UNIT-1

What is Computer Network?

● A computer network is a collection of interconnected computers, devices, and other
hardware components that are linked together to facilitate communication, data
sharing, and resource sharing.
● It allows multiple computers and devices to exchange information, access shared
resources, and collaborate effectively.

( or )

● A computer network is a number of computers linked together to allow them to “talk”

to each other and share resources. Networked computers can share hardware, software
and data.
● Connecting computers to form computer networks and the internet has had a huge impact
on our lives.
What is Internet?
● Internet is a global network that connects billions of computers across the world
with each other and to the World Wide Web.
● It uses standard internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to connect billions of computer
users worldwide.
● At present, internet is the fastest mean of sending or exchanging information and data
between computers across the world.

(or)

● “ Network of networks “
Where does the Internet come from?
What is WWW?
● The World Wide Web, commonly known as the web, is a system of interconnected documents and

resources that are accessed via the internet.

● World Wide Web is an information system that allows users to access and navigate websites and web

pages on the internet

● It is a collection of websites, web pages, multimedia content, and hyperlinks that allow users to

navigate and access information.

● It is a common prefix used in Uniform Resource Locators or URLs(internet addresses) to identify a

web server that hosts a website. Eg: www.google.com

● The web is just one of the many services and applications that utilize the internet infrastructure
Network Elements
 Subnet ?

● A subnet, short for subnetwork, is a

portion of a larger network that is
divided or segmented into smaller
logical networks.
● It involves dividing a single network
into multiple smaller networks to
improve network performance,
security, and manageability.
Internal Network Cards USB based NIC Wireless NIC

External Network Cards

 NIC?
● A Network Interface Card (NIC) is a
hardware component without which a
computer cannot be connected over a
network.
● It is a circuit board installed in a computer
that provides a dedicated network
connection to the computer.
● It is also called network interface controller,
network adapter or LAN adapter.
● It can support a transfer rate of 10,100 to
1000 Mb/s.
Hub?
 Hub?

● A hub is a physical layer networking device which is used

to connect multiple devices in a network. They are
generally used to connect computers in a LAN.
● A hub has many ports in it. A computer which intends to be
connected to the network is plugged in to one of these
ports.
● When a data frame arrives at a port, it is broadcast to
every other port, without considering whether it is
destined for a particular destination or not.
● No filtering. It simply broadcast. Collision will happen.
Switch?
Switch?

● A switch is a data link layer hardware device that

connects multiple devices on a computer network.
● A Switch contains more advanced features than
Hub.
● Switch delivers the message to the correct destination
based on the physical address present in the incoming
message.
● A Switch does not broadcast the message to the
entire network like the Hub. It determines the
device to whom the message is to be transmitted.
Repeater ?
● Repeaters are used at the Physical layer of OSI model.

● A repeater is a powerful network hardware device that regenerates an incoming signal

from the sender before retransmitting it to the receiver.

● It is also known as a signal booster, The primary function of a repeater is to receive

the weakened signal, amplify it, and then retransmit it at its original strength.

● In a network, as data travels over cables (such as copper or fiber-optic cables), it tends

to weaken or attenuate over long distances.

● This attenuation can lead to data loss and degradation, affecting the overall

performance of the network.

Router?
● A router is a network device that operates
at the network layer (Layer 3) of the
OSI model.
● Its primary function is to forward data
packets between different computer
networks, such as local area networks
(LANs) and wide area networks (WANs).
● A router acts as a central point of
connection for multiple devices and
directs network traffic based on
destination IP addresses using routing
table.
● Filtering happens in router
Network Topologies
“ A topology is the layout of how a network communicate with different devices.”

(or)

“A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network devices are connected
to each other. Topologies may define both physical and logical aspect of the network.”

The various network topologies are:

➔ Point to Point Topology

➔ Mesh Topology
➔ Star Topology
➔ Bus Topology
➔ Ring Topology
➔ Tree Topology
➔ Hybrid Topology
Point to Point Topology

● Point-to-point topology is a network

configuration where two devices or
nodes are directly connected to each
other without any intermediate devices.
● It is the simplest communication
between two nodes, in which one is the
sender and the other one is the
receiver.
● In this type of topology, data can flow
directly from one point to another Point to Point Topology

along a dedicated communication

channel.
Mesh Topology
● In a mesh topology, every device is connected to
another device via a particular channel. In Mesh
Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc
Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol), etc.
● Every device is connected to another via dedicated
channels. These channels are known as links.
● Suppose, the N number of devices are connected
with each other in a mesh topology, the total
number of ports that are required by each device is
N-1.
● In Figure , there are 5 devices connected to each
Mesh Topology
other, hence the total number of ports required by
each device is 4. The total number of ports
required = N * (N-1).
Advantages of Mesh Topology

● Communication is very fast between the nodes.

● Mesh Topology is robust.
● Fault Tolerance: Mesh topology provides high redundancy and fault tolerance. If one
link or connection fails, there are alternative paths available for data to reach its
destination, ensuring network reliability.

Drawbacks of Mesh Topology

● Installation and configuration are difficult.

● The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less number of
devices.
● The cost of maintenance is high
 Star Topology
● Star topology is a network configuration in which all
devices in the network are connected to a central
hub or switch.
● In this arrangement, each device communicates
directly with the central hub and not with other
devices in the network. The hub acts as a central
point of communication, managing data traffic
between the connected device
● Star topology is very popular because the startup
costs are low. It is also easy to create new nodes to
the network.
● If one device fails, it does not affect the rest of the
network, as they are not directly connected to Star Topology
each other.
● If the central hub fails throughout the network
goes down.
Bus Topology
● The bus topology is designed in such a way that all
the stations are connected through a single cable
known as a backbone cable.
● When a node wants to send a message over the
network, it puts a message over the network. All the
stations available in the network will receive the
message whether it has been addressed or not.
● Data is transmitted in both directions along the
bus.
● The backbone cable is considered as a "single
lane" through which the message is broadcast to all
the stations.
● It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust
topology because if the backbone fails the
topology crashes.
● In a ring topology, devices are connected in a closed
loop, with each device having exactly two neighbors Ring Topology
for communication.
● The node that receives the message from the previous
computer will retransmit to the next node.
● The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is
unidirectional.
● The data flows in a single loop continuously known as
an endless loop.
● It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to
other node and having no termination point.
● The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise
direction.
● Failure of any device or connection in the ring can
cause the entire network to fail, making it less fault-
tolerant. Ring Topology
 Tree Topology

Figure : In this, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which contains the
repeater. This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to the secondary and then to the
devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices to the secondary hub and then to the central hub.
 ● Tree topology, also known as hierarchical topology, is a network configuration that
combines characteristics of both bus and star topologies.
● In a tree network, all devices are connected to a central hub, which acts as the root of the tree.
From this central hub, branches extend out to other hubs or end devices, creating a
hierarchical structure.
● It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology
crashes.

Key features of a tree topology:

1. Central hub: The central hub is the primary element of the tree topology and is responsible for
connecting all the branches and end devices in the network. It acts as the main communication point
for all connected devices.
2. Secondary hub: It is the intermediate levels of the hierarchy. Each Secondary hub is connected to
the central hub or other intermediate hubs. These branches can be further extended into sub-
branches, creating a multi-level hierarchy.
3. End devices: The end devices are the devices located at the leaves of the tree. These devices can be
computers, printers, switches, or any other networked devices.

4.Hierarchical structure: The tree topology exhibits a hierarchical arrangement of devices, which
makes it easy to manage and scale the network. Information generally flows from the top (root) of the
tree down to the leaves and vice versa.

Advantages of tree topology:

1. Scalability: Tree topologies can be easily scaled by adding more branches or connecting additional
end devices to the existing branches.
2. Centralized control: The central hub provides a single point of control and management for the
entire network.
3. Fault isolation: If a branch or an end device fails, only the devices in that branch or connected to
that branch are affected, leaving the rest of the network intact.
 Hybrid Topology

● This topological technology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we have
studied above.
● Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form.
● It means these can be individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can be a combination of
various types of topologies seen above.
Types of Networks
 PAN LAN CAN MAN WAN
Parameters

Personal Area Campus Area Metropolitan Area

Full Name Local Area Network Wide Area Network
Network Network Network

Bluetooth, Leased Line, Dial-

Technology Ethernet & Wifi Ethernet FDDI, CDDi. ATM
IrDA,Zigbee Up

Range 1-100 m Upto 2km 1 – 5 km 5-50 km Above 50 km

Transmission
Very High Very High High Average Low
Speed

Ownership Private Private Private Private or Public Private or Public

Maintenance Very Easy Easy Moderate Difficult Very Difficult

Cost Very Low Low Moderate High Very High

 PAN (Personal Area Network)

● PANs (Personal Area Networks) let devices communicate over the range of a person.
● A Personal Area Network (PAN) is a type of network used for connecting personal
devices in close proximity to an individual.
● PANs are designed to facilitate communication and data exchange between devices
such as smartphones, tablets, laptops, personal computers, wireless headphones,
smartwatches, and other wearable devices.
● Example: Bluetooth devices
● In the simplest form, Bluetooth networks use the master-slave paradigm.
● The system unit (the PC) is normally the master, talking to the mouse, keyboard, etc.,
as slaves.
● The master tells the slaves what addresses to use, when they can broadcast, how long
they can transmit, what frequencies they can use, and so on.
Characteristics of a PAN are:

Limited Coverage: PANs have a very limited

coverage area, typically within a range of a few
meters or up to about 10 meters (33 feet). They
are intended to connect devices that are physically
close to each other.
Wireless Technology: PANs typically use
wireless communication technologies for
connectivity.
● Bluetooth is one of the most common
wireless technologies used in PANs due to
its low power consumption and short-range
capabilities.
Examples of PAN Applications:

★ Pairing wireless headphones or speakers with a smartphone or computer.

★ Connecting a wireless keyboard and mouse to a laptop or desktop computer.

★ Synchronizing data between a smartphone and a fitness tracker or smartwatch.

★ Transferring files between two smartphones via Bluetooth.

 LAN (Local Area Network)

● Local Area Network (LAN) is a type of network that connects devices within a
limited geographical area, such as a single building like a home, office or
factory.
● LANs are widely used to connect personal computers and consumer electronics to
let them share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange information.
● Types of LAN networks:
a. Wired LAN
b. Wireless LAN

Wired LAN:
➔ Ethernet(IEEE 802.3)is the most common and widely used LAN technology.
➔ It uses twisted-pair or fiber-optic cables to connect devices in a star or bus topology.
➔ Wired LANs run at speeds of 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps, have low delay(microseconds or
nanoseconds), and make very few errors.
Wireless LAN:
● There is a standard for wireless LANs called IEEE 802.11, popularly known as WiFi,
to connect devices without the need for physical cables.
● WLANs use radio waves to transmit data over the airwaves, providing wireless
connectivity and mobility to devices within the network.
● It runs at speeds anywhere from 10 to hundreds of Mbps.
● Access Points: WLANs are typically built around one or more access points (APs) that
act as central communication hubs. Access points provide the wireless connectivity
and allow devices to connect to the WLAN.
● WLANs are widely used in homes, offices, public spaces, airports, hotels, educational
institutions, and various other environments to provide wireless internet access and
facilitate device connectivity.
● Fig. 1-8( a & b) shows a sample topology of WLAN and Switched Ethernet.
● Each computer speaks the Ethernet protocol and connects to a box called a switch with a
point-to-point link.
● Hence the name. A switch has multiple ports, each of which can connect to one computer.
● The job of the switch is to relay packets between computers that are attached to it, using the
address in each packet to determine which computer to send it to.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

● MAN covers a larger geographical area than a Local Area Network (LAN) but is smaller than a Wide
Area Network (WAN).
● A MAN typically spans a city or a metropolitan region, connecting multiple LANs and data centers
within the area.
● The best-known examples of MANs are the cable television networks available in many cities.
● These systems grew from earlier community antenna systems used in areas with poor over-the-air
television reception.
● In those early systems, a large antenna was placed on top of a nearby hill and a signal was then piped to
the subscribers’ houses.
● a MAN might look something like the system shown in Fig. 1-9.
● In this figure we see both television signals and Internet being fed into the centralized cable headend
for subsequent distribution to people’s homes.
Q:: How does the MAN network work?

● MAN’s primary goal is to establish a

communication link between two
independent LAN nodes in order to
connect geographically dispersed LANs.
● To accomplish this, the Metropolitan
Area Network typically uses optical
fiber as a transmission medium, and the
network is built with the help of routers
and switches.
● Eg:
○ Cable TV network
○ Telephone networks
WAN (Wide Area Network)
● WAN is a type of computer network that spans a large geographical area, typically
connecting multiple Local Area Networks (LANs) or Metropolitan Area
Networks (MANs) across cities, states, countries, or even continents.
● We will begin our discussion with wired WANs, using the example of a company with
branch offices in different cities.
● The WAN in Fig. 1-10 is a network that connects offices in Perth, Melbourne, and
Brisbane. Each of these offices contains computers intended for running user (i.e.,
application) programs.
● We will follow traditional usage and call these machines hosts. The rest of the network
that connects these hosts is then called the communication subnet, or just subnet for
short.
● The job of the subnet is to carry messages from host to host, just as the telephone
system carries words (really just sounds) from speaker to listener.
● In most WANs, the subnet consists of two distinct components:
○ Transmission Lines
○ Switching elements.
● Transmission lines move bits between machines.They can be made of copper wire,
optical fiber, or even radio links.
● Switching elements, or just switches, are specialized computers that connect two or
more transmission lines.
● When data arrive on an incoming line, the switching element must choose an
outgoing line on which to forward them.
● These switching computers have been called by various names in the past; the name
router is now most commonly used.
 Reference Models

1. The OSI Reference Model

2. The TCP/IP Reference Model

OSI Reference Model
 [1]

Why
Reference
Models?

[2]
● OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has been developed by ISO –
‘International Organization for Standardization‘, in the year 1984.
● The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) reference model is a conceptual
framework used to understand and standardize how different networking protocols
and technologies interact and communicate with each other.
● The purpose of OSI reference model is to guide technology
vendors(Microsoft,CISCO) and developers , so their H/W and S/W can interoperate
and define common framework.
● It is a 7-layer architecture with each layer having specific functionality to perform.
● All these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one person to
another across the globe.
 Physical Layer

● The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the
actual physical connection between the devices.
● The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication channel.
● The physical layer contains information in the form of bits. It is responsible for
transmitting individual bits from one node to the next. When receiving data, this layer will
get the ignal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer,
which will put the frame back together.
● The design issues have to do with making sure that when one side sends a 1 bit it is
received by the other side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit.
 Physical Layer

● The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the
actual physical connection between the devices.
● The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits(1’s & 0’s ) over a
communication channel.
● The physical layer contains information in the form of bits. It is responsible for
transmitting individual bits from one node to the next. When receiving data, this layer will
get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer,
which will put the frame back together.
● The design issues have to do with making sure that when one side sends a 1 bit it is
received by the other side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit.
 Physical Layer

● It defines the electrical, mechanical, and physical specifications for the network
interface, such as cables, connectors, and network topology.
● Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables are Physical Layer devices.
 Data Link Layer

● The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message.
● The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from
one node to another, over the physical layer.
● The data link layer performs error detection by adding checksums or cyclic
redundancy checks (CRC) to the data frames.
● When this layer received data from the Physical layer, it checks for transmission
errors and then convert the bits into “data frames”.
● When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to
transmit it to the Host using its MAC address(Media Access Control).
● The data link layer uses MAC (Media Access Control) addresses to uniquely
identify network devices within a local network.
● MAC addresses are used for addressing and delivering data frames to the correct
destination on the same network.
 Data Link Layer

Note:

1. Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.

2. Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device drivers of
host machines.

3. Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.

 Network Layer

● The network layer operates above the data link layer (Layer 2) and below the transport
layer (Layer 4) in the OSI model.
● The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in
different networks.
● It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the
packet, from the number of routes available.
● The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.
● This layer also manages the mapping between logical addresses and physical addresses, for
IP addresses, this is accomplished through Address Resolution Protocol or ARP.
 Network Layer

The main responsibilities of the network layer:

● Logical Addressing:
○ The network layer assigns logical addresses, such as IP (Internet Protocol) addresses, to
devices in a network. These addresses uniquely identify each device and allow for end-to-
end communication across different networks.
● Routing:
○ The network layer determines the most efficient path for data packets to travel from the
source to the destination across multiple networks. It uses routing algorithms and protocols
to make forwarding decisions based on the network topology and destination address.
Congestion:

○ If too many packets are present in the subnet at the same time, they will get in one
another’s way, forming bottlenecks.
○ A state occurring in network layer when the message traffic is so heavy that it slows
down network response time. As delay increases, performance decreases.

Note: 1. Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet.

 Transport Layer

● The Transport layer, or layer 4, is responsible for the transmission of data across
network connections.
● The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from
the network layer.
● The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments.
● It is responsible for the End to End Delivery of the complete message.
● The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data
transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
● Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session)
layer, and breaks the message into smaller units,called segments.

Each of the segments produced has a header associated with it. The transport layer at
the destination station reassembles the message.
 ● The two main Transport layer protocols are:
○ Transmission Control Protocol [TCP]
■ It provides reliable communication between two hosts.
○ User Datagram Protocol [UDP]
■ It provides unreliable communication between two hosts.

Note:

★ Data in the Transport Layer is called Segments.

★ Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS and

communicates with the Application Layer by making system calls.

★ The transport layer is called as Heart of the OSI model.

 Presentation Layer

➢ The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer.

➢ The data from the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the
required format to transmit over the network.
➢ The Functions of the Presentation Layer are
○ Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
○ Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or
code. The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext and the decrypted data is
known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
○ Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the
network.
 Session Layer

➢ This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions,

and authentication, and also ensures security.
➢ Functions of Session Layer:
○ Dialog Control : This layer allows two systems to start communication with each
other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
○ Token Management: This layer prevents two parties from attempting the same
critical operation at the same time.
○ Synchronization : This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are
considered as synchronization points into stream of data. Example: If a system is
sending a file of 800 pages, adding checkpoints after every 50 pages is
recommended. This ensures that 50 page unit is successfully received and
acknowledged. This is beneficial at the time of crash as if a crash happens at page
number 110; there is no need to retransmit 1 to 100 pages.
 Application Layer
➢ At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers.
➢ It provides interface to end user.
➢ These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over the network.
➢ This layer also serves as a window for the application services to access the network
and for displaying the received information to the user.
➢ The application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.

Example:

Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.

Layer No Layer Name Responsibility Information Form Device

Application Helps in identifying the client and synchronizing

7 Message –
Layer communication.

Presentation Data from the application layer is extracted and

6 Message –
Layer manipulated in the required format for transmission.

Establishes Connection, Maintenance, Ensures

5 Session Layer Message Gateway
Authentication, and Ensures security.

Transport Take Service from Network Layer and provide it to

4 Segment Firewall
Layer the Application Layer.

Transmission of data from one host to another,

3 Network Layer Packet Router
located in different networks.

Data Link
2 Node to Node Delivery of Message. Frame Switch, Bridge
Layer

Hub, Repeater,
1 Physical Layer Establishing Physical Connections between Devices. Bits
Modem, Cables
OSI model acts as a reference model and is not implemented on the
Internet because of its late invention. The current model being used
is the TCP/IP model.

● TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in the
1960s and is based on standard protocols.
● It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.
● The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model. It contains four layers,
unlike the seven layers in the OSI model.
TCP/IP Model
TCP/IP Model
 The Link Layer [Network Access Layer]

● A Network Access Layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.

● A Network Access Layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer
defined in the OSI reference model.
● It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
● This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices
on the same network.
● The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into frames
transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses.
● The media is accessed using CSMA/CD ( Carrier sense multiple access).
● The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.
 The Internet Layer

● An Internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.

● An Internet layer is also known as the network layer.
● The Internet layer is responsible for addressing, routing, and fragmenting data
packets across different networks.

The main protocols residing at this layer are as follows:

1. IP (Internet Protocol)
2. ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)
3. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
1. IP (Internet Protocol) :
★ It is responsible for delivering packets from the source host to the destination host by
looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers.
★ IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6.
★ IPv4 is the one that most websites are using currently. But IPv6 is growing as the number of
IPv4 addresses is limited in number when compared to the number of users.
1. ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol):
★ It is encapsulated within IP Packets and is responsible for providing hosts with information
about network conditions or to report errors.
1. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol):
★ Its job is to find the hardware address of a host from a known IP address. ARP has several
types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse ARP.
 The Transport Layer

1. The Transport layer provides reliable and connection-oriented communication between

hosts.
2. The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments and
retransmit missing packets to ensure that packets arrive in order and without error.
3. It ensures that data is delivered in the correct order, without loss or duplication. The
most commonly used protocols at this layer are the
a. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which is connection-oriented and
guarantees reliable delivery.
b. User Datagram Protocol (UDP), which offers a connectionless and faster but
less reliable delivery option.
 The Application Layer

★ The TCP/IP model does not have session or presentation layers.

★ The Application layer is responsible for supporting end-user applications and their
protocols.

It contains all the higher-level protocols.

★ TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection

between the local computer and remote computer in such a way that the local terminal
appears to be a terminal at the remote system.
★ FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used
for transmitting the files from one computer to another computer.
 The Application Layer

★ HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access

the data over the world wide web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio,

video. i.e. HTTP takes care of Web Browsers and Websites.

★ SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that

supports the e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used

to send the data to another e-mail address.

★ SNMP: Simple Network Management Protocol is used for managing and monitoring

network devices and systems. It is commonly used in network management systems to

collect information, configure devices, and monitor network performance.

 The Application Layer

★ DNS: The DNS (Domain Name System) protocol is an application-layer protocol used

to translate human-readable domain names, such as "www.google.com," into their

corresponding IP addresses.

★ RTP: The RTP (Real-time Transport Protocol) for delivering real-time media such as

voice or movies over networks.

OSI vs TCP/IP Reference Model