Magnetostrictive Level Transmitter

In a magnetostrictive level transmitter, the liquid level is sensed by a doughnut / toroidal shaped
float containing an integrated permanent magnet (it is a cylindrical float with a central
bore as shown in the figure). The float is guided by a long metal rod that passes
through the central bore. The metallic rod is hung vertically in the process vessel (or
in an external cage) so that the float may rise and fall with variations in the process
liquid level. A magnetostrictive sensor is used to accurately measure the position of
the float. The magnetostrictive sensor consists of a wire, made of a ferromagnetic
material (typically an iron alloy) that is positioned inside the metal rod and extends over its entire
length. This wire is commonly known as the waveguide. An electronics unit mounted at the top of
the metal rod generates a current pulse (referred to as an interrogation pulse and is typically of 1-3
μs duration) at periodic intervals. This produces a circular magnetic field around the wire at the
location of the current pulse and it travels down the wire. When the current pulse travelling along
the waveguide reaches the position of the float, the circular magnetic field due to the current pulse
interacts with the longitudinal magnetic field produced by the permanent magnet in the float, and
a torsional strain (twist) is induced in the waveguide, at the location of the float. This is due to a
phenomenon known as the Wiedemann effect which was discovered by the German physicist
Gustav Wiedemann. The torsional pulse propagates as an ultrasonic wave, from the position of the
float towards both ends of the waveguide. It travels at the speed of sound in the waveguide. (the
wire is called a “waveguide” because it confines and allows the propagation of the ultrasonic pulse
through it). The bottom end of the waveguide has a dampener, a device designed to absorb the
ultrasonic wave. The torsional pulse is detected by a sensing element (typically a piezoelectric
transducer) placed at the top of the waveguide, and it produces a voltage pulse when the torsional
wave reaches the top of the waveguide. A microprocessor-based electronics unit accurately
measures the elapsed time between the generation of the current pulse and the detection of the
torsional pulse. The entire procedure is then repeated providing a continuous measure of the float
position.

As long as the speed of sound through the metallic waveguide remains fixed, the time delay strictly
depends upon the distance of the float from the sensor at the top of the waveguide. In other words,
this system generates an ultrasonic pulse at the location of the float and it measures the transit time
of this pulse through the waveguide, to the sensor on the top of the waveguide. This is unlike an
ultrasonic level sensor where the transit time of an ultrasonic pulse, reflected from the liquid surface
and travelling through the vapour space in the tank is measured. The acoustic velocity in the vapour
space is strongly influenced by the temperature and the chemical composition of the gases present.
In a magnetostrictive instrument, the ultrasonic pulse travels through the waveguide and hence is
not influenced by the properties of the vapour space. The presence of heavy foam, or dust above
the liquid surface affects the propagation of ultrasonic waves, which may even preclude the use of
ultrasonic level gauges. Floats are not affected by foam, thus magnetostrictive level sensors aren’t
affected by foam.
Magnetostrictive level sensors offer several key advantages over other level measurement
technologies. They are accurate and can handle high-pressure and high-temperature environments.
Furthermore, they are not affected by changes in the properties of the medium, such as electrical
conductivity, or dielectric constant. A major advantage is that this sensor directly measures the
position of the float and hence does not require field calibration, unlike most other level sensors.
However, a change in the density (specific gravity) of the process liquid causes changes in the
immersion depth of the float leading to measurement errors. The use of a larger diameter float
reduces this error (why?).
Perhaps the greatest limitation of magnetostrictive level instruments is mechanical interference
between the float and the guide rod. For the magnetostrictive effect to be strong, the magnet inside
the float must be near the rod. This means the inside diameter of the float must fit closely to the
outside diameter of the guide rod. Any fouling of the guide rod’s or float’s surfaces by suspended
solids, sludge, or other semi-solid materials may cause the float to bind and therefore not respond
to changes in the liquid level.
Ultrasonic Level Transmitter:
This Level Transmitter uses sound waves to determine the level by measuring the distance between
a transducer mounted on the top of the tank and the surface of the material, which may be a liquid,
bulk-solid, or slurry. The transducer emits short ultrasonic pulses (a few cycles of ultrasonic waves)
that are directed downwards towards the surface of the material in the tank. A part of the incident
acoustic energy is reflected from the surface and returns to the transducer. A processor accurately
measures the “time of flight” or the “transit time”, i.e. the time interval between emitting the
ultrasonic pulse and receiving the return echo, and calculates the distance of the material surface.
This assumes that the velocity of sound in the space between the material surface and the transducer
is accurately known. The portion of the tank above the material surface contains air in tanks that
are vented to the atmosphere. However, pressurized tanks may contain other gases or vapours above
the material surface. The level of the material in the tank is determined by subtracting the distance
of the material surface measured relative to the tank top, from the overall tank height.
Ultrasonic Level Transmitters consist of two elements; 1) a piezoelectric transducer used to
generate and detect ultrasonic waves and, 2) an electronic transceiver to generate a pulse and
accurately measure the transit time.
Application considerations of Ultrasonic level sensors:
• The acoustic impedance, Z, of a material, is equal to the product of the density and the speed
of sound in the medium. Thus gases have low Z (gases have low density and sound velocity)
while liquids and solids have much higher Z. When sound travels through the interface
between two mediums with different acoustic impedances, a part of the incident energy is
reflected from the boundary of the two materials and the rest is transmitted through. The
fraction of the incident acoustic energy that is reflected, the reflection coefficient R is given
by:
 For an air-water interface, 99.88% of the incident acoustic energy is reflected. Thus the
material in the tank whose level is being measured should have a minimum density and
acoustic impedance to produce sufficiently strong reflected signals. Ultrasonic level sensors
might not be suitable for measuring the interface between two liquids when the difference in
their acoustic impedance is small resulting in poor reflection from the interface, and the echo
might not be reliably detected.
The velocity of sound in an ideal gas /air depends on the absolute temperature and the
composition of the gas.

• For a specific level of the material in the tank, the time interval measured between the
transmission of the ultrasonic pulse and reception of the echo depends upon the velocity of
sound in the medium (usually air) between the material surface and the transducer. Any change
in the temperature or composition of the medium alters the sound velocity and hence the
measured transit time, though the level has not changed. This results in erroneous level
determination. In the case of air, the speed of sound changes by about 0.6 m/sec for each degree
Celsius change in temperature which amounts to about 0.18% change per degree Celsius. So
temperature compensation is essential in Ultrasonic-level transmitters. A temperature sensor is
placed in the transducer housing and it corrects for any temperature-induced changes in the
sound velocity. This assumes the temperature of the entire medium is uniform. A change in the
sound velocity because of a change in the composition of the medium cannot be corrected and
leads to level measurement errors.
• The presence of heavy foam on the surface of the material can act as a sound absorbent. In
some cases, the absorption may be sufficient to preclude the use of the ultrasonic technique.
• The surface of the material in the tank should be preferably flat so that the reflected pulse
travels back towards the transducer. because the angle of reflection equals the angle of
incidence. Therefore, if the sonic pulse is reflected from a sloping surface, its echo will not be
 directed back to the source, and the time of flight measured will not accurately reflect the
vertical distance. Thus the level of liquids with significant surface turbulence or bulk solids
with sloped surfaces cannot be measured with Ultrasonic-level transmitters.
• Ultrasonic-level transmitters do not require a field calibration with the actual process medium.
• They cannot be used in closed tanks where the space above the material is evacuated (vacuum)
because acoustic waves require a medium to travel.
• Spurious reflections from tank internal structures can be minimized by: 1) Designing the
transducer to emit a narrow beam to prevent tank internal structures from lying in the beam
path and producing unwanted reflections 2. using the processor to evaluate the echo signals
and suppress spurious reflections produced by tank internal structures in the path of the
ultrasonic beam.
• The frequency range for the ultrasonic pulse is in the range of 15...200 kHz. Lower frequency
is used for longer ranges and solid level measurements and a higher frequency is used for
shorter range liquid level measurements.
Capacitive Level Measurement
Capacitance level sensors can measure the level of liquids (continuous level and point level), the
level of slurries, the interface between two liquids (provided their dielectric constants are
significantly different) as well as point level of solids. Capacitance level sensors are also known as
RF admittance sensors. A bare metallic rod or cable (also known as the probe) mounted vertically
in a cylindrical metallic tank forms one plate of a capacitor and the tank wall serves as the other
plate of the capacitor.
Non-conductive liquids: If the liquid in the tank is non-conducting, it acts as the dielectric
between the plates of the capacitor. As the liquid level in the tank rises, the vapour (or air) which
has a dielectric constant of 1 is replaced by the liquid, which has a greater dielectric constant (the
dielectric constant of all liquids is > 1). This causes the capacitance measured between the probe
and the tank wall to increase with the rising level. This means the capacitance will be greatest when
the vessel is full and least when the vessel is empty. A change in the dielectric constant of the
process medium, caused by a change of composition or temperature, is the main source of error
because it causes the capacitance to change even though the level is unaltered. Good measurement
accuracy may be obtained by using a compensating probe that is mounted below the position of the
minimum liquid level. This capacitor is always immersed in the process medium, and its
capacitance is purely a function of the medium’s dielectric constant. Thus the dielectric constant of
the process medium is continuously measured and is used to calculate the level based on the
capacitance of the main probe.
Observations:
• In a cylindrical tank (mounted with its axis vertical), the tank diameter is constant. Thus the
probe capacitance varies linearly with level if the dielectric constant remains constant.
• The measurement sensitivity ( i.e. change in capacitance for a unit change of level) decreases
with increasing tank diameter and for liquids with a low dielectric constant (such as
hydrocarbons).
• For a spherical tank or a cylindrical tank (mounted with its axis vertical), the tank diameter
changes with level. For these tank geometries, probe capacitance is a non-linear function of
level.
• In a concentric probe, a hollow, grounded, metallic cylinder surrounds the probe and serves as
the second plate of the capacitor. The tank wall is no longer used as a plate for the capacitive
level sensor. Such probes are recommended to increase the sensitivity in large-diameter
metallic tanks, for liquids with low dielectric constants, and to linearize the level-capacitance
relation in spherical tanks. Such probes are also recommended in non-conducting tanks since
the tank wall cannot be used as a plate for the capacitive level sensor.
Capacitive level sensors may be used to measure the level of solids (powders and granules) in
addition to liquids. In these applications, the material in question is almost always non-conductive,
and therefore the dielectric constant of the substance becomes a factor in measurement accuracy.
This can be problematic, as moisture content variations in the solid may greatly affect the dielectric
constant, as can variations in granule size. Compensating probes may not be very useful, either,
because their location (at the bottom of the vessel) may not expose them to the same degree of
material granularity and moisture content experienced by the main probe.
Concentric Probe

Capacitive-level sensors are generally found in applications where accuracy is not important.
These sensors tend to suffer from errors arising from changes in process substance dielectric
constant, changes in process vapour-space permittivity, and errors caused by stray capacitance in
probe cables. One major disadvantage is that they require field calibration using the process
medium.
Conducting liquids: A capacitance level sensor can also be used with conductive liquids. To
prevent the plates of the capacitive level sensor from being short-circuited by the conducting
process medium, the metal probe is insulated by applying a coating of a non-conducting material,
(for example, Teflon), on the surface of the metal probe. Such a probe is called an insulated probe.
The coating material should be chemically compatible with the process medium and the tank's
internal pressure and temperature. The inner conductor of the insulated probe forms one plate of
the capacitive level sensor, and the conducting liquid in the tank coupled with the metallic tank
wall forms the second plate of the capacitor. The probe insulation is the dielectric.
As the liquid level in the tank rises, the “height” (or size) of the outer plate becomes larger, resulting
in increased capacitance.
The primary source of error in the case of conducting liquids arises due to the coating of the
conductive liquid formed on the insulated probe when the liquid level falls.
Calibration: For conducting liquids the probe can be factory calibrated as calibration does not
depend on tank dimensions or the dielectric constant of the liquid. However, in the case of non-
conducting liquids calibration depends on the tank geometry and the dielectric constant of the
liquid, so a field calibration with the actual process medium is essential which is a major drawback.