Module 4.

THE LANGUAGE OF SETS

Good day, learner! I hope that you had understood

Mathematics in the perspective of being a language. The
power of seeing mathematics as another system of
communicating thoughts and ideas will bring insights and
learnings in a different, and hopefully easier, light. This time,
you will focus in one concept and how it is central in
mathematical language. Keep going, you are almost at the
finish!

The Language of Sets

Notation
If S is a set, the notation x ∈ S means that x is an element of S. The notation x ∉ S means that x
is not an element of S., a set may be specified using the set roster notation by writing all of its
elements between braces. For example, {1, 2, 3} denotes the set whose elements are 1, 2, and 3. A
variation of the notation is sometimes used to describe a very large set, as when we write {1, 2, 3, … ,100}
to refer to the set of all integers from 1 to 100. A similar notation can also describe an infinite set, as
when we write {1, 2, 3, … } to refer to the set of all positive integers. (The symbol … is called an ellipsis
and is read “and so forth.”)
Certain sets of numbers are so frequently referred to, that they are given special symbolic names.
These are summarized in the table below.

Symbol Set
N Natural/counting numbers: 1, 2, 3
Z Set of all integers
Q Set of all rational numbers, or quotient of integers
R Set of all real numbers, rational and irrational

Note: The Z is the first letter of the German word for integers, Zahlen. It stands for the set of all
integers and should not be used as a shorthand for the word integer.
Set – Builder Notation
Let S denote a set and let P (x) be a property that elements of S may or may not satisfy. We may
define a new set to be the set of all elements x in S such that P (x) is true. { 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆 ∣ 𝑃 ( 𝑥 ) }.
Subsets
If A and B are sets then A is called a subset of B, written A ⊆ B, if, and only if, every element of A
is also an element of B.
Symbolically:
A ⊆ B means that For all elements x, if x ∈ A then x ∈ B.
Or: A is contained in B and B contains A
A ⊆ B means that There is at least one element x such that x ∈ A and x ∉ B.

Proper Subset
Let A and B be sets. A is a proper subset of B, if and only if, every element of B is in B but there
is at least one element of B that is not in A.

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Ordered Pair
Given elements a and b, the symbol (a, b) denotes the ordered pair consisting of a and b together
with the specification that a is the first element of the pair and b is the second element. Two ordered
pairs (a, b) and (c, d) are equal if, and only if, a = c and b = d.
(a, b) = (c, d) means that a = c and b = d
Cartesian Product
Given sets A and B, the Cartesian product of A and B, denoted A x B and read “A cross B,” is the
set of all ordered pairs (a, b), where a is in A and b is in B.
A x B = {(a, b) ∣ a ∈ A and b ∈ B}

Concept of a Set

In the different branches of Mathematics and other fields of Science, the concept of set is a basic
fundamental notion that we should give importance. The concept of set is so complex that it is
impossible for us to define what set is. Thus, set is simply described in terms of the properties of
those objects that belong to the set.

Set – is a well–defined collection of objects, concrete or abstract, of any kind.

Example
1. The set of all positive numbers greater than 5
2. The set of Algebra books in your library
3. The set of Freshman College students in your school
4. The set of months with 31 days
5. The set of past presidents of the Philippines
6. The set of ideas that you may have right now
7. The set of trigonometric functions you study in this course
8. The set of exercises you will have to solve to determine if you have mastered the definitions,
notations, and operations in set theory

In all the above examples, two important things must be borne in mind:

First, that a set is a collection of “objects” or “things” which do not necessarily have to be concrete,
and hence, directly perceived. For example, the set of mixed emotions one feels when he listens to a
piece of beautiful music and is so moved by it.

Second, that while an aggregate of members make up a set, it is possible for a set to have no
members. Sets can be identified or named with the use of capital letters or symbols. Sets are usually
represented by listing their elements, separated by commas, within its braces { }. In set notation, we
use the symbol  (epsilon) for the phrase “is an element of” or “belongs to”. Thus to indicate
membership in a set, we have x  X, which is read as: “x is an object of set X, or “x belongs to the set
X”. Similarly, if we wish to indicate that x is not an element of x, we write x  X.

Basic Notations

A, B, C – denote a set
 – is an element of, belongs to
 – is not an element of
 – is a subset of
 – is not a subset of
= – is equal to
 – is not equal to
 – is equivalent to
 – null or empty set
n(A) – the cardinal number of set A

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 Set Description

Two Methods of Writing Sets

1. Roster Method – indicates a set by listing the elements, separating them by a comma and
enclosing them in braces.

2. Rule method – indicates a set by describing the elements of the set.

Consider a set whose elements are whole numbers less than 8. By the roster method, we have

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 }

Using the rule method we have

A = { xx is a whole number less than 8}

Kinds of Sets

1. Finite Set – a set whose elements are countable or limited up to the last element
Example S = {a, b, c}
T = {4, 8, 12, 16}

2. Infinite Set – a set whose elements are unlimited or unaccountable.

Example the set of stars in a galaxy

3. Unit Set – a set with only one element

Example A = { xx is an integer greater than 18 but less than 20}
B = {19}

4. Empty or Null Set – a set with no element

Example C={}
D = { xx is an integer less than 12 but greater than 11}

5. Universal Set – the totality of elements of a set under consideration

Example R = { xx is a partial scholar in the university}
E = { xx is a planet in the solar system}

6. Subset – a set whose elements are members of a given set

Given sets A and B, if all the elements of set A are found in B, then A is a subset of B.
Example A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
B = {3, 6, 9, 12}

7. Equal Sets – Sets A and B are equal if and only if all the elements of set A are in set B, and all
the elements of B are in A.
Example A = {M, o, n}
B = {n, o, M}
Then A = B

8. Equivalent Sets – sets where one–to–one correspondence between the elements of sets A and
B exists. A one–to–one correspondence exists between two sets A and B, if we
can pair an element of A with exactly one element of B.
Example A = {1, 3, 5, 7}
B = {e, y, m, z}
A~B

9. Disjoint Sets – sets that have no common elements

Example C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,}
D = {– 5, – 4, – 3, – 2, – 1}
Thus we can conclude that C and D are disjoint sets.

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 Operations on Sets

A. Union of Two Sets – is a set in which the elements of the two sets are combined. If the two
sets have elements in common such elements are written only once.
A  B = {x x  A or x  B}

Example
Let
E = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} R = {1, 4}
M = {1, 3, 5, 7} J = {–2, –1, 0}
C = { 2, 4}

Give the elements of Solution:

1. E  M 1. The elements of set M are also elements
of E. Hence,
E  M = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
2. M  C 2. M  C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7}
3. M  R 3. M  R = {1, 3, 4, 5, 7}
4. C  J 4. C  J = {–2, –1, 0, 2, 4}

Based on the above examples, we have discovered that some of the elements of the union are
elements of both sets. But, in tabulating the elements of the union of the sets, elements common to
both are just listed once.

B. Intersection of Two Sets – is the set of elements that belong to both.

A  B = {x x  A and x  B}

Example
Let
E = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} C = {2, 4, 6}
M = {1, 3, 5} R = {1, 4}

Give the elements of Solution:

1. E  M 1. E  M = {1, 3, 5}
2. M  C 2. M  C = 
3. C  R 3. C  R = {4}

C. Complement of a Set
Consider B as a set. The complement of B denoted by B’ (read as “B prime) refers to the set
whose elements are not in B but elements of the universal set U.
B’ = {x x  B and x  U}

Example
Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
R = {3, 5, 7}
J = {2, 3, 4, 5}
Give the elements of Solution
1. R’ 1. R’ = {1, 2, 4, 6, 8}
2. J’ 2. J’ = {1, 6, 7, 8}
3. (R  Q)’ 3. (R  Q)’ = {1, 6, 8}
4. (R  Q)’ 4. (R  Q)’ = {1,2,4,6,7,8}

D. Set Difference
Consider B and C as sets. The difference of B and C denoted by B – C (read as “B minus C”)
refers to the set whose elements belong to B and not in C.
B – C = {x x  B and x  C}
Example
Let C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
H = {1, 2, 5, 8, 9}
U = {7, 8, 10, 13, 15, 20}
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 M = {– 5, – 4, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 5, 9, 10, 13}
Give the elements of Solution
1. C – H 1. C – H = { 3, 4, 6}
2. H – C 2. H – C = {8, 9}
3. U – H 3. U – H = {7, 10, 13, 15, 20}
4. M – U 4. M – U = {–5,–4,–1, 0, 1, 2, 5, 9}

E. Cartesian Product
The Cartesian product of B and C denoted by B x C (read as “B cross C”) refers to the set
whose elements are ordered pairs (x, y)
Example
Let R = {2, 3} J = {–1, 3, 5}
Give the elements of Solution
1. R x J 1. R x J = {(2, –1), (2, 3), (2, 5), (3, –1),
(3, 3), (3, 5)}
2. J x R 2. J x R = {(–1, 2), (3, 2), (5, 2),
(–1, 3), (3, 3), (5, 3)}

Venn Diagram

Venn Diagram – is a pictorial representation involving relations between and among sets. This
diagram is named after the English logician John Venn (1834 – 1923) in 1880.

Example
A survey was conducted among graduating ECE students in a certain university on which board
subject they like best. The result is tabulated as follows: Using the Venn Diagram
Mathematics 55
Electronics 50
Communications 51 Mathematics Communications
Math & Electronics 32
Math & Communications 28 5 18 8
Electronics & Communications 25 10
All three subjects 10 22 15
3
Electronics

How many were there in the graduating class?

Solution: N = 5 + 22 + 10 + 18 + 3 + 15 + 8 = 81 students

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