Geomechanics is the science that explores how the Earth's subsurface rocks and geological

formations respond to changes in stress, pressure, and temperature. It combines principles from
rock mechanics, structural geology, seismology, and petroleum engineering to predict and manage
the mechanical behaviour of the Earth's crust. By understanding these interactions, geomechanics
aims to reduce risks and optimize the outcomes of activities like drilling, hydraulic fracturing, and
resource extraction, ensuring the stability and safety of subsurface operations.

A fault will slip when the ratio of shear to effective normal stress resolved on the fault exceeds its
frictional strength.
application of geomechanics:
1) Perforation Sanding: Preventing sand production in oil and gas wells by understanding rock
strength and stress conditions.
2) Hydraulic Fracturing: Optimizing fracture design by analysing subsurface stress and rock
properties to enhance hydrocarbon recovery.
3) Pore Pressure Prediction: Estimating subsurface pressure to avoid well blowouts and ensure safe
drilling operations.
4) Wellbore Stability: Ensuring well integrity by analysing stress distribution and rock behaviour
around the borehole.
5) Drilling Mud Window: Determining the optimal mud weight to balance wellbore stability and
prevent formation damage.
6) Production-Induced Faulting and Subsidence: Predicting and managing ground movement and
fault reactivation due to resource extraction.
7) Fault Seal Potential: Assessing whether faults can trap or leak hydrocarbons, critical for reservoir
management.
8) Hydrocarbon Column Heights: Estimating the maximum height of hydrocarbon columns that
faults can contain.
9) Slope Stability: Preventing landslides by understanding soil and rock mechanics in sloped terrains.

10) Tunnel: Ensuring structural integrity by analysing stress and deformation during and after tunnel
excavation.
11) Dam: Safeguarding dam structures by evaluating the stability of the foundation and surrounding
rock formations.
12) Mining: Enhancing mine safety by predicting rock behaviour and controlling subsurface stress
during excavation.
13) Seismicity: Understanding and mitigating induced seismic events related to human activities like
resource extraction.

Oil and gas development can cause geo mechanical problems that affect the safety and efficiency of
oil and natural gas production:

 Wellbore stability: Drilling can cause wellbore stability issues, such as sand production
 Pipe plugging, storage tank corrosion, wellhead erosion
 Compaction and subsidence: Removing pore fluid and pressure from rock can cause
compaction and subsidence
 Rock fracturing: Injecting into reservoirs can increase pressure and cause thermal
changes, which can lead to rock fracturing or shearing
  Fluid flow: Compaction or expansion of rock, or the initiation of fractures, can change
the flow path of fluids or permeability, which can affect production
 Surface subsidence: Mechanical state changes can increase the risk of surface
subsidence or uplift
Induced earthquakes: Mechanical state changes can also increase the risk of induced
earthquakes

History of Geomechanics:
Late 1800s: Early applications of rock mechanics in underground mining, slope stability, tunnels, and
dams.
1950s: Geomechanics introduced to the petroleum industry with the development of hydraulic
fracturing to enhance oil production.
1970s: Introduction of sonic compressional slowness logging tools to predict sanding propensity in
reservoirs.
1980s: Development of tools like FMI and DSI for fracture gradient calculation, dynamic elastic
properties, and stress directions.
Early 1990s: Introduction of the Mechanical Earth Model (MEM) by Schlumberger and BP for
wellbore stability.
Late 1990s: Emergence of drilling optimization services and real-time geo mechanical support.
2000s: Proliferation of advanced geo mechanical tools and software platforms, driven by improved
understanding and technology.

software used in reservoir geomechanics:

1) Halliburton
2) golder
3) baker hughes jewel 6
4) gohfer
5) petrel reservoir geomechanics
6) flac 3d
7) elfen rockfield

**Stresses**
Causes of stresses
1) Gravitational loading: due to weight of overlying materials. As you go deeper, the weight of
the overlying layers increases. This weight exerts a force on the rocks below, known as
overburden pressure. This pressure is a vertical stress (σv) that results from the gravitational
force acting on the mass of the overlying rock.
Vertical stress= rho*g*h
Gravitational loading also contributes to horizontal stresses in the Earth's crust. While the
vertical stress is the direct result of the weight of overlying materials, horizontal stresses
arise due to the Poisson effect, where the material's tendency to expand or contract in the
horizontal direction is constrained by the surrounding rock. Horizontal stresses are usually
lower than vertical stress but are still significant, especially in tectonically active regions.
Gravitational loading can also induce shear stress in sloped terrains or along faults, leading
to potential sliding or fault reactivation
2) Plate tectonic:
Plates move due to heat from radioactive processes within the Earth's interior, as well as
other forces
Divergent Boundaries (Tensional Stress): At divergent boundaries, tectonic plates move
away from each other, typically found at mid-ocean ridges. This movement creates tensional
stress, which pulls the crust apart, leading to the formation of new crust and the thinning of
the lithosphere.
Convergent Boundaries (Compressional Stress): At convergent boundaries, tectonic plates
move towards each other, leading to collision or subduction (one plate moving beneath
another). This interaction generates compressional stress, which pushes the crust together,
resulting in the thickening of the lithosphere, mountain building, and earthquake activity.
Transform Boundaries (Shear Stress): At transform boundaries, tectonic plates slide past
 each other horizontally. This movement produces shear stress, which causes the crust to
deform laterally, often resulting in strike-slip faults and earthquakes.
As tectonic plates move, stress builds up in the Earth's crust due to friction and resistance
at the plate boundaries.
When the accumulated stress exceeds the strength of rocks, it is suddenly released,
causing the rocks to fracture or slip along faults, resulting in an earthquake.
The lithospheric plates "float" on the asthenosphere, and their movement is facilitated by
the flow of the asthenosphere beneath them. This movement is a key driver of plate
tectonics, which shapes the Earth's surface through processes like earthquakes, volcanic
activity, and mountain building.
3) Uplift: Uplift refers to the vertical elevation of the Earth's surface, typically caused by
tectonic forces, volcanic activity, or isostatic rebound (the rise of land after the removal of
ice sheets or glaciers), makes mountains or volcano domes. As a region undergoes uplift, the
Earth's crust stretches and thins. This stretching leads to extensional or tensile stress, where
the crust is pulled apart. This can create normal faults, where one block of the crust moves
downward relative to another.
4) Fluid production: Production leads to stress due to the removal of fluids that were
previously supporting the surrounding rock formations. Oil, gas, water extract krte jayenge
to pore pressure jo vo rock pr lga rha tha, vo kam hote jayega,. Now, effective stress= total
stress- pore pressure. Pore pressure km hoga to effective stress badhega. The increased
effective stress can cause the rock to compact, reducing the pore space and potentially
leading to subsidence (the sinking of the ground surface). Subsidence hua to infrastructure
me fark pdega.. like pipeline, casings, platform ya roads pr.
5) Fluid injection: In hydraulic fracturing (fracking), fluid is injected at high pressure to
intentionally create fractures in the rock. The increased pore pressure overcomes the tensile
strength of the rock, causing it to crack and create new pathways for fluid flow. This process
significantly alters the local stress field.
6) Thermal effects:

These all causes vary in 4 dimensions, includes geological time

Stress in the earth’s crust

Compressive stress is present everywhere at depth within the Earth.
Stress magnitudes are influenced by factors such as depth, pore pressure, and active geologic
processes.
The stress field at depth is coherent across various spatial and temporal scales. This coherence
becomes evident when data from different sources are analysed and synthesized. Tt means that its
components fit together in a way that makes sense, and there is a recognizable pattern or regularity
in the data.
The in-situ stress field is determinable, comprehensible, and essential for addressing a wide range
of problems in reservoir geomechanics.

In situ stress field: The in-situ stress field refers to the natural state of stress present within the
Earth's subsurface, particularly at depth, without any human interference. It is the stress that exists
in rock formations due to the weight of overlying materials (overburden), tectonic forces, and pore
pressure within the rock. This stress field is a key factor in understanding how rocks and geological
formations will behave under various conditions, which is essential in fields like geomechanics, oil
and gas extraction, and geothermal energy production.
The in-situ stress field is typically characterized by three principal stresses:
1) Vertical Stress (σv): This is the stress exerted by the weight of the overlying rock and is usually the
largest stress at greater depths.
2) Maximum Horizontal Stress (σH): This is the largest stress in the horizontal plane and is influenced
by tectonic forces.
3) Minimum Horizontal Stress (σh): This is the smallest stress in the horizontal plane, also influenced
by tectonic forces.

Basic definitions
In simplest terms, stress is defined as a force acting over a given area. Or, stress is a tensor which
describes the density of forces acting on all surfaces passing through a given point. In terms of
continuum mechanics, the stresses acting on a homogeneous, isotropic body at depth are
describable as a second-rank tensor, with nine components:

[ ]
s11 s12 s 13
s= s 21 s22 s 23
s 31 s32 s 33

The first subscript: Shear/Normal on a plane perpendicular to ____ axis. (ye plane ka direction)
The second subscript: in direction of ____ axis,

For example,
S11: This represents the stress component where the force acts in the x-direction on a plane that is
perpendicular to the x-axis.
S12: This represents the stress component where the force acts in the x-direction on a plane that is
perpendicular to the y-axis.

Thus, any given stress component represents a force acting in a specific direction on a unit area of
given orientation.
Ek cube imagine karna, koi ek direction lena, say x and ek plane imagine karna jo x axis se
perpendicular hua.. aisa jo stress hua vo S11 hua.

(jo plane and force direction normal ho gayi vo normal stress, baaki jo force and plane parallel ho
gayi vo shear stress.. kyoki vo body ko shear krega.)
(In case of confusion, refer to following image only:)
Stress matrix:
Tensor: magnitude, direction, the plane on which it is acting

when the coordinate axes are rotated. S’ represents the new stress tensor after rotation, S is the
Tensor Transformation (Rotation of Axes): The figure demonstrates how the stress tensor transforms

original stress tensor, and A is the rotation matrix (composed of direction cosines). The equation S’=
ATSA shows the mathematical operation needed to transform the stress tensor from the old
coordinate system to the new one. Direction Cosines: The rotation matrix A contains elements a ij
which are the cosines of the angles between the old and new axes (direction cosines).

The principal coordinate system is the one in which shear stresses vanish and three principal
stresses, S1 ≥ S2 ≥ S3 fully describe the stress field.

Relative stress magnitudes and E. M. Anderson’s classification scheme

Hanging wall: the block of rock above the fault
Footwall: the block below the fault

The Anderson scheme classifies an area as being characterized by normal, strike-slip or reverse
faulting depending on whether:
(i) the crust is extending and steeply dipping normal faults accommodate movement of the hanging
wall downward with respect to the footwall.
(ii) blocks of crust are sliding horizontally past one another along nearly vertical strike-slip faults or
(iii) the crust is in compression and relatively shallow-dipping reverse faults are associated with the
hanging wall block moving upward with respect to the footwall block.

Normal:The vertical stress dominates in normal faulting regions (S1 = Sv), and fault slip occurs
when the least horizontal principal stress (Shmin) reaches a sufficiently low value at any given depth
depending on Sv and pore pressure. This is a crustal extension case (Sv ≥ SHmax ≥ Shmin).
Reverse: When both horizontal stresses exceed the vertical stress (S3 = Sv) crustal shortening is
accommodated through reverse faulting when the maximum horizontal principal stress (SHmax) is
sufficiently larger than the vertical stress (SHmax ≥ Shmin ≥ Sv)
strike slip: Strike-slip faulting represents an intermediate stress state where the maximum
horizontal stress is greater than the vertical stress (S2=Sv) and the minimum horizontal stress is less
(SHmax ≥ Sv ≥ Shmin). In this case, faulting occurs when the difference between SHmax and Shmin is
sufficiently large

Conclusion:
normal: Sv sabse zyada or shmin sufficiently lower value pahuchta hai
strike slip: Shmax and Shmin me significant large different hota
reverse: Shmax is sufficiently larger than Sv
Normal fault ka dip: 60
Reverse fault ka dip: 30

Strike and discontinuity orientation

Strike and dip of a plane
Salt domes: a dome-shaped structure in sedimentary rocks, formed where a large mass of salt
has been forced upwards. Such structures often form traps for oil or natural gas.

Stress around salt domes: salt dome is a plastic material, which allows itself to flow under
differential stress. Rise in salt dome structure, leads to complex stress pattern. Redistribution of
stress results in regions of increased compressive stress near the dome and tensile stress in the
overburden. The area around a salt dome typically experiences higher stress. This is because salt is
less dense and more ductile than the surrounding rock, causing it to flow and rise upwards, pushing
against the overlying and surrounding strata. This upward movement generates significant stress in
the adjacent rock layers, often resulting in deformation, faulting, and fracturing around the salt
dome.

See, strike north se kisi disha me hai. Maan lo vo half circle plane (HCP) hai jo katori ke andr hai. HCP
katori se jo direction bna rahi vo dip direction hua. Us dip direction se normal direction pr pole hoga.
Or pole se normal fir aao.. that is dip direction.

Cores
Unit 2
Pore pressure not used in uniaxial and polyaxial tests because of experiemnetal difficulty in
sealing pressure within the sample.
strength is typically measured via uniaxial and triaxial tests.
Compressional tests pta lga skte hai uniaxial and triaxial se, but tensile strength , i.e., tensile
tests nahi examine karte hai, via these tests, jisme rock apne breaking point tk aa jaye.

Brazilian Tensile strength test: In simple terms, the Brazilian test is a way to measure how
strong a rock is when it's being pulled apart (tensile strength). Instead of directly pulling the
rock, we press it from the sides using a machine, which creates a pulling force in the middle
of the rock. Eventually, the rock breaks, and by knowing the force at which it breaks, we can
calculate its tensile strength. It's easier to press from the sides than to pull directly, so this test
is commonly used.
 Page 35, pdf l7,8,9

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Ductility and Brittle ness are function of confining stress and pore pressure

This simply means, agr bahr se sab taraf se rock ke upar stress zyada hoga to itna zyada stress
uske pores ko restrict krenge, then jab rock todna chahoge to zyada tensile strength lagana
pdega, makes it ductile. Or jab andr se hi zyada pressure aa rha (pore pressure) tab zyada zor
bahr se lagan ani pdega… zyada zor diye bina tutega to brittle hua.
Temperature effect on strength of rock

High temperature se strength of rock decrease hoti. Rather than breaking, it deforms. (page
38) pdf 7,8,9
Brittle rocks tend to have higher Young’s Modulus and lower Poisson’s ratio

Britleness index =page 39………..and page 40 is crucial (diagram and understanding)

Triaxial compression test:

This diagram illustrates the stages of a triaxial compression test, which is used to study the
mechanical behavior of rocks under axial and confining pressure. Here's a brief explanation
of each section in the graph:
Key Components:
 σ₁ (deviatoric stress): The vertical axis shows the deviatoric stress, which is the
difference between the major principal stress (applied axial stress) and the minor
principal stress (confining pressure).
 ε₁₁ (axial normal strain) and ε₃₃: The horizontal axis shows the strain, representing
how much the rock deforms (axial strain, normal strain, or volumetric strain).
Stages of the Test:
1. Elastic Region (I, II):
o At the beginning (region I), the rock undergoes seating, where initial
adjustments take place, and then enters the elastic deformation stage (region
II).
o During this stage, the rock deforms in a reversible manner, meaning if the load
is removed, the rock will return to its original shape.
o The Poisson's ratio starts increasing at point B.
2. Crack Initiation (III):
o As stress increases, small microcracks begin to form (region III).
o At this stage, the deformation is still stable and elastic, though some cracking
starts.
3. Peak Strength (IV):
o Point D represents the peak load or the maximum strength of the rock.
o After this point, the rock reaches its limit and starts to fail, as macrocracks
form by joining microcracks (region V). The rock becomes brittle at this stage.
4. Post-Peak Failure (V):
o After the peak, the rock undergoes significant permanent deformations and
begins to lose strength. This is called the post-peak region, where the rock
transitions from brittle failure to ductile deformation (for some rocks).
o Residual strength (point E) refers to the strength the rock retains even after
failing significantly.
5. Long-Term Deformation:
o In the long term, the rock may reach a steady state of deformation, possibly
involving sliding on macrocracks (region VI), and will continue to deform
under constant load.
Important Observations:
 Elastic → Ductile → Brittle Behavior: The rock's behavior changes from elastic to
ductile and eventually brittle as stress increases.
 Residual Strength: After peak failure, the rock still retains some residual strength
but is significantly weaker.
 Irreversible Change: Post-peak deformation leads to permanent changes, with large
fractures and plastic deformation dominating.