The Child and Adolescent and Learning Principles | Dalit, M. E. D.

MODULE 4:
Learning Principles and Theories

I. Objectives:
At the end of this module, the Pre-Service Teachers are expected to:
1. comprehend the fundamental learning principles, generalizations, and theories;
and
2. demonstrate understanding by applying the knowledge they just learned to
new situations they haven't encountered before.

II. Abstraction

Lesson 1: Nature of Learning

“Learning is a reflective process whereby the learner either develops new insights
and understanding or changes and restructures his or her mental processes.”
(Ornstein,1990)

“Learning is an integrated, on-going process occurring within the individual,

enabling him to meet specific aims, fulfill his needs and interests, and cope with
the learning process. This process involves unfreezing, problem diagnosis,
goalsetting, new behavior, and refreezing.” (Lardizabal,1991)

“Learning is a change in an individual caused by experience. Changes caused by

development (such as growing taller) are not instances of learning. Neither are the
characteristics of individuals that are present at birth (such as reflexes and
responses to hunger and pain)”. (Slavin, 1995)

“Learning is the acquisition through maturation and experience of new and more
knowledge, skills and attitudes that will enable the learner to make better and
more adequate reactions, responses, and adjustments to new situations.”
(Calderon,1998).

What is Learning?

Learning is the process of acquiring new knowledge, skills, behaviors, or

understanding through study, experience, practice, or teaching. It is a fundamental
aspect of human cognition and development, enabling individuals to adapt to their
environment, solve problems, make decisions, and improve their capabilities over
time.

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 The Child and Adolescent and Learning Principles | Dalit, M. E. D.

Source: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/learning-meaning-nature-types-and-principles/

Key Takeaways:

• Successful learning requires full participation.

• Finding areas for development and strengths is facilitated by asking for
comments.
• Maintaining motivation keeps zeal and dedication alive.
• Learning results are maximized when learning tactics are tailored to each
student’s needs.
• Creating an environment that is conducive to learning encourages progress.

Three Elements of Learning

change in relatively practice or

LEARNING
behavior permanent experience

Nature of Learning

1. Active Engagement
Being involved in learning refers to a notion that emphasizes how individuals
take an active role in the learning process, which promotes participation,
analytical thinking, figuring out solutions, and analysis. It highlights that

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genuine learning, which occurs when individuals connect both intellectually and
physically with the subject matter, leads to higher understanding, preservation,
and enhancement of skills. Engaging in active engagement fosters
independence, motivation, and continuous improvement.

2. Constructivism
According to constructivism, students continually develop their own view of
their surroundings by fusing newly acquired knowledge with what they already
possess and have experienced. It places a strong emphasis on ability to solve
problems and think critically as well as practically. Learners gain a greater
fundamental grasp and the capacity to apply what they have learned to
unfamiliar circumstances through this process.

3. Social Interaction
Social contact is essential to learning, highlighting the role that interpersonal
connections, teamwork, and communication have in the educational process.
It enhances learning opportunities by offering forums for discussion, criticism,
and cooperative meaning-making. Through negotiation and co-construction of
understanding, social interaction helps to the construction of knowledge, while
collaboration stimulates the exchange of ideas and problem-solving abilities. In
general, social connection helps learners become more motivated, engaged,
and progress cognitively.

4. Adaptability and Flexibility

Adaptability and flexibility are intrinsic characteristics of learning that allow
people to modify their methods, plans, and viewpoints in reaction to novel
knowledge, difficulties, and evolving conditions. These characteristics support
resilience, inventiveness, and ingenuity in problem-solving, encouraging
learning and development throughout life.

How does Learning Work?

A variety of cognitive and behavioral processes are involved in the complex process
of learning. There are several fundamental ideas and procedures that explain how
learning occurs, even though the precise mechanics of learning might change
based on the situation and type of learning involved:

1. Stimulus and Response

The process of acquiring knowledge involves drawing connections among
stimuli—items in the surroundings that cause a response—and responses—the
activities or feelings brought upon by perceiving stimuli. People acquire the
ability to link specific triggers to particular reactions via prolonged exposure
and feedback.

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2. Reinforcement
To learn, reinforcement is essential. Appreciating desired behaviors makes
them more likely to occur in the future. This process is known as positive
reinforcement. By removing or minimizing undesirable factors, negative
reinforcement works to increase the likelihood of desired behaviors. The
correlation between inputs and reactions is strengthened by reinforcement.

3. Processing and Storage

The brain processes the encoded information and decides whether to store it
in short-term or long-term memory. With a capacity of roughly five to nine
items, short-term memory, sometimes referred to as working memory,
momentarily stores a small amount of knowledge for instant use. Long-term
memory has a higher capacity and can hold knowledge for longer periods of
time. Information is either briefly stored in short-term memory or moved to
long-term memory for longer-term storage, depending on the encoding
mechanisms used.

4. Making Connections
To make connections in learning, one must integrate new information with
previously learned material, elaborate on ideas, link pertinent cues to them,
and use analogical reasoning. This procedure improves information application,
comprehension, and retention, resulting in more profound and significant
learning outcomes.

5. Practice and Repetition

To enhance learning and skill development, practice and repetition require
interacting with knowledge or tasks on a regular basis. People can enhance the
brain connections linked to the desired information or action by practicing
consistently. This procedure improves the automaticity, mastery, and retention
of knowledge or abilities.

6. Application and Transfer

Applying newly learned knowledge and abilities in real-world scenarios and a
variety of contexts promotes greater understanding, applicability to real-world
circumstances, and flexibility. Through this process, people can show that they
comprehend, solidify what they’ve learned via experience, and apply what
they’ve learned outside of contexts.

7. Motivation and Engagement

Through encouraging active participation, persistent effort, and in-depth
information processing, motivation and engagement propel the learning
process. While engagement involves sustaining attention and devoting mental
and emotional resources to learning tasks, motivation can be either intrinsic or
extrinsic.

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Types of Learning
1. Cognitive Learning
It is a method of acquiring knowledge, understanding, and the capacity to
employ mental processes including retention, perception, thinking, and
judgment to solve issues. Learners practice pattern recognition, data extraction
and retention, reasoning, and making rational decisions. People can actively
construct their own worldview and apply it in a range of educational
circumstances by using these techniques.

2. Behavioral Learning
The aim of behavioral psychology involves acquiring novel actions or response
by the application of techniques such as operant conditioning, classical
conditioning, and learning through observation. Traditional conditioning
involves associating an unrelated event with a meaningful one in order to elicit
a learned response. Operant conditioning uses incentives and repercussions to
change behavior. Contextual learning is the process of picking up novel traits
by observing and imitating others. These systems impact behavior and are
critical to understanding how individuals take in environmental information.

3. Social Learning
The method of acquiring expertise, skills, and conduct through social contact,
replication, and monitoring of others in contexts is known as social learning.
People pick up knowledge by seeing the actions and results of their peers,
social groupings, or role models. This process is shaped by social relationships,
cultural norms, and societal values and involves imitation, interaction,
modeling, and vicarious learning.

4. Experiential Learning
In experiential learning, trial and error, contemplation, and practical knowledge
are prioritized. In order to gain practical skills and deeper comprehension,
students experiment in different ways, participate in everyday events, and think
back on what they have learned. Through the promotion of logical thinking,
ability to resolve issues, and the application of knowledge to real-world
situations, this active learning approach prepares students for success in a
range of situations.

5. Constructivist Learning
According to the concept of constructivism, learners actively create
understanding instead of merely absorbing it. People create their own versions
of the external environment and integrate newly acquired data with what they
already know when they observe it. Constructivist learning often encourages
participation, in-depth comprehension, and the application of information to
relevant contexts.

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6. Situational Learning
The primary goal of situational learning is to acquire context-specific knowledge
and skills to address present issues or targets in particular situations. It
promotes adaptability, resolving issues and real-world application of
knowledge. Contextual variables like social interactions and cultural standards
help learners become more adaptive and make effective use of their abilities
as well as their expertise. This approach fosters practical understanding while
enhancing relevance and flexibility in many contexts.

7. Self-directed Learning
Learners that engage in this type of instructional activity take charge of what
they learn by establishing objectives, finding resources, and handling their
particular assignments. Self-directed learning places a high value on developing
self-reliance, discipline, and lifelong capacity for learning.

Principles of Learning

1. Active Learning
The idea of active learning emphasizes the active role that students have in
carefully processing new information. They use mental processes including
understanding reflection, finding patterns, and integrating past information.
This idea, which emphasizes the dynamic and meaning-centered aspect of
learning, is consistent with constructivist learning theories.

2. Meaningful Learning
The concept of “Building on Prior Knowledge” highlights how students create
meaningful learning by relating new material to what they already know and
have experienced. This principle emphasizes customized experiences for
learning, full participation, and the integration of old and new knowledge.

3. Social Learning
The goal of social learning is to learn through collaboration and interactions
with others. Engaging with peers, teachers, and mentors fosters the
development of constructive viewpoints and conduct. Observation and
comments from others help with development of skills and learning.
Collaborative problem-solving exercises enhance analytical skills.

4. Holistic Learning
Holistic learning promotes the integration of many viewpoints and emphasizes
how knowledge is interrelated. Students get an understanding of topics in
wider contexts, which develops their practical as well as analytical abilities.
Learning becomes more meaningful and relevant when it is contextualized.

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5. Empowering Learners
The learning principle of “Empowering Learners” is centered on developing
learners’ self-assurance, independence, and belief in competence. It entails
fostering a growth mentality, elevating confidence in oneself, and offering
chances for independence and decision-making.

6. Diverse Paths to Understanding

“Diverse Paths to Understanding” recognizes the various methods in which
students pick up and convey information. It includes appreciating cultural
variety, diverse intelligences, and personal learning methods. Diverse learner
requirements are considered by educators through customized instruction,
Universal Design for Learning (UDL), and customized instruction techniques.

Challenges of Learning

1. Lack of Motivation
Motivational issues might impede learners’ involvement and dedication to their
studies. A lack of motivation can be caused by a variety of things, including a
lack of confidence, being indifferent in the subject matter, and outside
disturbances.

2. Learning Disabilities
Effective processing of information as well as understanding are hampered by
learning difficulties, especially when it comes to reading (dyslexia), writing
(dysgraphia), and math (dyscalculia). These challenges may impair one’s
emotional and social health in addition to impeding progress in school. To help
people with disorders of learning surmount challenges to learning and succeed,
specific strategies, modifications, and support services are needed.

3. Cultural and Linguistic Barriers

Students from diverse linguistic or ethnic origins may find it challenging to
understand the instructional resources, contribute to the discussion, or express
themselves effectively. Language barriers, ethnic differences, and a lack of
resources can all significantly impede learning.

4. Cognitive Load
The mental effort needed to digest facts and finish assignments is referred to
as cognitive load. When faced with complicated or exhausting content, learners
may experience cognitive overload, which can cause issues with understanding,
remembering, and resolving queries.

5. Limited Resources

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Insufficient availability of instructional materials, including technological

advances, textbooks, and certified instructors, might impede educational
prospects and restrict students’ capacity to realize their maximum abilities.
Physical obstacles, financial constraints, and differences in income could make
this problem worse.

6. Social and Emotional Factors

Bullying and intimidation, stress, anxiety, and various other emotional and
social problems can impact students’ academic performance and general well-
being. Unfriendly social conditions or psychological distress might cause
learners to lose concentration and become sidetracked from their educational
objectives.

Conclusion
In a nutshell, learning is a constantly evolving and intricate phenomenon that involves
gaining new knowledge, skills, and understanding. One must be prepared, tenacious,
and adaptable if one wishes to overcome challenges and achieve goals. Learners who
set clear objectives, practice often, receive suggestions, and stay motivated can make
the most of their learning chances and reach their full potential. In the end, learning
is a continuous process of personal development and exploration that equips people
to prosper in a world that is constantly changing.

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Lesson 2: Theories of Learning

What are Learning Theories in Education?

Learning theories in education are conceptual frameworks that seek to explain how
learning occurs and why individuals acquire new knowledge, skills, behaviours, or
attitudes. These theories are developed by psychologists, educators, and researchers
to understand the cognitive, behavioural, social, and environmental factors that
influence learning. By studying learning theories, educators and instructional designers
gain insights into effective teaching strategies, learning environments, and
interventions to facilitate learning outcomes.

Source: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/theories-of-learning/

Key Takeaways:

• Learning theories provide insights into the underlying processes and mechanisms
involved in learning.
• Learning theories recognize that learners are diverse in their backgrounds,
experiences, abilities, and preferences.
• By studying learning theories, educators and learners gain a deeper understanding
of how learning occurs across the lifespan and in various contexts.

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Importance of Learning Theories

1. Informing Instruction
By giving professionals an understanding of how different people learn, learning
theories help them adapt their teaching strategies to fit the requirements of a wide
range of learners. This knowledge informs the development of curriculum,
evaluation methods, and instructional strategy choices, all of which improve
learning results, motivation, and student involvement in the long run.

2. Improving Learning Outcome

Instructors can improve the learning process and raise motivation among pupils,
participation, and accomplishment by implementing learning theory principles.
Better comprehension, analytical thinking, and improvement in abilities are
encouraged by well-designed instructional materials that are founded on reliable
learning theories.

3. Facilitating Professional Development

Comprehending learning theories is crucial for instructors to engage in self-
reflection, pinpoint opportunities for growth, and modify their teaching methods to
accommodate students’ changing requirements. Driven by learning theories,
continual professional growth encourages instructors to pursue perpetual learning
and successful teaching practices.

4. Guiding Research
Theories of learning serve as a basis for studies on education by directing study
topics, methodology, and assumptions. Scholars employ theoretical frameworks to
examine the efficacy of diverse pedagogical approaches, delve into the cognitive
mechanisms that underpin learning, and devise empirically supported strategies to
augment educational achievements.

5. Promoting Innovation
Theories of learning stimulate teachers to investigate novel methods of instruction
and learning, which promotes innovative thinking and experimentation in the field
of education. To promote innovative thinking, adaptability, and innovation in the
classroom, educators should question established beliefs and welcome fresh
perspectives.

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Theories of Learning
Theories of learning are conceptual frameworks or models that aim to elucidate the
principles behind learning processes. The following represent a few well-known
theories of learning:

1. Cognitive Theory of Learning

A theory of learning known as cognitive learning places special emphasis on the
function of cognitive processes in knowledge understanding, retention, and
application. It implies that people actively make sense of their experiences and
direct their learning using their cognitive capacities. According to this theory,
students need to actively engage with new material, make links with what they
have previously learned, and modify their cognitive processes to properly absorb
and remember it. The significance of problem-solving, active engagement, and
mindful thinking is emphasized by cognitive learning. The constructivist method,
methods for resolving problems, active engagement, integration of cognitive
processes, and flexible learning methodologies are all important components of
cognitive education.

For Example:

Let’s say a student is preparing for an exam. Instead of memorizing all the formulas
a student will thoroughly go through the concept so that he gets a better
understanding of the topic. So, the student gains critical thinking ability, abilities
to solve issues, and a greater comprehension of math principles via this approach.
This cognitive approach illustrates the usefulness and efficacy of cognitive learning
in real-world scenarios by giving students the tools to apply their knowledge to
solve difficult challenges outside the parameters of exam criteria.

2. Social Learning Theory

According to Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory , people tends to learn
new skills through seeing, copying, and imitating other people’s conduct in social
situations. It highlights how results from behavior, personal characteristics, and
external factors interact to shape learning. This idea emphasizes how important it
is for education and behavior modification to have conducive surroundings,
opportunities for social learning, and positive role models.

For Example:

A child watching and copying an older brother or friend riding a bicycle is an

example of the social learning theory. Rather than depending exclusively on
learning through trial and error, the child gains knowledge by seeing and imitating
the actions of proficient bike riders. The elder sibling or friend’s advice and
encouragement further improves the child’s learning, demonstrating the social

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learning theory’s emphasis on role modeling and societal reinforcement in the

acquisition of skills.

3. Operant Conditioning Theory

The operant conditioning hypothesis developed by B.F. Skinner investigates
how behavior is affected by its outcomes. Based on the results of a behavior, such
as punishment or reinforcement, it is either enhanced or diminished. People learn
to adjust their behavior by making links with the results. To encourage desired
actions and outcomes, this idea finds applications in therapy, parenting, and
education.

For Example:

Suppose parents of Rahul wants him to do his homework. Whenever Rahul finishes
his homework, they give him a chocolate as he loves eating chocolates. So, now
Rahul does his homework more often as knows that whenever he finishes a
homework he will get a chocolate as a reward for doing his work. Rahul doing his
homework is a behavior and getting a chocolate is reward. So, this is how operant
conditioning works.

4. Classical Conditioning Theory

Classical conditioning describes how people might learn by associating various
stimuli. Ivan Pavlov was the first to show it by teaching dogs to associate receiving
food with the ring of a bell. Over time, even in the absence of food, the dogs would
start to drool at the sound of the bell. This process, called classical conditioning,
demonstrates how learning can happen unintentionally by creating associations
between stimuli. The hypothesis has been used to explain several behavioral
phenomena in people, such as phobias and the learning process.

For Example: A person who experiences anxiety when they hear a particular music
that was playing during a car accident is an example of classical conditioning. In
this instance, the major incident that inherently causes worry is the car accident.
At first, the music playing during the collision is a neutral stimulus. Hearing the
music over and over again after the accident starts to trigger anxiety.

5. Behaviorism Theory
A significant portion of behaviorism’s foundation comes from research done by B.F.
Skinner and John B. Watson. Behaviorists focused their research on measurable,
observable behaviors rather than on interior states like emotions in an attempt to
establish psychology as a science. Behaviorists contend that an individual’s ability
to learn is reliant on their interactions with the outside world. People change their

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conduct in response to the consequences they encounter from their interactions

with the environment.

For Example:

A dog trained to sit on request is an example of behaviorism in action. Treats, or

positive reinforcement, are used by the trainer to reward the dog each time it sits
down at their command. By frequently associating the command (“sit”) with the
reward (treat), the dog comes to associate sitting with receiving a treat. With time,
the dog learns that sitting produces a good result and begins to sit on cue even in
the absence of a treat. This exemplifies behaviorism’s emphasis on observable
behaviors and the stimuli (such as incentives) in the environment that influence
them.

III. Conclusion
Learning is an intricate process that combines experiences and influences from the
exterior (social and environmental) world with cognitive and emotional aspects. It
involves a learner gaining, developing, or changing knowledge, beliefs, abilities, or
worldviews. Even while various learning theories present opposing viewpoints, they
frequently show overlapping or related concepts instead than mutually exclusive
ones.

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Lesson 3: Contributing Factors to Learning

CONTENT

TEACHER LEARNER
Figure 1 Conditions Related to Content, Teacher, and Student

1. Content
- Learning does not take place in vacuum. It is in the context of some content
(learning material).
- “the student is learning what?”
- Unless you know “what to teach”, and the learners know “what to learn”, it will
be impossible to carry on the process of learning. The answers to these two
questions specify the content or the curriculum. The activities, the objectives,
and the organization of the curriculum determine the nature of the learning
process.

2. Teacher
- Helps the learners learn through the act of his teaching
- Though the directives for structuring learning situations in the classroom are
made available to teachers by the curriculum, it is he who “through his
resourcefulness” can make intelligent use of the curriculum. Thus,
resourcefulness is yet another factor affecting the learning of the learners.

3. Leaner
- The most important condition in facilitating efficient learning.
- This is the reason why educationists stress on providing a favorable learning
environment to the learners. Whether in school or at home, the learners should
be given a calm, clean, lighted and well-ventilated space for his study and
related activities. This creates a proper physical and psychological environment
for learning.
- The physical and mental health of the learner also affects learning. Only a
physically and mentally alert learner can learn properly.

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- Sometimes, learners show deficiency in learning simply because they may not
be properly motivated, or they may not be interested in what is being taught
to them.
- The use of defective method of teaching or learning activities and heavy home
assignments make the learner feels tired and bored in his study.

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Lesson 4: Laws of Learning and other Laws of Learning with

Pedagogical Relevance

Various theories of learning have been proposed to explain the process of learning
because of several experiments conducted on animals. Of these, the theories based
on Thorndike’s connectionism. Gutherie’s contagious conditioning and Werthimer’s
gestalt have gained popularity in the field of education. Here are the principles of
learning deduced from these learning theories.

1. Law of Effect
- The principle of law effect is called the law of satisfaction.
- According to this principle, when a modifiable connection between a
situation and response is made and is accompanied or followed by a
satisfying situation, the strength of the link with that situation increased.

- When the connection is made in such a way that it is accompanied or

followed by an annoying situation, its strength is decreased.

- To understand the terms “satisfying state” and annoying state”, let us take
an example of rhymes and poems learned by children in the classroom. You
might have noticed that the teacher accomplishes this task through action-
recitation. In fact, young children by their very nature like movements and
actions and whatever is taught by involving them in some kind of game or
action gives them pleasure or satisfaction. On the other hand, if they are
made to learn something after restricting their usual movements and
interests, their learning is delayed and hampered. This situation becomes
quite “annoying” to them.

2. Law of Intensity
- The satisfying situation gives pleasure to the learner and thus it rewards
him.
- Experiments have established that the greater the reward, the more it
facilitates learning.
- It points out to the fact that the more the reward, the stronger is the
motivation, and stronger the motivation, the faster and surer is the
learning.
- The time gap between the response and reward is an important factor in
determining the effect of reward on learning. The shorter time response
and reward, stronger is the learning.

3. Law of Practice
- If the things learned are repeated time and again, they gain permanence
in the learner’s memory.

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- If the learner does not make use of his learning, he forgets it in due course
of time.
- An application of this law is asking the learners to repeat the mathematical
tables again and again or to re-write misspelled words correctly, several
times.

4. Law of Readiness
- Without a will to learn, there cannot be true learning.
- The will to learn is, in fact, the preparedness or readiness of mind.
- It is also termed as “motivation”
- If a learner is forced to do a thing when he is not ready to do it, we cannot
expect good results from him.

MATURATION AND LEARNING

Maturation

- A natural process that does not need external stimulus and has biologically
predetermined sequence.
- A behavior is said to have matured if a behavior sequence develops through
regular stages (irrespective of intervening practices or training).

Learning

- A change in the individual and is not a result of inheritance. It is a process

which takes place as a result of “stimuli” from “without”.
- Activity, experience and training lead to changes in the behavior in the
process of learning.

Maturation is important for learning. Before we learn anything, our sensory, motor,
and nervous structure should attain a certain level of maturity.

a. During the early development period of the child, greater level of maturity brings
more efficient learning
b. Learning of complex skills requires a higher level of maturity

MODES OF LEARNING
1. Learning by Observation
- Perceiving or observing the stimulus using not only the eyes, but all the
sense organs.

2. Learning by Imitation
- An innate tendency to repeat the observed actions of others

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3. Learning by Trial and Error

- Making several attempts for a particular tasks or problem and find some
attempts rewarding.
- Based on Thorndike’s theory of connectionism. It implies that through
conditioning, specific responses are linked with specific stimuli. These
connections between stimuli and responses are formed through random
trial and error.

4. Learning by Insight
- The person reaches the solution by understanding the relation between
different aspects of the problematic situation
- Introduced by Gestalt psychologists. “Gestalt” means shape, form, or
configuration.
- Describes Kohler’s famous experiment of chimpanzee and bananas.

References:

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/learning-meaning-nature-types-and-principles/

https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/46909/1/Unit-9.pdf

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