HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY – HO CHI MINH CITY

🙞🕮🙞

PROJECT REPORT
TOPIC 4:
CURVES

Subject: Calculus 2
Subject code: MT1005
Instructor: Huỳnh Thị Hồng Diễm
Class: CC08
Semester: 232

HCM city, April 2024

 GROUP MEMBER
NAME ID WORK
1. Huỳnh Quốc Đạt 2352228 25%
2. Huỳnh Vương Khang 2350011 25%
3. Lê Minh Hoàng Quân 2352676 25%
4. Lê Trần Đăng Khoa 2352564 25%
 CONTENTS
GROUP MEMBERS 2
I. Theory 3
II. Section 11.3 13
III.Section 11.4 25
IV. Section 11.5
27
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I. THEORY

1. Curves and parametrizations

Curves are considered as geometric objects rather than as paths of moving particles.
Theoretically, without involving the concept of parametric representation, it is difficult to
give a formal definition of a curve as a geometric object (i.e., as a certain kind of set of points).

To handle this difficulty, we regard a curve in 3-space as the set of points whose positions are
given by the position vector function:

In order to avoid such strange objects we assume hereafter that the defining function r(t) has a
continuous first derivative, dr/dt, which we will continue to call “velocity” and denote by v(t) by
analogy with the physical case where t is time.
(We also continue to call v(t) = the “speed.”) As we will see later, this implies
that the curve has an arc length between any two points corresponding to parameter
values t1 and t2; if t1 < t2, this arc length is

Frequently we will want r(t) to have continuous derivatives of higher order.

However, no assumptions on the continuity of derivatives of the function r(t) are sufficient to
guarantee that the curve r = r(t) is a “smooth” curve (fail at a point where v = 0).

Although we have said that a curve is a set of points given by a parametric equation
r = r(t), there is no unique way of representing a given curve parametrically.

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Closed curve: the curve r = r(t), , if r(a) = r(b), that is, if the curve begins and ends at
the same point.

Non-self-intersecting: if there exist some parametrization r = r(t), , of the curve that is

one-to-one except that the endpoints could be the same:

Simple closed curve: closed and non-self-intersecting curve (namely circles and ellipses).

Every parametrization of a particular curve determines one of two possible orientations

corresponding to the direction along the curve in which the parameter is increasing.

To parametrize the curve of intersection of two surfaces, we parametrize the surface that is a
cylinder parallel to a coordinate axis, in other words, its equation is independent of one of the
variables.

Arc length
Given curve specified by:

Subdivide the closed interval [a, b] into n subintervals by points:

The points , subdivide C into n arcs. If we use the chord length

as an approximation to the arc length between ri-1 and ri then the sum

approximates the length of C by the length of a polygonal line.

Evidently, any such approximation is less than or equal to the actual length of C.

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We say that C is rectifiable if there exists a constant K such that for every n and
every choice of the points ti. In this case, the completeness axiom of the real number
system assures us that there will be a smallest such number K. We call this smallest K

the length of C and denote it by s. Let and .

Then sn can be written in the form

If r(t) has a continuous derivative v(t), then

In kinematic terms, this formula states that the distance travelled by a moving particle is the
integral of its speed.

Remark: Although the above formula is expressed in terms of the parameter t, the
arc length, as defined above, is a strictly geometric property of the curve C. It is
independent of the particular parametrization used to represent C.

If s(t) denotes the arc length of that part of C corresponding to parameter values
in [a,t], then

so that the arc length element for C is given by

The length of C is the integral of these arc length elements, we write

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Piecewise smooth curves
If there are finitely many such points where dr/dt = 0, we will say that the curve is piecewise
smooth.
In general, a piecewise smooth curve consists of a finite number of smooth arcs.
C can be expressed as the sum of the individual arcs:

C = C1 + C 2 + C 3 + … C k

Each arc Ci can have its own parametrization

Where for . The fact that Ci+1 must begin at the point where Ci
ends requires the conditions

If also rk(bk) = r1(a1), then C is a closed piecewise smooth curve.

The length of a piecewise smooth curve is the sum of the lengths of its component arcs:

Arc-length parametrization

The position vector of an arbitrary point P on the curve can be specified as

a function of the arc length s along the curve from the initial point P0 to P,

This equation is called an arc-length parametrization or intrinsic parametrization

of the curve. Since ds = v(t) dt for any parametrization r = r(t), for the arc
length parametrization we have ds = v(s) ds.

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Suppose that a curve is specified in terms of an arbitrary parameter t. If the arc
length over a parameter interval [t0, t],

can be evaluated explicitly, and if the equation s = s(t) can be explicitly solved for
t as a function of s (t = t(s)), then the curve can be reparametrized in terms of arc
length by substituting for t in the original parametrization:

2. Curvature, torsion and the Frenet Frame

To introduce,
 The curvature measures the rate at which a curve is turning (away from its tangent line) at
any point.
 The torsion measures the rate at which the curve is twisting (out of the plane in which it is
turning) at any point.
 The Frenet Frame: a right-handed triad of mutually perpendicular unit vectors at any point

The Unit Tangent Vector:

The velocity vector is tangent to the parametric curve at the

point r(t) and points in the direction of the orientation of the curve there. Since we are assuming
that we can find a unit tangent vector, , at r(t) by dividing v(t) by its length:

In terms of arc-length parametrization, the unit tangent vector is

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If the curve has a continuous, nonvanishing velocity v(t), then the unit tangent vector
is a continuous function of t. The angle between and any fixed unit vector is
also continuous in t:

As asserted previously, the curve is smooth in the sense that it has a continuously
turning tangent line. The rate of this turning is quantified by the curvature.

Curvature and the Unit Normal

Assume that the parametric equations of curves have continuous derivatives up to third order on
the intervals where they are defined.

Having unit length, the tangent vector satisfies .

Differentiating this equation with respect to s we get

so that is perpendicular to .

Definition: Curvature and radius of curvature

The curvature (measuring the rate of turning of the tangent line to the curve there) of C at the
point r(s) is the length of there. It is denoted by ,

The radius of curvature (the radius of the circle through r(s)), denoted , is the reciprocal of the
curvature:

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According to its definition, everywhere on C.

If , we can divide by its length, , and obtain a unit vector in the

same direction. This is called the unit principal normal to C at r(s), or the unit normal:

is perpendicular to C at r(s) and points in the direction that , and therefore C, is turning.
The principal normal is not defined at points where the curvature is zero.

Note:
The curvature and radius of curvature are constant.
points toward the centre of the circle.

The position vector r(s) makes angle with the positive x-axis; therefore, makes
the same angle with the positive y-axis. Therefore, the rate of rotation of with respect to s is

That is, is the rate at which is turning (measured with respect to arc length).

Theorem: Curvature is the rate of turning of the unit tangent

Let on an interval containing s, and let be the angle between and the unit
tangent vectors at neighbouring points on the curve. Then

The plane passing through r(s) and containing the vectors and is called the osculating
plane of C at r(s).

Let

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For each s the point with position vector lies in the osculating plane of C at r(s),
on the concave side of C and at distance from r(s). It is called the centre of
curvature of C for the point r(s).
The circle in the osculating plane having centre at
the centre of curvature and radius equal to the radius of curvature is called the
osculating circle for C at r(s).

Torsion and Binormal, the Frenet-Serret Formulas

At any point r(s) on the curve C where and are defined, a third unit vector, the unit
binormal , is defined by the formula

Note:

is normal to the osculating plane of C at r(s); if C is a plane curve, then is a constant

vector, independent of s on any interval where .

At each point r(s) on C, the three vectors constitute a right-handed basis of mutually
perpendicular unit vectors like the standard basis . ) This basis is called the Frenet
frame for C at the point r(s).

Definition: Torsion

On any interval where there exists a function such that

The number is called the torsion of C at r(s).

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Frenet-Serret formulas:

can be written in matrix form:

Theorem: The Fundamental Theorem of Space Curves

Let C1 and C2 be two curves, both of which have the same non-vanishing curvature
function and the same torsion function . Then the curves are congruent. That
is, one can be moved rigidly (translated and rotated) so as to coincide exactly with the
other.

Remark: It is a consequence of the above theorem that any curve having nonzero
constant curvature and constant torsion must, in fact, be a circle (if the torsion is zero)
or a circular helix (if the torsion is nonzero).

3. Curvature and Torsion for General Parametrizations

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Note that is in the direction of . From these formulas we obtain useful formulas for
:

The easiest way to calculate :

or sometimes,

Calculate the torsion:

Tangential and Normal Acceleration

According to the formula obtained earlier,

of which

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the term is called the tangential acceleration

the term is called the normal or centripetal acceleration directed towards the centre of
curvature and its magnitude is .

Evolutes:

The centre of curvature of a given curve can itself trace out another curve as t
varies. This curve is called the evolute of the given curve r(t).

Calculating vector product

II. SECTION 11.3

In Exercises 1-4, find the required parametrization of the first quadrant part of the circular
arc x 2+ y 2=a2 .

1. In terms of the y -coordinate, oriented counterclockwise

2. In terms of the x -coordinate, oriented clockwise

3. In terms of the angle between the tangent line and the positive x -axis, oriented
counterclockwise

4. In terms of arc length measured from (0 , a), oriented clockwise

5. The cylinders z=x 2 and z=4 y 2 intersect in two curves, one of which passes
through the point (2 , −1 , 4). Find a parametrization of that curve using t= y as
parameter.

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 6. The plane x + y + z=1 intersects the cylinder z=x 2 in a parabola. Parametrize the
parabola using t=x as parameter.

In Exercises 7-10, parametrize the curve of intersection of the given surfaces. Note: The
answers are not unique.

7. x 2+ y 2=9 and z=x + y

8. z=√ 1 − x 2 − y 2 and x + y=1
9. z=x 2 + y 2 and 2 x − 4 y − z −1=0

10. yz + x=1 and xz − x=1

11. The plane z=1+ x intersects the cone z 2=x 2+ y 2 in a parabola. Try to parametrize
the parabola using as parameter: (a) t=x , (b) t= y , and (c) t=z .

Which of these choices for t leads to a single parametrization that represents the
whole parabola? What is that parametrization? What happens with the other two
choices?

12. The plane x + y + z=1 intersects the sphere x 2+ y 2+ z 2=1 in a circle l . Find the
centre r 0 and radius r of C . Also find two perpendicular unit vectors v́ 1 and v́ 2
parallel to the plane of C . (Hint: To be specific, show that v́ 1=(i − j)/ √ 2 is one such
vector; then find a second that is perpendicular to v́ 1.) Use your results to construct
a parametrization of C .

13. Find the length of the curve r =t 2 i+ t 2 j+t 3 k from t=0 to t=1.

14. For what values of the parameter λ is the length s(T ) of the curve
2 3 3
r =t i+ λ t j+t k ,(0 ≤ t ≤T ) given by (T )=T +T ?

15. Express the length of the curve r =a t 2 i+ bt j+ c ln ⁡t k , (1 ≤t ≤T ), as a definite

integral. Evaluate the integral if b 2=4 ac .

16. Describe the parametric curve l given by

2
x=a cos ⁡t sin ⁡t , y=a sin ⁡t , z=bt .

What is the length of C between t=0 and t=T >0?

17. Find the length of the conical helix given by the parametrization
r =t cos ⁡t i+ t sin ⁡t j+ t k ,(0 ≤ t ≤ 2 π ). Why is the curve called a conical helix?

18. Describe the intersection of the sphere x 2+ y 2+ z 2=1 and the elliptic cylinder
2 2
x + 2 z =1. Find the total length of this intersection curve.

19. Let l be the curve x=e t cos ⁡t , y=e t sin ⁡t , z=t between t=0 and t=2 π . Find the
length of e .

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 20. Find the length of the piecewise smooth curve r =t 3 i+ t 2 j , (−1 ≤ t ≤ 2).

21. Describe the piecewise smooth curve l=ϱ1 +ϱ 2, where r 1 (t )=t i+t j,(0≤ t ≤ 1), and
r 2 (t )=(1 −t )i+(1+t ) j, (0 ≤ t ≤ 1) .

22. A cable of length L and circular cross-section of radius a is wound around a

cylindrical spool of radius b with no overlapping and with the adjacent windings
touching one another. What length of the spool is covered by the cable?

In Exercises 23-26, reparametrize the given curve in the same orientation in terms of arc
length measured from the point where t=0 .

23. r =At i+ Bt j+Ct k , ( A2 + B2 +C2 >0 )

24. r =et i+ √ 2 t j − e− t k

(
25. r =a cos 3 t i+a sin 3 t j+bcos 2 t k , 0 ≤ t ≤
π
2 )
3
26. r =3 t cos t i+3 t sin t j+2 2 t 2 k
√
27. Let r =r 1 (t),(a ≤ t ≤ b), and r =r 2 (u), (c ≤ u ≤ d), be two parametrizations of the
same curve C , each one-to-one on its domain and each giving C the same
orientation (so that r 1 (a)=r 2 (c ) and r 1 (b)=r 2 (d) ) . Then for each t in [a , b] there is
a unique u=u(t) such that r 2 (u (t))=r 1 (t). Show that

| | | |
b d
d d
∫❑ r (t ) dt=∫ ❑
dt 1 du
r 2 (u) du
a c

and thus that the length of C is independent of parametrization.

28. If the curve r =r (t) has continuous, nonvanishing velocity v (t) on the interval [a , b]
, and if t 0 is some point in [a , b], show that the function

t
s=g (t)=∫ ❑∨v (u)∨du
t0

is an increasing function on [a , b] and so has an inverse:

−1
t =g ( s) ⟺ s=g (t ) .

Hence, show that the curve can be parametrized in terms of arc length measured
from r ( t 0 ).

SOLUTION
1.

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On the first quadrant part of the circle x 2+ y 2=a2 we have x = √ a2 − y 2, 0 ≤ y ≤ a. The required
parametrization is

r = r(y) = √ a2 − y 2i + yj, (0 ≤ y ≤ a).

2.
On the first quadrant part of the circle x 2+ y 2=a2 we have y = √ a2 − x 2, 0 ≤ x ≤ a. The required
parametrization is
r = r(x) = xi + √ a2 − x 2j, (0 ≤ x ≤ a).
3.
From the figure we see that
π π
ϕ=θ + , 0 ≤ θ ≤
2 2
π
x = a cos θ = a cos(θ − )= a sin ϕ
2
π
y = a sin θ = a sin ( θ − ) = - a sin ϕ
2
The required parametrization is
π
r = a sinϕ i - acosϕ j ( ≤ ϕ ≤ π)
2

4.
s s s π
x = a sin , y = a cos , 0≤ ≤
a a a 2
s s aπ
r = a sin i + a cos j, 0≤ s ≤
a a 2

5.

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z = x 2, z = 4 y 2. If t = y, then z = 4t 2, so x = ±2t. The curve passes through (2, -1, 4) when t = -1,
so x = -2t. The parametrization is r = -2ti + tj + 4t 2k

6.
z = x 2, x + y + z = 1. If t = x, then z = t 2, and y = 1 - t - t 2. The parametrization is r = ti + (1 - t - t 2
)j + t 2k

7.
z = x + y, x 2 + y 2 = 9. One possible parametrization is :
r = 3 cost i + 3 sint j + 3 (cost + sint) k

8.
x + y = 1, z = √ 1− x 2 − y 2 . If x = t, then y = 1 - t and

√
z = √ 1− t 2 −¿ ¿ = 2(t − t 2 ). One possible parametrization is

√
r = ti + (1 - t)j + 2(t − t 2 )k

9.
z = x 2+ y 2, 2x - 4y - z - 1 = 0. These surfaces intersect on the vertical cylinder
2 2
x + y = 2x - 4y - 1
⇔¿

One possible parametrization is

x = 1 + 2 cos t
y = -2 + 2 sin t
z = -1 + 2(1 + 2 cos t) - 4(- 2 + 2 sin t) = 9 + 4 cos t - 8 sin t
r = (1 + 2 cos t) i - 2(1 - sin t) j + (9 + 4 cos t - 8 sin t) k

10.
yz + x = 1, xz - x = 1.
One possible parametrization is
x=t
z = (1 + t) / t, and y = (1 - t) / z = (1 - t) t / (1 + t), that is,

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 2
t −t 1+ t
r = ti + j+ k
1+t t

11.
2 2 2
z =x +y ,z=1+x

a) If t = x, then z = 1 + t, so 1 + 2t + t 2 = t 2 + y 2, and y = ± √ 1+2t . Two parametrizations

are needed to get the whole parabola, one for y ≤ 0 and one for y ≥ 0.
b) If t = y, then x 2 + t 2 = z 2 = 1 + 2x + x 2, so 2x + 1 = t 2, and x = (t 2 - 1) / 2. Thus z = 1 + x
= (t 2 + 1) / 2. The whole parabola is parametrized by

2 2
t −1 t +1
r= i + tj + k
2 2
c) If t = z, then x = t - 1 and t 2 = t 2 - 2t + 1 + y 2, so y = ± √ 2t − 1. Two parametrizations are
needed to get the whole parabola.

12.
By symmetry, the centre of the circle of intersection of the plane x + y + z = 1 and the sphere
2 2 2
x + y + z =1 must lie on the plane and must have its three coordinates equal. Thus the centre
has position vector

1
r 0 = (i + j + k)
3

Since ζ passes through the point (0, 0, 1), its radius is

√ ¿ ¿=
√ 2
3

Any vector v that satisfies v ∙ (i + j + k) = 0 is parallel to the plane x + y + z = 1 containing .

One such vector is v 1 = i - j . A second one, perpendicular to v 1, is

v 2 = (i + j + k) x (i - j) = i + j - 2k

Two perpendicular unit vectors that are parallel to the plane of ζ are

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 i− j i+ j − 2 k
^
v1 = ,^
v2 =
√2 √6

Thus one possible parametrization of is

r =r 0 +
√ 2 (cos t ^
3
v 1 + sin t ^
v 2)

i+ j+ k cos t sin t
¿ + (i - j) + (i + j - 2k)
3 √3 3

13.

r = t 2i + t 2j + t 3k, (0≤ t ≤ 1)
v = √¿¿

1
Length = ∫ t √ 8+ 9 t dt Let u = 8 + 9t 2, du = 18t dt
2

1 2 3 /2
= u 9
18 3

17 √17 − 16 √2
= units.
27

14.
r = t i + λ t 2j + t 3k, (0≤ t ≤ T)
v = √ 1+¿ ¿
if 4 λ 2 = 6, that is, if λ = ± √ 3 /2. In this case, the length of the curve is

T
s(T) = ∫ ❑(1+3t 2)dt = T + T 3
0

15.

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 | |dt
T
Length = ∫ dr
dt
1

√
T
c2
= ∫ 2 2 2
4 a t +b + 2 dt units.
t
1

If b 2=4 ac then

T
Length = ∫ √ ¿ ¿ ¿
1
T
c
= ∫ (2 at+ )dt
1 t
= a (T 2 −1)+c lnT units.

16.
a
x = a cos t sin t = sin 2 t ,
2
a
y = a si n2 t = (1 - cos 2 t ),
2
z = bt

The curve is a circular helix lying on the cylinder

2
x +¿

Its length, from t = 0 to t = T, is

T
L = ∫ √ a co s 2 t+ a si n 2 t +b dt = T √ a 2+ b2 units.
2 2 2 2 2

17.
r = t cos t i + t sin t j + tk, 0≤t≤2π
v = (cos t - t sin t)i + (sin t + t cos t)j + k
v = |v| = √ ¿ ¿

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The length of the curve is

2π
L=∫ √ 2+t dt Let t=√ 2 tanΘ , dt =√ 2 se c 2 ΘdΘ
2

0
t=2 π
¿2 ∫ 3
se c ΘdΘ
t =0

¿ π √ 2+ 4 π +ln ( √ 1+2 π + √ 2 π ) units.

2 2

The curve is called a conical helix because it is a spiral lying on the cone x 2+ y 2=z 2.

18.
One-eighth of the curve lies in the first octant. That part can be parametrized

1
x=cos t , z= sint , (0≤ t ≤ π /2¿
√2

√ 1 1
y= 1 −co s 2 t − si n2 t= sin t
2 √2

Since the first octant part of lies in the plane y = z, it must be a quarter of a circle of radius 1.
Thus the length of all of is 8 x ( π /2 ¿ = 4 π units.

π /2
The length is : 8 ∫ dt=4 π units.
0

19.
If C is the curve
t t
x=e cost , y=e sint , z=t , (0 ≤ t ≤ 2 π ),
Then the length of C is

√(
2π
L=∫
0 dt) ( )( )
dx 2 dy 2 dz 2
+
dt
+
dt
dt

2π
¿ ∫ √ e ( cos t −sin t ) + e ( sin t +cos t ) +1 dt
2t 2 2t 2

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 2π
¿ ∫ √ 2 e +1 dt
2t
Let 2 e 2t +1=v 2
0
t =2 π t =2 π

( )
2
v dv 1
¿ ∫ 2
= ∫ 1+ 2
v −1 t =0 v −1
dv
t =0

| |)|
2π

(1 v −1
¿ v + ln
2 v+ 1 0

|
2π

¿ √ 2 e +1 − √ 3+ ln √ 2t
2t
1
4π 2e +1 −1
2 √ 2 e + 1+ 1
0

|
2π

+1 − √ 3+ ln √
2t
2 e +1 −1
¿√2 e 4π

√2 e t 0

¿ √ 2 e +1 − √ 3+ ln ( √ 2 e +1 ) − 2 π − ln ( √ 3 −1 ) units.
4π 4π

20.
3 2
r =t i+ t j
2
V =3t i+2 t j
v=|V |=√ 9 t 4 + 4 t 2=|t |√ 9 t 2 +4
The length L between t = -1 and t = 2 is
0 2
L=∫ ( −t ) √ 9 t + 4 dt +∫ t √ 9 t + 4 dt .
2 2

−1 0

Making the substitution u=9 t 2 + 4 in each integral, we obtain

[∫ ]
13 1 40 1
1
L= u du+∫ u du
2 2
18 4 4

1
¿ ( 13 3/ 2+ 403 /2 −16 ) units.
27
21.
r 1=t i+t j , ( 0 ≤t ≤ 1 ) represents the straight line segment from the origin to (1,1) in the xy-plane.
r 2=(1 − t )i +(1=t ) j ,(0 ≤t ≤ 1) represents the straight line segment from (1,1) to (0,2).
Thus C=C 1+C 2 is the 2-segment polygonal line from the origin to (1,1) and then to (0,2).
22.
Suppose the spool is vertical and the cable windings make angle θ with the horizontal at each
point.

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The centerline of the cable is wound around a cyclinder of radius a+ b and must rise a vertical
2a
distance in one revolution. The figure below shows the cable unwound from the spool and
cos θ
inclined at angle θ . The total length of spool required is the total height H of the cable as shown
in that figure.

2a 1
Observe that tanθ= × .
cos θ 2 π (a+b)
Therefore
a
sin θ=
π ( a+b )

√ √ π ( a+b ) −a .
2 2 2
a2
cos θ= 1− 2 =
π ( a+b )
2
π (a+ b)
The total length of spool required is
H=L sin θ+2 a cos θ
a
¿ ¿ units.
π ( a+ b )
23.

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r =A t i+ B t j+ C t k
The arc length from the point where t = 0 to the point corresponding to arbitrary t is
t
s=s ( t )=∫ √ A + B +C du=√ A + B +C t
2 2 2 2 2 2

s
Thus ¿ . the required parametrization is
√ A + B2 +C 2
2

As i+ Bs j+Cs k
r=
√ A 2+ B2 +C 2
24.
r =e i+ √ 2 t j − e k
t −t

v=e i+ √ 2 j+ e k
t −t

v=|v|=√ e 2 t +2+e −2 t =e t +e −t
The arc length from the point where t = 0 to the point corresponding to arbitrary t is
t
s=s ( t )=∫ ( e +e ) du=e − e =2 sinh t
u −u t −t

Thus t=sinh− 1
() (
s
2
=ln
s+ √ s 2+ 4
2
, and '
e= )
s+ √ s 2+ 4 .
2
The required parametrization is

r=
s+ √ s2 + 4
2
i+ √ 2 ln
s + √ s 2 +4
2
j− ( 2k
s+ √ s 2+ 4 )
25.
π
r =a cos t i+a sin t j+b cos 2 t k , 0 ≤ t ≤
3 3
2
2 2
v=−3 a cos t sin t i+ 3 a sin t cos t j− 4 b sint cos t k
v=√ 9 a2 +16 b 2 sin t cos t
t
s=∫ √ 9 a + 16 b sin u cos u du
2 2

1
¿
2
√ 2 2 2 2
9 a +16 b sin t=K sin t

1
Where K=
2
√9 a 2+16 b2

Therefore sin t=
√ s ,
K
s
√ 2
cos t= 1 − , cos 2 t=1 −2 sin t=1−
K
2s
K
.

24 | P a g e
The required parametrization is

( ) ( ) +b (1− 2Ks ) k
3 3
s s
r =a 1 − 2
i+ a 2
K K
1
For 0 ≤ s ≤ K , where K=
2
√ 2 2
9 a +16 b .

26.
3
r =3 t cos t i+3 t sin t j+2 √ 2 t k , ( t ≥ 0 )
2

v=3(cos t −t sin t)i+3(sint +t cos t) j+3 √ 2 √ t k

v=|v|3 √ 1+t 2+2 t=3 ( 1+t )

( )
t 2
t
s=∫ 3 ( 1+u ) du=3 t+
0 2
2
Thus t + 2t +
2s
3
, so t=−1+ 1+
3√
2 s since t ≥ 0

The required parametrization is given one with t replace bay −1+ 1+

√ 2s
3
27.
As claimed in the statement of the problem, r 1 ( t ) =r 2 ( u (t) ), where u is a function from [ a , b ] to
[ c , d ], having u ( a )=c and u ( b )=d . We assume u is differentiable. Since u is one-to-one and
du
orientation-preserving, ≥ 0 on [ a , b ]. By the Chain Rule:
dt
d d du
r 1 ( t )= r 2 ( u )
dt du dt
And so

| | | | | |
b b d
d d du d
∫ dt
r 1 (t ) dt =∫ r 2 ( u(t ) ) dt=∫ r 2 (u) du
a a du dt c du

28.
If r = r(t) has nonvanishing velocity v = dr/dt on [a,b], then for any t 0 in [a,b], the function
t
s=g ( t )=∫|v (u)|du
t0

Which gives the arc length s measured from r (t 0 ) along the curve, is an increasing function:
ds
=g ( t )=|v (t)|>0
'
dt
On [a,b], by the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
Hence g is invertible, and defines t as a function of arc length s :

25 | P a g e
 −1
t=g ( s ) ↔ s=g(t)
Then
r =r 2 ( s )=r ( g−1 ( s ) )
Is a parametrization of the curve r = r(t) in terms of arc length.

III. SECTION 11.4

Find the unit tangent vector T́ (t) for the curves in Exercises 1-4.

1. r =t i− 2t 2 j+3 t 3 k

2. r =a sin ⁡ωt i+ a cos ⁡ωt k

3. r =cos ⁡t sin ⁡t i+ sin2 ⁡t j+cos ⁡t k

4. r =a cos ⁡t i+ b sin ⁡t j+t k

5. Show that if κ (s)=0 for all s, then the curve r =r ( s) is a straight line.

6. Show that if τ (s)=0 for all s, then the curve r =r (s) is a plane curve.
Hint: Show that r (s) lies in the plane through r (0) with normal B́(0).

7. Show that if κ (s)=C is a positive constant and τ (s)=0 for all s, then
the curve r =r (s) is a circle. Hint: Find a circle having the given
constant curvature. Then use Theorem 3.

8. Show that if the curvature κ (s) and the torsion τ (s) are both nonzero
constants, then the curve r =r (s) is a circular helix. Hint: Find a helix
having the given curvature and torsion.

SOLUTION
1.
2 3
r =t i− e t j+ 3t k
2
v=i− 4 t j+9 t k
v=√ 1+ 16 t 2 +81 t 4
2
v i − 4 t j+ 9t k
T^ = =
v √ 1+16 t 2 +81 t 4
2.
r =a sin ωt i+ a cos ωt k

26 | P a g e
v=aω cos ωt i −aω sin ωt k , v=|aω|
T^ =sgn ( aω ) [ cos ωt i− sin ωt k ]
3.
2
r =cos t sin t i+sin t+ cos t k
1 1
¿ sin 2 t i+ ( 1 −cos 2t ) j+cos t k
2 2
v=cos 2 t i+sin 2 t j −sin t k
v=|v|=√ 1+sin2 t
1
T^ = ( cos 2 t i+sin 2 t j −sin t k )
√1+sin 2 t
4.
r =a cos t i+b sin t j+t k
v=− a sint i+ b cos t j+ k
v=√ a2 sin2 t +b 2 cos 2 t +1
v − a sin t i+ b cos t j+ k
T^ = = 2 2
v √ a sin t +b2 cos 2 t+ 1
5.
d T^ dr ^
If k ( s ) =0 for all s, then N =0, so T^ ( s )=T^ ( 0 ) is constant. This says that
=k ^ =T ( 0 ) , so
ds ds
r =T^ ( 0 ) s +r ( 0 ) , which is the vector parametric equation of a straight line.
6.
If τ ( s ) =0 for all s, then
^
dB
N =0 , so ^B ( s )= ^B ( 0 ) is constant.
=− τ ^
ds
Therefore
d dr
( r ( s ) − r ( 0 ) ) • ^B ( s )= • ^B ( s )=T^ ( s ) • B^ =0
ds ds
It follows that
( r ( s ) −r ( 0 )) • B^ ( 0 ) =( r ( s ) − r ( 0 ) ) • ^B ( s )=0
For all s, this says that r(s) lies in the plane though r(0) having normal ^
B=0 .
7.
The circle C 1 given by
1 1
r= cos Cs i+ sin Cs j
C C

27 | P a g e
Is parametrized in terms of arc length, and has a curvature C and torsion 0.
If curve C has constant curvature k ( s ) =C and constant torsion τ ( s ) =0, then C is congruent to
C 1 by Theorem 3.
Thus C must itself be a circle (with radius 1/C)
8.
The circular helix C 1 given by
r =a cos t i+a sin t j+bt k
Has curvature and torision given by
a b
k ( s) = 2 2' ,
τ ( s) = 2 2 '
a +b a +b
If a curve C has constant curvature ( s )=C>0 , and constant torsion τ ( s ) =T ≠ 0 , when we can
choose a and b so that
a b
2 2
=C , 2 2
=T
a +b a +b
C T
(Specifically, ¿ 22 , and
b= 2 2 ). By Theorem 3, C is itself a circular helix, congruent
C +T C +T
to C 1

IV. SECTION 11.5

Find the radius of curvature of the curves in Exercises 1-4 at the points indicated.
y=x at x=0 and at x=√ 2
2
1.
2. y=cos ⁡x at x=0 and at x=π /2
3. r =2t i+(1/t) j −2 t k at (2 , 1, − 2)
4. r =t 3 i+ t 2 j+t k at the point where t=1
Find the Frenet frames {T́ , Ń , B́ } for the curves in Exercises 5-6 at the points indicated.
5. r =t i+ t 2 j+2 k at (1 , 1, 2)
6. r =t i+ t 2 j+t k at (1 , 1, 1)
In Exercises 7-8, find the unit tangent, normal, and binormal vectors and the curvature and
torsion at a general point on the given curve.
2 3
t t
7. r =t i+ j+ k ¿
2 3
t
8. r =e (cos ⁡t i+ sin ⁡t j+ k )

9. Find the curvature and torsion of the parametric curve

x=2+ √ 2 cos ⁡t , y =1− sin ⁡t , z=3+ sin ⁡t

28 | P a g e
 at an arbitrary point t . What is the curve?

10. A particle moves along the plane curve y=sin ⁡x in the direction of increasing x with
constant horizontal speed dx /dt=k . Find the tangential and normal components of
the acceleration of the particle when it is at position x .

11. Find the unit tangent, normal and binormal, and the curvature and torsion for the
curve
2
r =sin ⁡t cos ⁡t i+ sin ⁡t j+cos ⁡t k

at the points: (a) t=0 and (b) t=π /4 .

12. A particle moves on an elliptical path in the xy -plane so that its position at time t is
r =a cos ⁡t i+ b sin ⁡t j . Find the tangential and normal components of its acceleration
at time t . At what points is the tangential acceleration zero?

13. Find the maximum and minimum values for the curvature of the ellipse
x=a cos ⁡t , y=b sin ⁡t , where a> b>0 .

14. A bead of mass m slides without friction down a wire bent in the shape of the curve
2
y=x , under the influence of the gravitational force − mg j. The speed of the bead is
v as it passes through the point (1 , 1). Find, at that instant, the magnitude of the
normal acceleration of the bead and the rate of change of its speed.

15. Find the curvature of the plane curve y=e x at x . Find the equation of the evolute of
this curve.

16. Show that the curvature of the plane polar graph r =f (θ) at a general point θ is

κ (θ)=¿ ¿

17. Find the curvature of the cardioid r =a(1 −cos ⁡θ).

18. Find the curve r =r (t) for which κ (t)=1 and τ (t)=1 for all t , and
r (0)=T́ ( 0)=i, Ń (0)= j , and B́(0)=k .

dr
19. Suppose the curve r =r (t) satisfies =c × r (t), where c is a constant vector. Show
dt
that the curve is the circle in which the plane through r (0) normal to c intersects a
sphere with radius ¿ r (0)∨¿ centred at the origin.

20. Find the evolute of the circular helix r =a cos ⁡t i+ a sin ⁡t j+bt k .

21. Find the evolute of the parabola y=x 2.

22. Find the evolute of the ellipse x=2 cos ⁡t , y=sin ⁡t .

29 | P a g e
 23. Find the polynomial f (x) of lowest degree so that track along y=f (x ) from x=− 1
to x=1 joins with existing straight tracks y=− 1 , x ≤− 1 and y=1 , x ≥ 1 sufficiently
smoothly that a train moving at constant speed will not experience discontinuous
acceleration at the joins.

24. Help out model train manufacturers. Design a track segment y=f (x ),−1 ≤ x ≤ 0, to
provide a jolt-free link between a straight track section y=1 , x ≤ −1, and a
semicircular arc section x 2+ y 2=1 , x ≥ 0.

25. If the position r , velocity v , and acceleration a of a moving particle satisfy

a (t)=λ (t)r (t )+ μ (t)v (t) , where λ (t) and μ(t ) are scalar functions of time t , and if
v × a ≠ 0, show that the path of the particle lies in a plane.

Use Maple in Exercises 26-31. Make sure to load the LinearAlgebra and VectorCalculus
packages.

In Exercises 26-29, determine the curvature and torsion functions for the given curves.
Because of the problem with the Torsion function in some versions of the VectorCalculus
package (as mentioned at the end of this section), you may want to use the formulas derived
from the derivatives of position to determine it, and probably the curvature as well. Try to
describe the curve.

26. r (t )=cos ⁡(t) i+ 2sin ⁡(t) j+cos ⁡(t )k . Why should you not be surprised at the value
of the torsion? What are the maximum and minimum curvatures? Describe the
curve.

27. r (t )=(t −sin ⁡t )i+(1 − cos ⁡t) j+t k . Are the curvature and torsion continuous for all
?

28. r (t )=cos ⁡(t) cos ⁡(2 t)i+cos ⁡(t )sin ⁡(2 t) j+sin ⁡( t)k . Show that the curve lies on the
sphere x 2+ y 2+ z 2=1 . What is the minimum value of its curvature?

29. r (t )=(t+cos ⁡t)i+(t+ sin ⁡t) j+(1+t −cos ⁡t)k .

In Exercises 30-31, define new Maple functions to calculate the requested items. Assume the
LinearAlgebra and VectorCalculus packages are loaded.

30. The evolute (R) ( t ) whose value at R is the function whose value at t is the position
vector of the centre of curvature of the curve R for the point R(t ).

31. A function tanline ⁡(R)(t ,u) whose value at R is the function whose value at (t ,u) is
the position vector of the point on the tangent line to the curve R at t at distance u
from R(t ) in the direction of increasing t .

SOLUTION
1.

30 | P a g e
For y=x 2 we have

|d 2 y /d x 2|
κ (x )=
¿ ¿¿

Hence κ (0)=2 and κ ( √ 2)=2/27. The radii of curvature at x=0 and x=√ 2 are 1/2 and
27 /2 , respectively.

2.
For y=cos we have
|d 2 y / d x 2|
κ ( x )=
¿ ¿¿

Hence κ (0)=1 and κ (π /2)=0. The radius of curvature at x=0 is 1 . The radius of curvature
at x=π /2 is infinite.

3.
r ¿2 t i+(1/t) j− 2t k
v ¿ 2 i− ( 1/t 2 ) j −2 k
a ¿ ( 2/t 3 ) j
¿ ( 4 /t ) i+ ( 4 /t ) k
3 3
v×a

At (2 , 1, − 2), that is, at t=1, we have

κ=κ (1)=¿ v × a∨ ¿3 = √ . ¿
4 2
v 27

Thus the radius of curvature is 27 /(4 √ 2).

4.
3 2
r ¿ t i+t j+t k
v ¿ 3 t 2 i+ 2t j+k
a ¿ 6 t i+ 2 j
v (1) ¿ 3 i+ 2 j+ k , a(1)=6 i+2 j
a(1) ¿ −2 i+ 6 j− 6 k
κ (1) ¿

v (1)× a(1)=−2 i+ 6 j −6 k

At t=1 the radius of curvature is 14 3/ 2 /(2 √ 19).

5.

31 | P a g e
 2
r =t i+ t j+2 k
v=i+ 2t j

a=2 j

v × a=2 k

At (1 , 1, 2), where t=1, we have

T́ =v /¿ v∨¿ (i+ 2 j)/ √ 5

B́=(v × a)/¿ v × a∨¿ k

Ń= B́ × T́ =(−2 i+ j)/ √ 5 .

6.
2
r =t i+ t j+t k
v=i+ 2t j+k

a=2 j

v × a=− 2i+2 k

At (1 , 1, 1), where t=1, we have

T́ =v /¿ v∨¿(i+2 j+ k)/ √ 6
B́=(v × a)/¿ v × a∨¿ −( i− k)/ √ 2
Ń= B́ × T́ =−(i − j+ k)/ √ 3 .

7.
2 3
t t
r =t i+ j+ k
2 3
2
v=i+ t j+t k

da
a= j+2 t k , =2 k
dt
2
v × a=t i −2 t j+ k

v=¿ v ∨¿ √ 1+t 2 +t 4 ,∨v × a∨¿ √ 1+ 4 t 2 +t 4

da
(v × a)⋅ =2
dt

32 | P a g e
 2
v i+t j+t k
T́ = =
v √ 1+t 2 +t 4

v ×a
B́= 2
t i−2 t j+ k
¿ v × a∨¿= ¿
√ 1+ 4 t 2+ t 4
− ( 2t 3+ t ) i+ ( 1 −t 4 ) j+ ( t 3 +2 t ) k
Ń= B́ × T́ =
√ ( 1+t +t
2 4
) ( 1+ 4 t 2+t 4 )

κ=¿ v × a∨ ¿3 = √ 2 4 3 /2 ¿
1+4 t 2 +t 4
v ( 1+t +t )

da
(v × a)∙
dt 2 .
τ= 2
= 2 4
¿v×a¿ 1+4 t +t

8.
t t t
r =e cos ⁡t i+e sin ⁡t j+ e k
t t t
v=e (cos ⁡t − sin ⁡t)i+ e (sin ⁡t+ cos ⁡t) j+e k
t t t
a=−2 e sin ⁡t i+2 e cos ⁡t j+e k

da t t t
=−2 e (cos ⁡t+ sin ⁡t)i+2 e (cos ⁡t − sin ⁡t) j+e k
dt
2t 2t 2t
v × a=e ( sin ⁡t − cos ⁡t) i− e (cos ⁡t +sin ⁡t) j+2 e k

v=¿ v ∨¿ √ 3 e ,∨v ×a∨¿ √ 6 e

t 2t

da 3t
(v × a)⋅ =2 e
dt

v (cos ⁡t − sin ⁡t)i+(cos ⁡t +sin ⁡t) j+ k

T́ = =
v √3
v×a
B́=
(sin ⁡t − cos ⁡t )i −( cos ⁡t +sin ⁡t) j+2 k
¿ v × a∨¿= ¿
√6
(cos ⁡t +sin ⁡t )i−( cos ⁡t − sin ⁡t) j
Ń= B́ × T́ =−
√2

33 | P a g e
κ=¿ v × a∨ ¿3 = √ t ¿
2
v 3e

da
(v × a)∙
dt 1 .
τ= 2
= t
¿v×a¿ 3e

9.
r =(2+ √ 2 cos ⁡t )i+(1 −sin ⁡t) j+(3+ sin ⁡t)k

v=− √ 2 sin ⁡t i− cos ⁡t j+cos ⁡t k

v=√ 2sin 2 ⁡t +cos 2 ⁡t +cos 2 ⁡t = √ 2

a=− √ 2 cos ⁡t i+sin ⁡t j −sin ⁡t k

da
=√ 2sin ⁡t i+ cos ⁡t j− cos ⁡t k
dt

v × a=− √ 2 j− √ 2 k

2 1
κ=¿ v × a∨ ¿3 = = ¿
v 2 √2 √2

da
(v × a)⋅ =− √2 cos ⁡t+ √ 2 cos ⁡t=0
dt

τ =0.

Since κ=1/ √ 2 is constant, and τ =0, the curve is a circle. Its centre is (2 , 1, 3) and its radius
is √ 2. It lies in a plane with normal j+ k (¿ − √ 2 B́) .

10.
r =x i+sin ⁡x j
dx dx
v= i+ cos ⁡x j=k (i+ cos ⁡x j)
dt dt

v=k √ 1+ cos ⁡x
2

dx 2
a=− k sin ⁡x j=−k sin ⁡x j
dt
3
v × a=− k sin ⁡x k

34 | P a g e
κ=¿ v × a∨ ¿3 =¿ sin ⁡x∨ ¿
3 /2
¿ ¿.
v ( 1+ cos2 ⁡x )
The tangential and normal components of acceleration are

)
2
dv k dx k cos ⁡x sin ⁡x
= 2 cos ⁡x (−sin ⁡x ) =−
dt 2 √ 1+ cos ⁡x
2
dt √ 1+ cos2 ⁡x
v 2 κ=k 2∨sin ⁡x∨ ¿ ¿
√ 1+ cos2 ⁡x .
11.
2
r =sin ⁡t cos ⁡t i+ sin ⁡t j+cos ⁡t k
v=cos ⁡2 t i+sin ⁡2 t j− sin ⁡t k

a=−2 sin ⁡2 t i+2 cos ⁡2 t j− cos ⁡t k

da
=− 4 cos ⁡2t i − 4 sin ⁡2 t j+sin ⁡t k .
dt

da
At t=0 we have v=i, a=2 j −k , =− 4 i,
dt

da
v × a= j+2 k ,(v × a)⋅ =0.
dt

Thus T́ =i , B́=( j+2 k )/ √ 5 , Ń =(2 j− k )/ √ 5 ,

κ= √ 5, and τ =0.

1 1
At t=π /4 we have v= j − k , a=−2 i− k,
√2 √2
da 1 1
=− 4 j + k , v × a=− i + √ 2 j+ 2 k ,
dt √2 √2
da
(v × a)⋅ =− 3 √ 2.
dt

Thus

35 | P a g e
 1
T́ ¿ ( √ 2 j− k )
√3
1
B́ ¿ (−i+2 j+2 √ 2 k )
√ 13
1
Ń ¿− (6 i+ j+ √ 2 k )
√ 39
2 √ 39 6 √2
κ ¿ , τ=− .
9 13

12.
r ¿ a cos ⁡t i+b sin ⁡t j
v ¿ − a sin ⁡t i+ b cos ⁡t j
a ¿− a cos ⁡t i− b sin ⁡t j
v×a ¿ ab k
¿ √ a sin ⁡t+ b cos ⁡t
2 2 2 2
v

The tangential component of acceleration is

dv ( a −b ) sin ⁡t cos ⁡t
2 2
= 2 2
dt √a sin ⁡t +b2 cos 2 ⁡t

which is zero if t is an integer multiple of π /2, that is, at the ends of the major and minor
axes of the ellipse.

The normal component of acceleration is

ab
v κ=v ¿ v × a∨ ¿3 = 2 2
2 2
.¿
v √ a sin ⁡t+ b2 cos2 ⁡t

13.
The ellipse is the same one considered in Exercise 12, so its curvature is
ab
κ ¿ 3 /2
( a sin ⁡t +b2 cos2 ⁡t )
2 2

¿ ¿

If a> b>0 , then the maximum curvature occurs when sin ⁡t=0 , and is a /b2. The minimum
curvature occurs when sin ⁡t=± 1, and is b /a2.

14.

36 | P a g e
The curvature of y=x 2 at (1 , 1) is

κ=
2
( 1+4 x )2 3 /2 |
x=1
=
2
5 √5
.

Thus the magnitude of the normal acceleration of the bead at that point is
v κ=2 v /(5 √5)=2 √ 5/5.
2 2

The rate of change of the speed, dv /dt , is the tangential component of the acceleration, and
is due entirely to the tangential component of the gravitational force since there is no
friction:

dv
=g cos ⁡θ=g(− j)∙ T́
dt

where θ is the angle between T́ and − j. (See the figure.) Since the slope of y=x 2 at (1 , 1) is
2 , we have T́ =−(i+2 j)/ √ 5, and therefore dv /dt=2 g/ √ 5.

37 | P a g e
 15.
Curve: r =x i+e x j.
Velocity: v=i+ e x j. Speed: v=√ 1+ e2 x.

Acceleration: a=e x j . We have

x x
v × a=e k ,∨v × a∨¿ e
x 3/2

The curvature is κ=
e ( 1+ e2 x )
3 /2 . Therefore, the radius of curvature is ρ= .
( 1+e 2 x ) e
x

The unit normal is

(v × a)× v
Ń= B́ × T́ =
− e x i+ j
¿(v ×a) × v∨¿= ¿
√1+e 2 x
The centre of curvature is

rc ¿ r + ρ Ń
¿ ( x −1 − e ) i+ ( 2 e + e ) j
2x x −x
¿

This is the equation of the evolute.

16.
The curve with polar equation r =f (θ) is given parametrically by
r =f (θ)cos ⁡θ i+ f (θ)sin ⁡θ j

Thus we have

The curvature is, therefore,

¿¿

17.
If r =a(1 −cos ⁡θ), then r ' =a sin ⁡θ, and r ' ' =a cos ⁡θ. By the result of Exercise 20, the
curvature of this cardioid is
¿

18.

38 | P a g e
The required curve must be a circular helix with parameters a=1/2 (radius), and b=1/2.
Its equation will be
1 1 1
r = cos ⁡t i 1 + sin ⁡t j 1+ t k 1+ r 0
2 2 2

1 1 1
v=− sin t i 1 + cos t j 1+ k 1
2 2 2

1 1
a=− cos t i 1 − sin t j 1
2 2

For T́ (0) , Ń ( 0), and B́(0):

1 1
i=T́ (0)= j1 + k 1
√ 2 √2
j= Ń ( 0)=−i 1
1 1
k = B́(0)=− j 1+ k 1 .
√2 √2
Solving these equations for i 1 , j1 , and k 1 in terms of the given basis vectors, we obtain

i1 ¿− j
1 1
j1 ¿ i− k
√2 √ 2
1 1
k1 ¿ i+ k .
√ 2 √2
Therefore

t+sin ⁡t cos ⁡t t − sin ⁡t

r (t )= i− j+ k +r 0 .
2 √2 2 2 √2

1
We also require that r (0)=i, so r 0 =i+ j. The required equation is, therefore,
2

r (t )=
( t +sin
2 √2
⁡t
)
+1 i+
1− cos ⁡t
2
j+
t − sin ⁡t
2√2
k.

19.
dr
Given that =c × r (t), we have
dt

39 | P a g e
 d 2 d
∨r ¿ = r ∙r =2 r ∙(c × r)=0
dt dt
d dr
(r (t)− r (0))∙ c= ∙ c=(c × r )∙ c=0.
dt dt

Thus ¿ r (t )∨¿∨r (0)∨¿ is constant, and (r ( t)− r (0))∙ c=0 is constant. Thus r (t ) lies on
the sphere centred at the origin with radius ¿ r (0)∨¿, and also on the plane through r (0)
with normal c . The curve is the circle of intersection of this sphere and this plane.

20.
For r =a cos ⁡t i+ a sin ⁡t j+bt k , we have, by Example 3 of Section 2.4,
a
Ń=− cos ⁡t i− sin ⁡t j , κ= 2 2
.
a +b

The centre of curvature r c is given by

1
r c =r+ ρ Ń =r + Ń
κ

Thus the evolute has equation

r =¿ a cos ⁡t i+ a sin ⁡t j+bt k

2 2
2
a +b
2
b b
− (cos ⁡t i+ sin ⁡t j) − cos ⁡t i− sin ⁡t j+bt k ¿
a a a
¿
The evolute is also a circular helix.

21.
The parabola y=x 2 has curvature
2
κ= 3/2
( 1+4 x2 )
by Exercise 18. The normal at ( x , x 2 ) is perpendicular to the tangent, so has slope −1 /(2 x).
Since the unit normal points upward (the concave side of the parabola), we have

− 2 x i+ j
Ń=
√1+ 4 x 2
Thus the evolute of the parabola has equation

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 3/ 2
( 1+ 4 x 2)
r ¿ x i+ x j+
2
2 (√
−2 x i+ j
1+4 x2 )
¿ (
¿ − 4 x 3 i+ 3 x 2 +
1
2)j

22.
For the ellipse r =2cos ⁡t i+sin ⁡t j, we have
v=− 2 sin ⁡t i+ cos ⁡t j
a=−2 cos ⁡t i− sin ⁡t j
v × a=2 k
v=√ 4 sin ⁡t +cos 2 ⁡t= √ 3 sin2 ⁡t+ 1.
2

2 3 /2
( 3 sin 2 ⁡t +1 )
The curvature is κ= 3/ 2 , so the radius of curvature is ρ= . We have
( 3 sin2 ⁡t+1 ) 2

−2 sin ⁡t i+cos ⁡t j
T́ ¿ , B́=k
√3 sin 2 ⁡t +1
cos ⁡t i+2 sin ⁡t j
Ń=− ¿
√ 3 sin2 ⁡t+1
Therefore the evolute has equation
2
3 sin ⁡t +1
r ¿ 2 cos ⁡t i+sin ⁡t j− (cos ⁡t i+2 sin ⁡t j)
2
¿ ¿

23.
We require that
' ''
f (1)=1 , f (1)=0 , f (1)=0 ,
' ''
f (−1)=−1 , f (− 1)=0 , f (−1)=0 .

Because there are 6 independent conditions, we need to find at least 6 variables. We try a
polynomial of degree 5 (with 6 unknown coefficients). However, we only need to impose
the conditions at x=1, and since f ( 1 ) =− f (−1) we only need an odd polynomial. Thus we
try
3 5
f (x) ¿ Ax+ B x +C x
' 2 4
f (x ) ¿ A+3 B x +5 C x
f '' (x ) ¿ 6 Bx +20 C x 3 .

The conditions at x=1 become

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 A+ B+C=1
A+3 B+5 C=0
6 B+ 20C=0.

This system has solution A=15/8 , B=−5 /4 , and C=3/8 . Thus

15 5 3 3 5
f (x)= x− x + x
8 4 8

is one possible solution.

24.
We require
' ''
f (0)=1 , f (0)=0 , f (0)=−1 ,
' ''
f (−1)=1 , f (− 1)=0 , f (− 1)=0 .

The condition f ' ' (0)=− 1 follows from the fact that

|
2
d
2√
2
1− x =− 1
dx x=0

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As in Exercise 23 we try a polynomial of degree 5:
2 3 4 5
f (x ) ¿ A + Bx+C x + D x + E x + F x
' 2 3 4
f ( x) ¿ B+2 Cx+3 D x + 4 E x + 5 F x
f '' ¿2 C+ 6 Dx+12 E x 2 +20 F x 3 .

The required conditions force the coefficients to satisfy the system of equations

A − B+C − D+ E − F=1
B −2 C+3 D − 4 E+5 F=0
2 C − 6 D+12 E − 20 F=0
A=1
B=0
2C=− 1

which has solution A=1 , B=0 ,C=− 1/2, D=− 3/2, E=−3/2 , F=−1/2. Thus we can use
a track section in the shape of the graph of

1 2 3 3 3 4 1 5 1 2
f (x)=1− x − x − x − x =1− x ¿.
2 2 2 2 2

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 25.
Given: a (t)=λ (t)r (t )+ μ (t)v (t), v × a≠ 0 . We have
v × a ¿ λ v ×r + μ v × v=λ v × r
da ' '
¿ λ r + λ v+ μ v + μ a
dt
¿ ( λ + μλ ) r + ( λ+ μ + μ ) v
' ' 2
¿

Since v × r is perpendicular to both v and r , we have

da
(v × a)∙ =0
dt

Thus the torsion τ (t) of the curve is identically zero. It remains zero when expressed in
terms of arc length: τ (s)=0. r (t ) must be a plane curve.

26.
After loading the LinearAlgebra and VectorCalculus packages, issue the following
commands:

This leads to the values

√2
¿¿
for the curvature and torsion, respectively. Maple doesn't seem to recognize that the
3 /2
curvature simplifies to 1/ ( cos 2 ⁡t +1 ) . The torsion is zero because the curve is lies in the
plane z=x . It is the ellipse in which this plane intersects the ellipsoid 2 x 2+ y 2 +2 z 2=4 . The
maximum and minimum values of the curvature are 1 and 1/23 /2, respectively, at the ends of
the major and minor axes of the ellipse.

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 27.
After loading the LinearAlgebra and VectorCalculus packages, issue the following
commands:

This leads to the values

√ cos ⁡¿ ¿ ¿
and

1
−
2 cos ⁡¿ ¿

for the curvature and torsion, respectively. Each of these formulas can be simplified
somewhat:

Curv ⁡(t) ¿

Since 3 −2 cos ⁡t>0

and 2 −2 cos ⁡t +cos 2 ⁡t=1+¿ for all t , the curvature and torsion are both continuous for all t .
The curve appears to be some sort of helix (but not a circular one) with central axis along
the line x=z , y=1.

28.
After loading the LinearAlgebra and VectorCalculus packages, issue the following
commands:

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The last line simplifies the rather complicated expression that Tors ( t ) returns by applying
some trigonometric identities. The values for the curvature and torsion are

Curv ⁡(t) ¿

Plotting the curvature as a function of t , (plot (Curv(t), t=−2 ⋆ Pi … 2⋆ Pi ¿ ), shows that

the minimum curvature occurs at t=0 (and any integer multiple of π ). The minimum
curvature is √ 125/53 /2=1 .

The command simplify ( Norm ⁡(R(t ), 2)¿ ; gives output 1 , indicating that the curve lies on
the sphere x 2+ y 2+ z 2=1 .

29.
After loading the LinearAlgebra and VectorCalculus packages, issue the following
commands:

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This leads to the values

Curv ⁡(t) ¿

This appears to be an elliptical helix with central axis along the line x= y =z −1.

30.
evolute := R → (t −>¿
R(t )+ TNBFrame (R) [2] (t) ; ¿
¿

31.
tanline :=R →
((t , u)→ R(t)+ TNBFrame (R)[1](t)∗u);

1 ¿=2(i+2 j+2 k ).

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