libraries have collection of CD-ROMs and other digital
materials as well as areas where the library users can access internet. Photocopy
machines are also available to provide researchers with the copies of rare material and
preservation. Printing services are also available in this section. The librarian in this
section provides information literacy in the form of assisting new users to access e-
resources and acquit them with the use of computers.
10.4.8 Periodicals Section
It is the source of current and the latest published information which is very useful in
research work. It acquires journals of almost all the subjects. Local newspapers like
Daily Nation, Standard, and Juba post are stocked there. We have loose and bound
periodicals in this section. Bound volumes of the journals are arranged on racks in
classified order and fresh issues are displayed alphabetically by title. Journals and
newspapers are not issued, but photocopy of the required article(s) is allowed under the
rules.
10.4.9 National collection section
This section contains research materials about the country for example, materials about
Kenyan by Kenyans or/and non-Kenyans. You will find thesis, dissertation, and reports.
10.4.10 Children section
This section contains books for the children in primary school and high school. This
group can come and do their reading and research here.

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10.4.11 Exhibition-cum-conference section
In this section collection of books/documents of a few eminent scientists are available.
Information regarding different courses inside and outside the country are also found
here.
Conferences, seminars, and exhibitions also take place here. They provide a known
location for the information source to be located, that is, where it is shelved. Until the
19th century, most libraries had closed stacks, so the library classification only served to
organize the subject catalogue. In the 20th century, libraries opened their stacks to the
public and started to shelve the library material itself according to some library
classification to simplify subject browsing (Lynch, S. N., and Eugene M., 2007).
11.0 Classification of books in a library
Listed below are the letters and titles of the main classes of the Library of Congress
Classification.
Titles of the main classes of the Library Classification.
A - General works R - Medicine
B - Philosophy, psychology, and religion S - Agriculture
C - History - auxiliary sciences T - Technology
D - History and topography/ General and Old- U - Military science
World History E-F- American history/History of
V - Naval science
the United States and British, Dutch, French, and
Latin America Z - Bibliography, library science and
general Information Resources
G -Geography, anthropology, folklore, recreation
H - Social sciences
J - Political science
K - Law
KE - Canadian Law
KF - U.S. Law
L - Education
M - Music
N - Fine arts
P - Language and literature
Q - Science

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Notes prepared by Mr. Paulino Aguer Bol –BSC Agric (Hons)Page 0