Chapter 1

Introduction

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Introduction 1-1
Chapter 1: Introduction
Our goal: Overview:
❑ get “feel” and ❑ what’s the Internet?
terminology
❑ network edge; hosts, access
❑ more depth, detail
net, physical media
later in course
❑ network core: packet/circuit
❑ approach:
switching, Internet structure
❖ use Internet as
example ❑ performance: loss, delay,
throughput
❑ protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-2
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
❑ end systems, access networks, links
1.3 Network core
❑ circuit switching, packet switching, network structure
1.4 Delay, loss and throughput in packet-switched
networks
1.5 Protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-3
What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts” view
PC ❑ millions of connected Mobile network
server computing devices: Global ISP
wireless hosts = end systems
laptop
❖ running network
cellular
handheld apps Home network
Regional ISP
❑ communication links
access ❖ fiber, copper,
points
wired
radio, satellite Institutional network
links
❖ transmission
rate = bandwidth
❑ routers: forward
router
packets (chunks of
data)
Introduction 1-4
What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts” view
Mobile network
❑ applications
❑ protocols control sending, Global ISP
receiving of msgs
❖ e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, Skype,
Home network
Ethernet
Regional ISP
❑ Internet: “network of
networks”
❖ loosely hierarchical Institutional network
❖ public Internet versus
private intranet
❑ Internet standards
❖ RFC: Request for comments
❖ IETF: Internet Engineering
Task Force Introduction 1-5
What’s a protocol?
human protocols: network protocols:
❑ “what’s the time?” ❑ machines rather than
❑ “I have a question” humans
❑ introductions ❑ all communication
activity in Internet
… specific msgs sent governed by protocols
… specific actions taken protocols define format,
when msgs received, order of msgs sent and
or other events received among network
entities, and actions
taken on msg
transmission, receipt
Introduction 1-6
What’s a protocol?
a human protocol and a computer network protocol:

Hi
TCP connection
request
Hi
TCP connection
Got the response
time? Get http://www.awl.com/kurose-ross
2:00
<file>
time

Q: Other human protocols?

Introduction 1-7
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
❑ end systems, access networks, links
1.3 Network core
❑ circuit switching, packet switching, network structure
1.4 Delay, loss and throughput in packet-switched
networks
1.5 Protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-8
A closer look at network structure:
❑ network edge:
applications and
hosts
❑ access networks,
physical media:
wired, wireless
communication links
❑ network core:
❖ interconnected
routers
❖ network of
networks Introduction 1-9
 The network edge:
❑ end systems (hosts):
❖ run application programs
❖ e.g. Web, email
❖ at “edge of network”
❑ client/server model
❖ client host requests, receives
service from always-on server
client/server
❖ e.g. Web browser/server;
email client/server

Introduction 1-10
Access networks and physical media
Q: How to connect end
systems to edge router?
❑ residential access nets
❑ institutional access
networks (school,
company)
❑ mobile access networks

Keep in mind:
❑ bandwidth (bits per
second) of access
network?
❑ shared or dedicated?
Introduction 1-11
Residential access: point to point access

❑ Dialup via modem

❖ up to 56Kbps direct access to
router (often less)
❖ Can’t surf and phone at same
time: can’t be “always on”
❑ DSL: digital subscriber line
❖ deployment: telephone company (typically)
❖ up to 1 Mbps upstream (today typically < 256 kbps)
❖ up to 8 Mbps downstream (today typically < 1 Mbps)
❖ dedicated physical line to telephone central office

Introduction 1-12
Residential access: cable modems

❑ HFC: hybrid fiber coax

❖ asymmetric: up to 30Mbps downstream, 2
Mbps upstream
❑ network of cable and fiber attaches homes to
ISP router
❖ homes share access to router
❑ deployment: available via cable TV companies

Introduction 1-13
Cable Network Architecture: Overview

Typically 500 to 5,000 homes

cable headend

home
cable distribution
network (simplified)

Introduction 1-14
Cable Network Architecture: Overview

server(s)

cable headend

home
cable distribution
network

Introduction 1-15
Cable Network Architecture: Overview

cable headend

home
cable distribution
network (simplified)

Introduction 1-16
Cable Network Architecture: Overview

FDM (more shortly):

C
O
V V V V V V N
I I I I I I D D T
D D D D D D A A R
E E E E E E T T O
O O O O O O A A L

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Channels

cable headend

home
cable distribution
network

Introduction 1-17
Company access: local area networks
❑ company/univ local area
network (LAN) connects
end system to edge router
❑ Ethernet:
❖ 10 Mbs, 100Mbps,
1Gbps, 10Gbps Ethernet
❖ modern configuration:
end systems connect
into Ethernet switch
❑ LANs: chapter 5

Introduction 1-18
Wireless access networks
❑ shared wireless access
network connects end system
to router
❖ via base station aka “access router
point”
❑ wireless LANs:
base
station
❖ 802.11b/g (WiFi):
11 or 54 Mbps

❑ wider-area wireless access

❖ provided by telco operator mobile
❖ ~1Mbps over cellular system hosts
(EDGE, HSPA+, LTE)

Introduction 1-19
Home networks: a combined example
Typical home network components:
❑ DSL or cable modem
❑ router/firewall/NAT
❑ Ethernet
❑ wireless access
point
wireless
to/from laptops
cable router/
cable
modem firewall
headend
wireless
access
Ethernet point

Introduction 1-20
Physical Media
Twisted Pair (TP)
❑ Bit: propagates between ❑ two insulated copper
transmitter/rcvr pairs wires
❑ physical link: what lies ❖ Category 3: traditional
between transmitter & phone wires, 10 Mbps
receiver Ethernet
Category 5:
❑ guided media:
❖
100Mbps Ethernet
❖ signals propagate in solid
media: copper, fiber, coax
❑ unguided media:
❖ signals propagate freely,
e.g., radio

Introduction 1-21
Physical Media: coax, fiber
Coaxial cable: Fiber optic cable:
❑ two concentric copper ❑ glass fiber carrying light
conductors pulses, each pulse a bit
❑ bidirectional ❑ high-speed operation:
❑ baseband: ❖ high-speed point-to-point
❖ single channel on cable transmission (e.g., 10’s-
❖ legacy Ethernet 100’s Gps)

❑ broadband: ❑ low error rate: repeaters

❖ multiple channels on spaced far apart ; immune
cable to electromagnetic noise
❖ HFC

Introduction 1-22
Physical media: radio
❑ signal carried in Radio link types:
electromagnetic ❑ terrestrial microwave
spectrum ❖ e.g. up to 45 Mbps channels

❑ no physical “wire” ❑ LAN (e.g., Wifi)

❑ bidirectional ❖ 11Mbps, 54 Mbps

❑ propagation ❑ wide-area (e.g., cellular)

environment effects: ❖ 3G cellular: ~ 1 Mbps

❖ reflection ❑ satellite
❖ obstruction by objects ❖ Kbps to 45Mbps channel (or
❖ interference multiple smaller channels)
❖ 270 msec end-end delay
❖ geosynchronous versus low
altitude
Introduction 1-23
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
❑ end systems, access networks, links
1.3 Network core
❑ circuit switching, packet switching, network structure
1.4 Delay, loss and throughput in packet-switched
networks
1.5 Protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-24
 Internet structure: network of networks

❑ roughly hierarchical
❑ at center: “tier-1” ISPs (e.g., Verizon, Sprint, AT&T,
Cable and Wireless), national/international coverage
❖ treat each other as equals

Tier-1
providers
Tier 1 ISP
interconnect
(peer)
privately
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP

Introduction 1-25
Tier-1 ISP: e.g., Sprint
POP: point-of-presence

to/from backbone

peering
… …
.
…
…

to/from customers

Introduction 1-26
From AT&T web site. 27
 ATT Global Backbone IP Network

From http://www.business.att.com 28
 China Education and Research Network

From http://www.edu.cn/20040326/3102431.shtml 29
 Internet structure: network of networks

❑ “Tier-2” ISPs: smaller (often regional) ISPs

❖ Connect to one or more tier-1 ISPs, possibly other tier-2 ISPs

Tier-2 ISPs
Tier-2 ISP pays Tier-2 ISP also peer
Tier-2 ISP privately with
tier-1 ISP for
connectivity to Tier 1 ISP each other.
rest of Internet
❑ tier-2 ISP is
customer of
tier-1 provider Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP

Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP

Introduction 1-30
 Internet structure: network of networks

❑ “Tier-3” ISPs and local ISPs

❖ last hop (“access”) network (closest to end systems)

local
ISP Tier 3 local
local local
ISP ISP
ISP ISP
Local and tier- Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
3 ISPs are
customers of Tier 1 ISP
higher tier
ISPs
connecting
them to rest
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP
of Internet
local
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
ISP
local local local
ISP ISP ISP Introduction 1-31
 Internet structure: network of networks

❑ a packet passes through many networks!

local
ISP Tier 3 local
local local
ISP ISP
ISP ISP
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP

Tier 1 ISP

Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP

local
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
ISP
local local local
ISP ISP ISP Introduction 1-32
The Network Core
❑ mesh of interconnected
routers
❑ the fundamental
question: how is data
transferred through net?
❖ circuit switching:
dedicated circuit per
call: telephone net
❖ packet-switching: data
sent thru net in
discrete “chunks”

Introduction 1-33
Network Core: Circuit Switching

End-end resources
reserved for “call”
❑ link bandwidth, switch
capacity
❑ dedicated resources:
no sharing
❑ circuit-like
(guaranteed)
performance
❑ call setup required

Introduction 1-34
Network Core: Circuit Switching
network resources ❑ dividing link bandwidth
(e.g., bandwidth) into “pieces”
divided into “pieces” ❖ frequency division
❑ pieces allocated to calls ❖ time division
❑ resource piece idle if
not used by owning call
(no sharing)

Introduction 1-35
Circuit Switching: FDM and TDM
Example:
FDM
4 users

frequency

time
TDM

frequency

time
Introduction 1-36
Numerical example
❑ How long does it take to send a file of
640,000 bits from host A to host B over a
circuit-switched network?
❖ All links are 1.536 Mbps
❖ Each link uses TDM with 24 slots/sec

Let’s work it out!

Introduction 1-37
Network Core: Packet Switching
each end-end data stream resource contention:
divided into packets ❑ aggregate resource
❑ user A, B packets share demand can exceed
network resources amount available
❑ each packet uses full link ❑ congestion: packets
bandwidth queue, wait for link use
❑ resources used as needed ❑ store and forward:
packets move one hop
at a time
Bandwidth division into “pieces” ❖ Node receives complete
Dedicated allocation packet before forwarding
Resource reservation

Introduction 1-38
 Packet Switching: Statistical Multiplexing
100 Mb/s
A Ethernet statistical multiplexing C

1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets
waiting for output
link

D E

Sequence of A & B packets does not have fixed pattern,

bandwidth shared on demand statistical multiplexing.
TDM: each host gets same slot in revolving TDM frame.
Introduction 1-39
Packet-switching: store-and-forward
L
R R R

❑ takes L/R seconds to Example:

transmit (push out) ❑ L = 7.5 Mbits
packet of L bits on to ❑ R = 1.5 Mbps
link at R bps
❑ transmission delay = 15
❑ store and forward:
sec
entire packet must
arrive at router before
it can be transmitted
on next link
❑ delay = 3L/R (assuming more on delay shortly …
zero propagation delay)
Introduction 1-40
 Packet switching versus circuit switching
Packet switching allows more users to use network!
❑ 1 Mb/s link
❑ each user:
❖ 100 kb/s when “active”
❖ active 10% of time

N users
❑ circuit-switching: 1 Mbps link
❖ 10 users

❑ packet switching:
❖ with 35 users,
Q: how did we get value 0.0004?
probability > 10 active
at same time is less
than .0004
Introduction 1-41
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
❑ end systems, access networks, links
1.3 Network core
❑ circuit switching, packet switching, network structure
1.4 Delay, loss and throughput in packet-switched
networks
1.5 Protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-42
How do loss and delay occur?
packets queue in router buffers
❑ packet arrival rate to link exceeds output link
capacity
❑ packets queue, wait for turn

packet being transmitted (delay)

B
packets queueing (delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers
Introduction 1-43
Four sources of packet delay
❑ 1. nodal processing: ❑ 2. queueing
❖ check bit errors ❖ time waiting at output
❖ determine output link link for transmission
❖ depends on congestion
level of router

transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

Introduction 1-44
Delay in packet-switched networks
3. Transmission delay: 4. Propagation delay:
❑ R=link bandwidth (bps) ❑ d = length of physical link
❑ L=packet length (bits) ❑ s = propagation speed in
❑ time to send bits into medium (~2x108 m/sec)
link = L/R ❑ propagation delay = d/s

Note: s and R are very

different quantities!
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing
Introduction 1-45
Delay in packet-switched networks
Transmission delay vs. Propagation delay

Think a water pipe

From PQ708 to PQ707

From Hong Kong to Rio de Janeiro Brazil

Introduction 1-46
Nodal delay
d nodal = d proc + dqueue + d trans + d prop

❑ dproc = processing delay

❖ typically a few microsecs or less

❑ dqueue = queuing delay

❖ depends on congestion

❑ dtrans = transmission delay

❖ = L/R, significant for low-speed links

❑ dprop = propagation delay

❖ a few microsecs to hundreds of msecs

Introduction 1-47
Queueing delay (revisited)

❑ R=link bandwidth (bps)

❑ L=packet length (bits)
❑ a=average packet
arrival rate

traffic intensity = La/R

❑ La/R ~ 0: average queueing delay small

❑ La/R -> 1: delays become large
❑ La/R > 1: more “work” arriving than can be
serviced, average delay infinite!
Introduction 1-48
 Packet loss
❑ queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer has
finite capacity
❑ packet arriving to full queue dropped (aka lost)
❑ lost packet may be retransmitted by previous
node, by source end system, or not at all
buffer
(waiting area) packet being transmitted
A

B
packet arriving to
full buffer is lost
Introduction 1-49
 Throughput
❑ throughput: rate (bits/time unit) at which
bits transferred between sender/receiver
❖ instantaneous: rate at given point in time
❖ average: rate over long(er) period of time

server,
server sendswith link
bits pipe capacity
that can carry link that
pipe capacity
can carry
file of
(fluid) F bits
into pipe Rs bits/sec
fluid at rate Rfluid
c bits/sec
at rate
to send to client Rs bits/sec) Rc bits/sec)

Introduction 1-50
 Throughput (more)
❑ Rs < Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

❑ Rs > Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

bottleneck link
link on end-end path that constrains end-end throughput
Introduction 1-51
Throughput: Internet scenario

Rs
❑ per-connection
Rs Rs
end-end
throughput:
R
min(Rc,Rs,R/10)
❑ in practice: Rc or Rc Rc
Rs is often Rc
bottleneck

10 connections (fairly) share

backbone bottleneck link R bits/sec
Introduction 1-52
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
❑ end systems, access networks, links
1.3 Network core
❑ circuit switching, packet switching, network structure
1.4 Delay, loss and throughput in packet-switched
networks
1.5 Protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-53
Protocol “Layers”
Networks are complex!
❑ many “pieces”:
❖ hosts Question:
❖ routers Is there any hope of
❖ links of various organizing structure of
media network?
❖ applications
❖ protocols Or at least our discussion
❖ hardware, of networks?
software

Introduction 1-54
Organization of air travel

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)

baggage (check) baggage (claim)

gates (load) gates (unload)

runway takeoff runway landing

airplane routing airplane routing

airplane routing

❑ a series of steps

Introduction 1-55
Layering of airline functionality

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain) ticket

baggage (check) baggage (claim baggage

gates (load) gates (unload) gate

runway (takeoff) runway (land) takeoff/landing

airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing

departure intermediate air-traffic arrival

airport control centers airport

Layers: each layer implements a service

❖ via its own internal-layer actions
❖ relying on services provided by layer below

Introduction 1-56
Why layering?
Dealing with complex systems:
❑ explicit structure allows identification,
relationship of complex system’s pieces
❖ layered reference model for discussion
❑ modularization eases maintenance, updating of
system
❖ change of implementation of layer’s service
transparent to rest of system
❖ e.g., change in gate procedure doesn’t affect
rest of system

Introduction 1-57
Internet protocol stack
❑ application: supporting network
applications application
❖ FTP, SMTP, HTTP
❑ transport: process-process data transport
transfer
❖ TCP, UDP network
❑ network: routing of datagrams from
source to destination link
❖ IP, routing protocols
❑ link: data transfer between physical
neighboring network elements
❖ PPP, Ethernet
❑ physical: bits “on the wire”
Introduction 1-58
ISO/OSI reference model
❑ presentation: allow applications to
interpret meaning of data, e.g., application
encryption, compression, machine-
presentation
specific conventions
❑ session: synchronization, session
checkpointing, recovery of data transport
exchange
network
❑ Internet stack “missing” these
layers! link
❖ these services, if needed, must physical
be implemented in application
❖ needed?

Introduction 1-59
Introduction: Summary
Covered a “ton” of material!
You now have:
❑ Internet overview
❑ context, overview,
❑ network edge, core, access “feel” of networking
network
❑ more depth, detail to
❖ packet-switching versus follow!
circuit-switching
❖ Internet structure
❑ performance: loss, delay,
throughput
❑ layering, service models

Introduction 1-60