SEM :- 1-1 (R23) ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY UNIT-1

SYLLABUS
1. Water Technology

2. Soft and hardwater,

3. Estimation of hardness of water by EDTA Method,

Estimation of dissolved Oxygen –

4. Boiler troubles –

5. Priming, foaming, scale and sludge, Caustic

embrittlement, Industrial water treatment –

6. Specifications for drinking water,

7. Bureau of Indian Standards(BIS) and World health

organization(WHO) standards,

8. Ion-exchange processes –

9. desalination of brackish water,

10. reverse osmosis (RO) and electrodialysis.

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Water Technology in Chemistry

Water plays a crucial role in various industrial processes. Let’s delve into some essential
aspects of water technology in the context of chemistry:

1. Hardness of Water:
o Definition: Water hardness refers to the presence of minerals like calcium (Ca) and
magnesium (Mg) salts, such as bicarbonates, carbonates, sulfates, and chlorides.
o Types of Hardness:
 Temporary Hardness: Caused by Ca and Mg bicarbonates. It can be removed
by boiling water or adding hydrated lime.
 Permanent Hardness: Caused by soluble salts of Ca and Mg other than
bicarbonates (e.g., chlorides and sulfates). It requires specific water softening
techniques.
o Degree of Hardness:
 Expressed in terms of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) equivalent.
 Units: Parts per million (ppm), milligrams per liter (mg/L), degree Clarke (oCl),
and degree French (oFr).

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2. Water Softening Techniques:

o Lime-Soda Process: Involves adding hydrated lime (Ca(OH)₂) and soda ash (Na₂CO₃)
to precipitate insoluble carbonates.
o Zeolite: A natural mineral that exchanges Ca and Mg ions with sodium ions.
o Ion-Exchange Resin: Synthetic resins that replace Ca and Mg ions with sodium ions.
o Reverse Osmosis (RO): Effective for desalination and high-pressure boiler feed
water.
3. Boiler Troubles and Treatment:
o Scale Formation: Impurities in water can form scale deposits in boilers. Internal
treatment involves adding chemicals to prevent scale formation.
o Sludge Formation: Impurities can also lead to sludge. Proper blowdown methods
are essential for removal.
o Calgon Treatment: A method to prevent scale formation by adding a chemical called
Calgon.
o Reverse Osmosis (RO): Used for high-pressure boilers and converting seawater into
drinking water.

Remember, water is not just a chemical compound; it’s a natural wonder that sustains life
and industry alike!

2.) Estimation of Hardness of Water by EDTA Method

The EDTA (Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) method is commonly used to determine

the hardness of water. Let’s break down the process:

1. Principle:
o EDTA forms stable complexes with metal ions, including calcium (Ca²⁺) and
magnesium (Mg²⁺).
o In this method, EDTA reacts with the metal ions present in the water sample,
and the endpoint is detected using a metal indicator.

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2. Procedure:

1. Sample Collection:
 Collect a representative water sample.
2. Titration:
 Add a few drops of Eriochrome Black T (EBT) indicator to the water
sample.
 Titrate the sample with a standardized EDTA solution (usually
disodium salt of EDTA) until the color changes from wine-red to blue.
3. Calculation:
 The amount of EDTA used corresponds to the total hardness (Ca²⁺ +
Mg²⁺) in the water sample.
 Calculate the hardness in terms of parts per million (ppm) of calcium
carbonate (CaCO₃).
3. Equations:
o The reaction between EDTA and metal ions:

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 Ca²⁺ + Mg²⁺ + EDTA → Ca-EDTA + Mg-EDTA

o The total hardness (TH) is given by:
 TH (ppm as CaCO₃) = (Volume of EDTA × Normality of EDTA × 100)
/ Volume of water sample
4. Precautions:
o Ensure proper calibration of the EDTA solution.
o Maintain a consistent pH (usually around 10) during titration.
o Perform a blank titration to account for any impurities in the reagents.

Remember, accurate water hardness estimation is crucial for various applications,

including water treatment and industrial processes!

3.) Estimation of Dissolved Oxygen by Winkler Titration

The Winkler method is a classic technique for determining the dissolved oxygen (DO)
content in water. Let’s explore the steps involved:

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1. Principle:
o The Winkler method fixes dissolved oxygen by adding manganese(II) ions under
basic conditions.
o The reaction results in the formation of a brown precipitate called manganic
hydroxide (MnO(OH)₂).
2. Procedure:
1. Sample Collection:
 Collect a water sample.
2. Fixation of Oxygen:
 Add manganese sulfate (MnSO₄) and alkali-iodide reagent (NaOH + KI)
to the sample.
 If no oxygen is present, a pure white precipitate of manganese hydroxide
(Mn(OH)₂) forms.
 If oxygen is present, manganese(II) is oxidized to manganese(IV),
resulting in a brown hydrated oxide precipitate.
3. Titration with Thiosulfate:
 Shake the sample to allow all oxygen to react.
 Let the floc settle, leaving clear liquid below the stopper.
 Add sulfuric acid to the sample.
 MnO₂ oxidizes to produce iodine (I₂):
 MnO₂ + 2I⁻ + 4H⁺ → Mn²⁺ + I₂ + 2H₂O
 I₂ forms a complex with excess iodide ions:
 I₂ + I⁻ → I₃⁻
 Titrate the liberated iodine with sodium thiosulfate (Na₂S₂O₃).
3. Calculation:
o The amount of oxygen can be computed from the titer:
 One mole of O₂ reacts with four moles of thiosulfate.
o The dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration is given by:
 DO (in mg/L) = mL of sodium thiosulfate (0.025N) consumed.

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4. Additional Notes:
o Oxygen-sensitive electrodes can also determine DO precisely but require
frequent standardization.
o These electrodes are useful in polluted waters with varying oxygen
concentrations.

Remember, understanding dissolved oxygen levels is vital for environmental monitoring

and water quality assessment! 🌊🌊

4.) BOILER TROUBLES

Certainly! Boiler troubles can be quite challenging, but understanding common issues
and their solutions is essential for efficient operation. Let’s explore some common boiler
problems and how to address them:

1. Scale Formation:
o Issue: Accumulation of mineral deposits (scale) on the boiler’s heating
surfaces.
o Cause: Hard water contains dissolved minerals (calcium and magnesium)
that precipitate when heated.
o Solution:
 Regularly inspect and clean the boiler’s internal surfaces.
 Use water softeners to reduce hardness.

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 Implement chemical treatments to prevent scale formation.

2. Corrosion:
o Issue: Deterioration of boiler components due to chemical reactions with
water or oxygen.
o Cause: Exposure to oxygen, acidic water, or improper water treatment.
o Solution:
 Maintain proper water chemistry (pH, alkalinity, and oxygen levels).
 Install corrosion inhibitors.
 Regularly inspect and replace corroded parts.
3. Low Water Level:
o Issue: Boiler water level drops below the safe operating range.
o Cause: Leaks, faulty feedwater systems, or operator error.
o Solution:
 Install low-water cutoff devices.
 Regularly check water levels and refill as needed.
 Address any leaks promptly.
4. High Pressure:
o Issue: Boiler pressure exceeds safe limits.
o Cause: Malfunctioning pressure relief valves, blocked safety valves, or
faulty controls.
o Solution:
 Inspect and test safety valves regularly.
 Adjust pressure settings within safe limits.
 Ensure proper control system operation.
5. Ignition Problems:
o Issue: Boiler fails to ignite or stay lit.
o Cause: Faulty ignition components, gas supply issues, or blocked burners.
o Solution:
 Check pilot light or electronic ignition system.
 Verify gas supply and pressure.
 Clean or replace burners as needed.
6. Water Leaks:
o Issue: Boiler leaks water.
o Cause: Damaged seals, cracked pipes, or faulty fittings.
o Solution:
 Inspect all connections and seals.
 Repair or replace damaged components.
 Monitor for leaks during operation.

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SOME MORE ISSUES

1. Boiler Troubles:
o Boiler troubles encompass various issues that can affect boiler efficiency,
safety, and longevity. Here are some common ones:
 Priming and Foaming: Priming occurs when water droplets are carried
along with steam, leading to wet steam. Foaming involves the formation
of a stable layer of foam on the water surface, hindering steam
separation.
 Sludge and Scales:
 Sludge Formation:
 Soft, loose, and slimy precipitates that form within the
boiler.
 Typically found in colder portions of the boiler, especially
at bends.
 Composed of substances like MgCO₃, MgCl₂, CaCl₂, and
MgSO₄.
 Sludge affects heat transfer efficiency and overall boiler
performance.
 Removal methods include using softened water and
performing blowdown operations.
 Scale Formation:
 Hard deposits adhering firmly to the inner boiler walls.
 Formed due to various processes:
 Decomposition of calcium bicarbonate
(Ca(HCO₃)₂) leads to soft scale.
 Deposition of CaSO₄ (gypsum) occurs in high-
pressure boilers.
 Hydrolysis of magnesium salts results in soft scale.

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 Silica leads to the formation of hard-to-remove

silicates (CaSiO₃ and MgSiO₃).
 Disadvantages of scale formation include fuel wastage,
decreased boiler safety, efficiency reduction, and the risk
of explosion.
 Removal methods involve mechanical or chemical
approaches.
 Caustic Embrittlement:
 Caustic embrittlement refers to the formation of brittle and
crystalline cracks in the boiler shell.
 It occurs due to highly alkaline water in the boiler.
 Residual Na₂CO₃ from the lime-soda process can contribute to
this phenomenon.
2. Water Treatment Importance:
o Proper water treatment is crucial for maintaining boiler efficiency, preventing
corrosion, and ensuring safe operation.
o Key goals of water treatment include:
 Softening: Reducing hardness-causing salts.
 Deaeration: Removing dissolved gases (especially oxygen) to prevent
corrosion.
 Chemical Treatment: Using additives to control scale, corrosion, and
foaming.
 Regular Monitoring: Ensuring water quality remains within acceptable
limits.

Remember, understanding water chemistry and implementing effective treatment

strategies are essential for smooth industrial processes and safe boiler operation! 🌊🌊

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5.) Specifications of drinking water

Drinking water specifications are established to ensure the safety and quality of the water
we consume. These specifications set limits on various parameters to minimize health
risks and maintain a pleasant taste. Here's a breakdown of some key aspects of drinking
water specifications:

Microbial Quality:
 This is paramount to ensure the absence of harmful bacteria, viruses, and parasites that
can cause waterborne diseases.
 Ideally, drinking water should be free from any coliform bacteria.
Chemical Quality:
 Limits are set for various chemicals like:
o Inorganic contaminants: These include minerals and metals like arsenic, lead, fluoride,
nitrate, etc. Each has a specific maximum allowable concentration to prevent adverse
health effects.
o Organic contaminants: These can arise from natural sources or human activities.
Examples include pesticides, herbicides, and disinfection byproducts.
Physical Quality:
 This focuses on characteristics that affect the aesthetic appeal of water, such as:
o Color: Ideally colorless
o Turbidity: Low turbidity indicates minimal suspended particles, making the water
appear clear.
o Taste and Odor: Pleasant and free from objectionable tastes or odors.
o pH: Generally within a range of 6.5 to 8.5 for optimal taste and pipe corrosion control.
Regulatory Bodies:
 Different countries or regions have their own regulatory bodies that establish and enforce
these drinking water specifications. Some prominent examples include:
o World Health Organization (WHO) - Provides international guidelines for drinking water
quality.

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o United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) - Sets national standards for
drinking water quality in the US under the Safe Drinking Water Act.
o Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) - Sets water quality standards in India (IS 10500:2012).

Importance of Following Specifications:

 Adherence to these specifications ensures:
o Safe drinking water that minimizes the risk of waterborne diseases.
o Pleasant taste and odor for consumer acceptability.
o Protection of plumbing infrastructure from corrosion.

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6.) Bureau of Indian Standard for Drinking Water (IS 10500:2012)

The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has established the IS 10500:2012 as the
official Indian standard for drinking water quality. This standard provides guidelines
and permissible limits for various parameters to ensure safe and potable water. Let’s
explore the key aspects:

1. Scope:
o The standard applies to drinking water supplied by different authorities, agencies,
and departments of state and central governments across India.
o It also covers water supplied by non-government or private agencies for human
consumption.
2. Revision and Alignment:
o The second revision of IS 10500:2012 aligns with internationally available
specifications on drinking water.
o Considerations include EU directives, USEPA standards, WHO guidelines, and other
relevant publications.
o

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3. Acceptable and Permissible Limits:

o The standard specifies both acceptable and permissible limits for various water
quality parameters.
o Acceptable: Values exceeding these render the water unsuitable but may be
tolerated in the absence of an alternative source.
o Permissible: Exceeding these limits necessitates rejection of the water source.
4. Parameters Covered:
o The standard addresses a wide range of parameters, including:
 Color
 Odor
 Taste
 Turbidity
 pH
 Chloride
 Total Alkalinity
 Free Residual Chlorine
 And more…
5. Sampling and Testing:
o The standard outlines methods of sampling and testing to assess water quality.
o It includes guidelines for sample size and test equipment.
6. Health Impacts:
o Information on health impacts due to water contaminants is sourced from the World
Health Organization (WHO) and the Water Quality Association.

Remember, adhering to the IS 10500:2012 ensures that our drinking water meets the
highest safety standards! 🌊🌊

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7.) Ion-Exchange Process

Certainly! Let’s explore ion-exchange processes, a fascinating area of chemistry and
materials science.

1. Definition:
o An ion-exchange reaction involves a class of chemical reactions between two
substances, each consisting of positively and negatively charged species called ions.
o In these reactions, there is an exchange of one or more ionic components.
o Ions are atoms or groups of atoms that bear a positive or negative electric charge.
2. How It Works:
o Imagine an ionic substance (like table salt) dissolved in water. The ions within it are
freed from the rigid crystal structure and move about in the solution.

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o Certain insoluble materials with positive or negative charges on their surfaces can
react with ionic solutions. They selectively remove specific ions and replace them
with ions of other kinds.
o These processes are called ion-exchange reactions.
o Ion-exchange materials, such as zeolites, are used:
 Commercially to purify water (among other uses).
 Medically (e.g., as artificial kidneys).
3. Historical Context:
o Surprisingly, the recognition of ion-exchange processes predates the formulation of
the ionic theory by the Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius.
o In 1850, agriculturist Sir H.S.M. Thompson and chemist J.T. Way independently
described ion exchange as it occurs in soils.
o Way’s work addressed how soils retain soluble fertilizers even after heavy rains.
o He observed this phenomenon by pouring a solution of potassium chloride onto soil
and analyzing the resulting liquid.

Remember, ion exchange plays a crucial role in water treatment, purification, and various
scientific applications. 🌊🌊

8.) Desalination of Brackish Water:

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1. Brackish water lies between freshwater and seawater in terms of salinity. It contains more
dissolved solids than freshwater but less than seawater.
2. Desalination of brackish water is crucial for regions facing water scarcity. The total dissolved
solids (TDS) in brackish water typically range from 1,500 to 20,000 mg/L.
3. Two primary membrane-based technologies are used for brackish water desalination:
o Reverse Osmosis (RO): RO employs a semipermeable membrane to separate water
molecules from other substances, effectively removing ions and unwanted
molecules. The solute remains on the pressurized side, while pure solvent passes
through the membrane 1.
o Electrodialysis (ED): ED transports salt ions from one solution to another using ion-
exchange membranes under an applied electric potential difference. It operates in
an electrodialysis stack, allowing selective movement of ions through the
membranes .

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9.) Reverse Osmosis (RO):

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o Definition: RO is a water purification process that removes ions, unwanted

molecules, and larger particles from drinking water using a partially permeable
membrane.
o Principle: Solvent (water) passes through the membrane against the concentration
gradient, leaving solutes behind. It’s widely used for drinking water purification and
desalination 1.
o Process: High-pressure forces water through the membrane, separating dissolved
species from water molecules 4.

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10.) Electrodialysis (ED):

o Definition: ED transports salt ions through ion-exchange membranes from one

solution to another under an applied electric potential difference.
o Process: An electrodialysis cell consists of feed (dilute) and concentrate (brine)
compartments separated by anion and cation exchange membranes. Ions migrate
through the membranes, maintaining charge balance 2.

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o Advantages: ED offers higher feed recovery due to its ability to move dissolved
species away from the feed stream 2.

In summary, both RO and ED play vital roles in water treatment, ensuring access to safe
and clean water. 🌊🌊

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