GENERAL BIOLOGY FOURTH QUARTER

Coverage: function of reproduction in plants. Flowers are the

• Plant Nutrition reproductive parts. There are several ways by which
• Plant and Animal Reproduction plants produce their offspring. These are categorized
• Gas Exchange into two types: asexual, and sexual reproduction. In
• Taxonomy and Sytematics asexual reproduction plants can give rise to new plants
without seeds, whereas in sexual reproduction, new
Types of exam: plants are obtained from seeds.
• True or False (10 points)
• Identification (10 points) Pollination
• Categorization (10 points)
 When a flower opens, the stamens mature and become
• Multiple Choice (20 points)
fully developed. The anthers on the stamen then
PLANT REPRODUCTION release hundreds of pollen grains. The pollen grains
 Necessary for the survival and perpetuation of plant are the male sex cells. Each pollen grain contains
species that are such an important part of our daily genetic characteristics of the plant. The flower ovary
lives. Plants have the capability to propagate or contains one or more ovules, which are the female sex
multiply themselves by means of sexual and/or asexual cells. Each ovule contains genetic characteristics of the
reproduction. Both methods of reproduction are plant. As the pistil in the flower matures, its stigma
important to the agricultural industry, specifically the develops a sticky surface. As the anthers ripen and split
commercial production of horticultural, agronomic, open, gravity, insects, wind, or animals transfer the
and forestry crops. pollen grains to the stigmas. Pollination occurs when
the pollen grains come into contact with the moist,
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION sticky surface of a stigma.
 Seeds are the means by which plants sexually  Self-pollination occurs when pollen comes into
reproduce. They contain all the genetic characteristics contact with a stigma within the same flower or other
of the parent plant. However, the characteristics of flowers on the same plant (e.g., self-pollinating corn).
plants grown from seeds may vary from the parent Flowers cross-pollinate when pollen from the flower of
plant. Seed propagation is the most economical and one plant transfers to stigmas of flowers on another
widely used method of producing new plants, provided plant. Alfalfa and many clovers require cross-
that plants of the desired type can be reproduced by
pollination for reproduction to occur. Corn plants may
this method. Reproducing plants by seeds allows a
grower to produce a large number of plants. Sexual self-pollinate or cross-pollinate. Pollen from staminate
plant reproduction involves reproducing plants from flowers on the tassel transfers to pistillate flowers on
seeds. Seed formation occurs as a result of the the silk of the same plant to self-pollinate. Pollen may
pollination and fertilization processes that occur in the transfer to the pistillate flowers of other plants to
flowers of a plant. Stamens are the male reproductive cross-pollinate. The staminate flowers in one corn
part and pistil is the female reproductive part. Flowers plant tassel may produce as many as 15 million pollen
which contain either only pistil or only stamens are grains. Pollen grains do not remain viable much longer
called unisexual or dioecious flowers. Flowers which
than 24 hours after leaving the tassel.
contain both stamens and pistil are called bisexual or
monoecious flowers. Fertilization

Sexual and Asexual Reproduction of Plants  After a pollen grain becomes anchored on the moist,
 Pollination and fertilization are part of the sexual sticky surface of the stigma, it germinates and produces
process that occurs within the flowers or reproductive a pollen tube. The pollen tube grows down through the
structures of a plant. Pollination and fertilization result style and into the ovary where it eventually reaches an
in the formation and development of seeds. Each seed ovule. Fertilization occurs when the male sex cell in the
produced contains a tiny plant and a supply of stored pollen tube unites with the female sex cell in the ovule.
food, surrounded by a protective covering. Most plants For each seed a plant produces, a separate grain of
have roots, stems and leaves. These are called the pollen must reach and unite with an ovule.
vegetative parts of a plant. After a certain period of
growth, most plants bear flowers. You may have seen  During the fertilization process, one sperm cell from
the mango trees flowering in spring. It is these flowers the pollen tube unites with the egg cell in the ovule to
that give rise to juicy mango fruit we enjoy in summer. form a zygote. The second sperm cell unites with two
We eat the fruits and usually discard the seeds. Seeds separate polar nuclei to form a primary endosperm
germinate and form new plants. Flowers perform the
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 GENERAL BIOLOGY FOURTH QUARTER
nucleus. Double fertilization results from the unions of arises from the bud forming a chain of buds. If this
the two male sex cells. The zygote proceeds through process continues, a large number of yeast cells are
cell division and develops into a seed embryo. The produced in a short time.
primary endosperm nucleus develops to form a food
source to be used by the embryonic plant during seed Fragmentation
 You might have seen slimy green patches in ponds, or
germination.
in other stagnant water bodies. These are the algae.
When water and nutrients are available algae grow and
multiply rapidly by fragmentation. An alga breaks up
into two or more fragments. These fragments or pieces
grow into new individuals. This process continues and
they cover a large area in a short period of time.

Spore Formation
 Spores are asexual reproductive bodies. Each spore is
covered by a hard protective coat to withstand
unfavorable conditions such as high temperature and
low humidity. Formation of spores in unfavorable
conditions which is an adaptive response is called
sporulation. So they can survive for a long time. Under
favorable conditions, a spore germinates and develops
into a new individual. Plants such as moss and ferns
also reproduce by means of spores. Other special
organisms which thrive and survive through
assemblages (e.g. rice litters) known as the smartest
biotans of the forest floor, the myxomycetes or slime
molds also release haploid spores (Catipay, 2019).
When spores are released, they keep floating in the air.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION As they are very light they can cover long distances
 Asexual or vegetative reproduction involves the unlike pollen grains.
production of new plants by use of vegetative parts
from an existing plant. Vegetative plant parts used in ANIMAL REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
asexual reproduction include stems, buds, leaves, and Functions of the reproductive system
roots. Asexual or vegetative reproduction involves 1. Provides process for reproduction.
growing new plants from the vegetative parts of 2. Production of offspring
existing plants. These vegetative parts include leaves,
Types of Reproduction for Animals
stems, and roots. In asexual reproduction new plants
Just as in plants, there are two modes by which
are obtained without production of seeds. Vegetative
animals reproduce. These are:
propagation is a type of asexual reproduction in which a) Sexual reproduction
new plants are produced from roots, stems, leaves and b) Asexual reproduction
buds. Since reproduction is through the vegetative
parts of the plant, it is known as vegetative  Like plants, the reproductive parts in animals also
propagation. produce gametes that fuse to form a zygote. It is the
zygote which develops into a new individual. This type
Budding
of reproduction beginning from the fusion of male and
 Remember the minute organisms you have added in female gametes is called sexual reproduction.
your vinegar setup? Those are yeasts which are
eukaryotic organisms under the kingdom Fungi Male Reproductive Organs
(mycota). The small bulb-like projection coming out  The male reproductive organs include a pair of testes
from the yeast cell is called a bud. The bud gradually (singular, testis), two sperm ducts and a penis (which
grows and gets detached from the parent cell and forms
releases the sperm in the semen to the vagina). The
a new yeast cell. The new yeast cell grows, matures and
testes produce the male gametes called sperms
produces more yeast cells. Sometimes, another bud

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 GENERAL BIOLOGY FOURTH QUARTER
produced in the seminiferous tubules. Millions of 3. Ovoviviparous: Producing young by means of eggs
sperms are produced by the testes. Though sperms are that hatch within parent.
very small in size, each has a head, a middle piece and 4. Parthenogenesis: Producing an egg which later forms
a tail. as an embryo without being fertilized.

 In another type of fertilization, As the eggs are laid, the

male deposits sperms over them. Each sperm swims
randomly in water with the help of its long tail. The
sperms come in contact with the eggs. This results in
fertilization. This type of fertilization in which the
fusion of a male and a female gamete takes place
outside the body of the female is called external
fertilization. It is very common in aquatic animals such
a fish, starfish, and what not.
Female Reproductive Organs Asexual Reproduction
 The female reproductive organs are a pair of ovaries,  This type of reproduction in which only a single parent
oviducts (fallopian tubes) and the uterus. The ovary is involved is called asexual reproduction. Since new
produces female gametes called ova (eggs). In human individuals develop from the buds in hydra, this type of
beings, a single matured egg is released into the oviduct asexual reproduction is called budding. A familiar
by one of the ovaries every month. Uterus is the part mode of reproduction that you already have learnt
where development of the baby takes place, and the from General Biology- 1 in which an animal reproduces
vagina where sexual intercourse and passage of the by dividing into two individuals is called binary
offspring takes place. Like the sperm, an egg is also a fission. Another is Parthenogenesis which was stated
single cell. above, however unlike the previously mentioned
modes, it involves production of ova which develop
Fertilization into embryos which is common in bees, aphids, and
 The first step in the process of reproduction is the ants.
fusion of a sperm and an ovum. When sperms come in
contact with an egg, one of the sperms may fuse with PLANT NUTRITION
the egg. Such fusion of the egg and the sperm is called
 You have prior knowledge on Plant’s nutrition as its
fertilization. During fertilization, the nuclei of the
fundamental nutrition was discussed in Biology-1
sperm and the egg fuse to form a single nucleus. This
(Photosynthesis), it was established that
results in the formation of a fertilized egg or zygote.
polysaccharide amylose (starch) is the source of plants’
The process of fertilization is the meeting of an egg cell
energy. In this discussion you will also know that there
from the mother and a sperm cell from the father. So,
are micronutrients and macronutrients that plants also
the new individual inherits some characteristics from
need same thing with humans (discussed in Biology-1).
the mother and some from the father. Look at your
All living organisms require food. Plants can synthesise
brother or sister. See if you can recognize some
food for themselves but animals including humans
characters in them similar to those of your mother or
cannot. They get it from plants or animals that eat
your father. Fertilization which takes place inside the
plants. Thus, humans and animals are directly or
female body is called internal fertilization. Internal
indirectly dependent on plants.
fertilization occurs in many animals including humans,
cows, dogs and hens. Internal fertilization may result in Modes of Nutrition
the birth of either live offspring called viviparous such
 Plants are the only organisms that can prepare food for
as humans or via eggs (oviparous like birds or themselves by using water, carbon dioxide and
ovoviviparous like manta rays).
minerals. The raw materials are present in their
Modes of Reproduction and Fertilization in Animals: surroundings. The nutrients enable living organisms to
1. Viviparous: Producing young that have developed build their bodies, to grow, to repair damaged parts of
inside the body of their parent. their bodies and provide the energy to carry out life
2. Oviparous: Producing young by means of eggs that processes. Nutrition is the mode of taking food by an
hatch after being laid by their parent. organism and itsutilisation by the body. The mode of

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 GENERAL BIOLOGY FOURTH QUARTER
nutrition in which organisms make food themselves Organization of The Digestive System
from simple substances is called autotrophic (auto =
➢ Organs of the digestive system are divided into 2 main
self; trophos= nourishment) nutrition. Therefore,
group: the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract) and
plants are called autotrophs. Animals and most other
accessory structures.
organisms take in food prepared by plants. They are
➢ GI tract is a continuous tube extending through the
called heterotrophs (heteros = other). There are also a
ventral cavity from the mouth to the anus – it consists
few plants which performs a heterotrophic mode of
of the mouth, oral cavity, oropharynx, esophagus,
nutrition as parasites which take-in nutrients from
stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and
their hosts like Cuscuta or Amarbel. Some preys on
anus.
trapped insects because of Nitrogen scarcity in soil like
➢ Accessory structures include the teeth, tongue (in oral
the pitcher plant, venus fly-trap, and raflesia. Plant –
cavity), salivary glands, liver , gallbladder, and
like organisms like fungi and protists, on the other
pancreas.
hand get their nutrition from the decaying matter
(detritus) like grass and rice litters in the forest floors
Muscular movement of the GI tract
known as saphrobes like the infamous slime molds
Peristalsis – wavelike movement that occurs from the
(example, Arcyria cinerea) (Catipay, 2019). oropharynx to the rectum, allowing GI tract to push food
particles toward the anus.
Plant Macnutrients and Micronurtrients ➢ Mixing—mixing motion in the oral cavity and stomach
 There are tons of nutrients plants need. Plant nutrition that allows the GI tract to repeatedly break down food
categorizes nutrients into three, namely the into smaller particles, using mechanical digestion.
macronutrients, secondary nutrients and the ➢ Segmentation – regions of the small intestine
micronutrients. Plant Macronutrients are those contracting and relaxing independently, allowing the
which the plants need in huge amounts like, Nitrogen, small intestine to digestive and absorb more efficiently
Phosphorus, and Potassium known as NPK. Plant
Secondary nutrients are those nutrients that are Regulation of GI Tract Activities
needed by in plants by moderate amount, and these are ➢ Autonomic nervous system
Calcium, Magnesium, and Sulfur. Plant Micronutrients - parasympathetic nerves stimulate GI tract activities
are needed in fewer amounts, and these are Iron, Zinc,
- sympathetic nerves inhibit GI tract activities
Mnaganese, Molybdenum, Copper, Boron, and Chlorine.
➢ Hormonal control
THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM - hormones from endocrine gland and from GI tract itself
help regulate GI tract activities
➢ Reflex mechanism
- regions of the GI tract (especially the stomach and
small intestine) use reflexes to stimulate or inhibit one
another

Chemical digestion & absorption in the stomach

➢ Carbohydrate digestion is continued with gastric
amylase, resulting in disaccharides - Protein digestion
begins with pepsin (activation of pepsinogen by HCl),
resulting in peptides (small chains of protein).
➢ Lipid digestion begins with gastric lipases which can
only break down certain lipids such as butterfat,
resulting in fatty acids

➢ Absorption in the stomach is limited, where only small

and fat-soluble substances can be absorbed—water,
alcohol, aspirin, and certain drugs

➢ The result of all these mixing, chemical digestion,

secretion, and absorption is a yellowish paste called
chyme, which will be passed on to the small intestine.

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 GENERAL BIOLOGY FOURTH QUARTER
Regulation of Gastric Secretion Major Hormones of the Digestive Tract
➢ Regulation of gastric secretion and activities is by both 1. Gastrin: (Gastric & intestinal): released by Gastric
nervous and hormonal mechanisms – food moving cells, in response to the presence of food. Causes
along the oral cavity and esophagus stimulates the Gastric glands to increase their secretory activity.
parasympathetic nerves to activate the secretion in 2. Somatostatin: (Gastric inhibitory peptides - GIP):
gastric glands, the gastric hormone from G cells in turn Inhibits secretion of acid by parietal cells.
stimulates the gastric glands for more activities 3. Cholecystokinin: released by intestinal wall cells, in
("positive feedback"). response to the presence of proteins and fats in the
➢ On the other hand, when food is emptying from the small intestine. It causes gastric glands to decrease
stomach, sympathetic nerves inhibit the gastric glands their secretory activity and inhibits gastric motility;
and gastric, and a hormone called intestinal gastrin stimulation of pancreas to secrete digestive enzyme;
(released by small intestine) inhibits other gastric stimulates gall – bladder to contract and release bile.
activities. 4. Secretin: released by cells in the duodenal wall, in
response to acidic chyme entering the small
The above regulations occur in 3 overlapping phases: intestine.
Cephalic Phase, Gastric Phase, and Intestinal Phase
Major Digestive Enzyme
The Cephalic phase:
1. Salivary enzyme (Amylase): Begins carbohydrates
 Cephalic phase: involves special senses detect food digestion by breaking down starch and glycogen to
and uses parasympathetic nerves in the vagus nerve to
disaccharides
stimulate gastric activities.
1. Slight, Smell, and Taste of food cause stimulation of 2. Gastric enzymes: Pepsin, from Gastric glands –
vagus in brain. Begins protein digestion. Lipase, from Gastric glands –
2. Vagus stimulates acid secretion. Begins fat digestion.
a. Direct stimulation of parietal cells (major effect). 3. Pancreatic enzymes: Amylase, from pancreas –
b. Stimulation of Gastrin secretion (lesser effect). breaks down starch and glycogen into disaccharides.
Lipase, from pancreas – breaks down fats into fatty
The Gastric phase: acids and glycerol
 Gastric phase involves the distention of stomach and 4. Proteolytic enzymes: -Trypsin, Chymotrypsin, and
stimulates its own activities by the vagus nerve. Carboxypeptidase from pancreas breaks down
Distension of stomach (stretch - receptors) stimulates peptides into amino acids. Nucleases, from pancreas
vagus nerve; vagus stimulates acid secretion. breaks down nucleic acids into nucleotides.
➢ Amino acids and peptides in stomach lumen stimulates
acid secretion (chemo - receptors)
GAS EXCHANGE BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS
➢ Direct stimulation of parietal cells (lesser effect)
 Gas exchange occurs as a result of respiration, when
➢ Stimulation of gastrin secretion; gastrin stimulates acid
carbon dioxide is excreted and oxygen taken up, and
secretion (major effect) Gastrin secretion inhibited
photosynthesis, when oxygen is excreted and carbon
when PH of gastric juice falls below 2.5.
dioxide is taken up.
The Intestinal Phase:  The rate of gas exchange is affected by: (1) the area
available for diffusion, (2) the distance over which
 The intestinal phase involves acidic chyme passing into
the small intestine which secretes intestinal gastrin diffusion occurs, (3) the concentration gradient across
hormone to inhibit gastric activates. Neural inhibition the gas exchange surface, (4) the speed with which
of gastric emptying and acid secretion. Arrival of chyme molecules diffuse through membranes.
in duodenum causes distension & an increase in  Efficient gas exchange systems must have a large
osmotic pressure. These stimuli activate a neural reflex surface area to volume ratio, must be thin, must have
that inhibits gastric activity. mechanisms for maintaining steep concentration
 In response to fat in chyme, duodenum secretes the gradients across themselves, and lastly, must be
hormone, secretin that inhibits gastric acid secretion.
permeable to gases.
The enterogastric reflex: This reflex begins in the small
intestine (entero) and ends in the stomach (gastro).  Single-celled organisms are aquatic and their cell
Duodenum fills with chyme. Sensory stretch receptors surface membrane has a sufficiently large surface area
are stimulated. Sensory nerve impulses travel to CNS. to volume ratio to act as an efficient gas exchange
Nerve impulses from CNS (vagus) inhibit peristalsis surface. In larger organisms, permeable, thin, flat
stomach wall. structures have all the properties of efficient gas
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 GENERAL BIOLOGY FOURTH QUARTER
exchange surfaces but need water to prevent their hormone abscissic acid (ABA), causes potassium ions
dehydration and give them mechanical support. Since to be pumped out of the guard cells into adjacent cells.
the solubility of oxygen in water is low, organisms that This reduces turgidity in the guard cells and causes the
obtain their oxygen from water can maintain only a low stomata to close which reduces the rate of gas
metabolic rate. exchange. Plants living in areas prone to drought
 In small and thin organisms, the distance from gas usually have adaptations to cut down water loss or
exchange surface to the inside of the organism is short even store water.
enough for diffusion of gases to be efficient. Diffusion
gradients are maintained because gases are The Human Respiratory System
continually used up or produced. In larger organisms,
simple diffusion is not an efficient way of transporting
gases between cells in the body and the gas exchange
surface. In many animals a blood circulatory system
carries gases to and from the gas exchange surface. The
gas-carrying capacity of the blood is increased by
respiratory pigments, such as haemoglobin.
 Animals with an internal gas exchange surface ventilate
it by passing fresh air or water through their
respiratory system. Air usually flows in and out
through the same pathway; being light this requires
little muscular activity. Denser water is passed in a one-
directional pathway over gills. In terrestrial plants
diffusion of gases through pores is sufficient to service Functions of the Respiratory System
the few living cells in its stem cortex and its thalloid ➢ Includes inspiration and expiration.
leaves. In the roots, gas exchange is restricted to a small ➢ Provides an exchange of respiratory gases (oxygen and
permeable area. carbon dioxide)
➢ Warms, cleans, and humidifies air.
Gaseous Exchange in Flowering Plants ➢ Aids olfaction (sense of smell) and phonation (sounds
Flowering plants exchange gases through their leaves’ of letters/words)
stomates:

➢ in the light there is a net intake of carbon dioxide for  Every cell in the body needs oxygen to survive. The
photosynthesis and a net output of oxygen from respiratory system provides a way for oxygen to enter
respiration the body. It also provides a way for carbon dioxide, the
➢ in the dark there is a net intake of oxygen for waste product of cells, to leave the body.
respiration and a net output of carbon dioxide
The respiratory system is made up of 2 sections:
➢ In the dark the plant's potassium pumps stop and ➢ the upper respiratory tract and
potassium ions diffuse back out of the guard cells, they ➢ the lower respiratory tract
lose turgidity and the stomata close. Sufficient oxygen The Upper Respiratory Tract
for respiration can still get into the leaf cells by
diffusion. Gas exchange is achieved by diffusion. This is
a process by which particles move naturally from a
region where they are in high concentration to a region
where they are in lower concentration. They move
down a concentration gradient: the steeper the
gradient, the faster the rate of diffusion. With the
stomata open, production and consumption of oxygen
and carbon dioxide in the leaf is sufficient to maintain
a concentration gradient steep enough to facilitate gas
exchange with the atmosphere. In potential drought
conditions, a mechanism triggered by the plant

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 GENERAL BIOLOGY FOURTH QUARTER
Mouth and Nose Lungs
 Air enters the body through your mouth and nose. The  Your lungs are made up of 5 pink, spongy lobes. There
air is warmed, moistened and filtered by mucous are 3 lobes on your right side and 2 lobes on your left
secretions and hairs in the nose. side. Your heart is between them a little to the left.

Larynx or Voice Box Diaphragm

 The larynx sits at the top of the trachea. It contains your  The diaphragm is a long, flat muscle that sits below your
vocal cords. Each time you breathe in or inhale, the air lungs. The diaphragm helps you get air in and out of
passes through the larynx, down the trachea and into your lungs by moving up and down. When your
the lungs. When you breathe out or exhale, the air diaphragm moves down, you breathe in or inhale. When
moves from your lungs, up your trachea and out your diaphragm moves up, you breathe out or exhale.
through your nose and mouth. When you speak, the
vocal cords tighten up and move closer together. Air Osmoregulatory Mechanisms
from the lungs is forced between them and causes them  The chemiosmotic regulatory systems of plant and
to vibrate. This produces sound. Your tongue, lips and fungal cells differ fundamentally from those found in
teeth form words out of these sounds. animal cells. Animal cells rely on a primordial Na1
chemiosmotic circuit consisting of Na+1/K+1 ATPase
Trachea ‘‘pumps’’ to drive the efflux of 3Na+1 and influx of 2K+1
 The trachea is the tube that connects the mouth and coupled to ATP hydrolysis. This active Na+1 extrusion
nose to your lungs. It is also called the windpipe. You creates an electrochemical Na1 gradient across the
can feel some of your trachea in the front of your neck. plasma membrane to drive secondary symport anda
It feels firm with tough rings around it. The Trachea is ntiport carriers that, in turn, regulate nutrient uptake
also known as the voicebox with two tough strings of and pH. In contrast, plants appear to lack plasma
cartilagenous tissues vibrating to create sound from air. membrane Na+1/K+1-ATPases. Thus, plants utilize H+1-
ATPases for primary extrusion or sequestration of
The Lower Respiratory Tract protons to generate H+1 electrochemical gradients,
which drive secondary ion and nutrient transport
processes via H+1-symport/ antiport systems. These
H+1-ATPase pumps also modulate both intracellular
and extracellular pH.
 In our Human body various metabolic activities are
carried out and continuously numbers of byproducts
are formed. Some of by-products are harmful, if they
remain within the body. It should be eliminated out of
the body. Body regularly throws these toxic, harmful,
unwanted substances out of the body. e.g. nitrogenous
waste. In higher animals including man Homeostasis is
maintained by two process; i.e. excretion and
osmoregulation.

Bronchial Tubes Homeostasis

 The trachea splits into 2 bronchial tubes in your lungs.  The regulation or maintenance of a constant body fluid
These are called the left bronchus and right bronchus. or internal environment is called homeostasis. The
The bronchus tubes keep branching off into smaller and temperature, amount of water and glucose
smaller tubes called bronchi. The tubes are lined with concentration are at almost constant in homeostasis.
fine hair-like structures called cilia. As the cilia sway
back and forth, they carry the mucous upwards to the Modes of Excretion
trachea where it can be coughed up or swallowed.  On the basis of types of nitrogenous waste to be
removed from the body, animals show three modes of
Alveoli excretion
 At the end of the bronchial tubes are air sacs called 1. Ammnotelism:
alveoli. The alveoli look like bunches of grapes but ➢ Phenomenon of formation of excretory product in the
contain air. This is where the oxygen enters the blood form of ammonia is called ammonotelism.
and the carbon dioxide exits. There are about 300 ➢ Organisms which excrete ammonia as main excretory
million alveoli in each lung. Alveoli (alveolus= singular)
product are called ammonotelic.
are the cell units of the lungs.

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 GENERAL BIOLOGY FOURTH QUARTER
➢ Ammonia is highly toxic nitrogenous waste produced Carolus Linnaeus
at the end of protein metabolism in liver as primary  Developed a system of classification that is basis of
nitrogenous waste. what is used today; hence the monicker the Father of
➢ Due to is small molecular size and high water Systematics.
solubility, needs large amount of water to removed
from body. Binomial Systems
 Today each species’ official scientific name is made of 2
➢ Its concentration in the body is kept very low and
words (bi, means two: nomen, means name). Scientific
harmful to surrounding tissues. names are Latin.
➢ It has to be eliminated out as soon as it is formed.
➢ About 300-500 ml of water is required for elimination Classification
of 1 g of ammonia.  The process by which things are grouped into classes
➢ Examples: Aquatic invertebrates like sponges, hydra, by shared characters and the arrangement of those
bony fishes, tadpole larva of frog, salamander. classes.

Identification
2. Ureotelism:
 Process of observing characters and thereby classifying
a. Elimination of nitrogenous waste in the form of urea
things.
is called ureotelism.
b. As ammonia is very toxic, it must be converted to less Latin
toxic form.  Language used universally in biology.
c. In liver, ammonia combine with CO2 to form urea by  Names of biologist who discovered a new species can
ornithine cycle and formation requires expenditure be included as a third name in the nomenclature or as
of energy. species name.
d. Urea can be excreted at lower rate.
e. Urea is soluble in water and stored in dissolved form Taxonomy Classification in Hierarchy
called urine.
f. About 50ml of water is required for elimination of 1 g
of urea.
Examples: Terrestrial animals like frog, turtle, toads,
mammals, marine fishes.

3. Uricotelism:
a. Elimination of nitrogenous waste in the form of uric
acid is called uricotelism.
b. Uric acid is least toxic nitrogenous waste and can be
retained in body for longer period.
c. Synthesis of uric acid from ammonia in liver by
inosinic pathway.
d. Uric acid is eliminated in the form of solid pallets.
e. Such type of excretion is found in those animals which
have to converse the water.
Example: Land snails, terrestrial insects, reptiles, birds
etc.

LINNAEAN TAXONOMY AND SYSTEMATICS

 Biologist use binomial system of classification for
classification of organisms.

 Taxonomy - The science of classifying and naming

organisms.
 Systematics – Study of relationship among organism.

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