Research

● A careful investigation for new facts in any branch of knowledge.

● Redman and Mory: Research is a systematic effort to gain knew knowledge.
○ New facts new knowledge
○ Systematic - in order or organized
○ gathering information in an organized matter.

Clifford Woody
● defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis/objectives
● collecting, organizing, and evaluating data
● making deductions and reaching conclusions
● testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating
hypothesis/objectives

Why do we research?
● Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits
● Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems
● Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work
● Desire to be of service to society
● Desire to get respectability
● Directives of government employment conditions etc.

Choose a subject
● Based on an idea
● based on your experience
● based on your reading
● Originality

The important features of a research design

● A plan
○ Specify the sources and types of information relevant to the research
problem.
● A strategy
○ Which approach will be used for gathering and analyzing the data
● The time and budgets
○ Most studies are done under these two constraints

Characteristics of Research
● Systemic - all steps must be interrelated one to another
● Logical - agreeing with the principles of logic - clear and based on sound reasoning
and evidence.
● Empirical - conclusions should be based on evidences/observations
 ● Objectivity - it must answer the research questions (unbiased/impartial)
● Replicable - reproducible - same procedure = same result
● Transmittable - allow others to understand
● Quality control - accurate measurements - rigorous standards
● All well designed and conducted research had potential application

Define Your objectives

● Try to keep these simple
● The more variables the more difficult
● Use the opportunity
● Get help at this stage
○ Senior colleagues
○ Experienced researchers

Literature search
● Check to see if your idea is original
● Get articles
● Read articles and their references
● Most of these will be vital when writing up reports
● Find gap areas
● Find obsolete measurements and results
● Define objectives of the study

Steps involved in a research…

● Data analysis and error compounding
● Hypothesis testing and verification
● Results and discussion
● Generalization, interpretation and drawing conclusions
● Preparation of the project report or writing thesis

Research article writing

● Find suitable/specified journals
● Get copy of Instructions to authors
● Prepare article as per instructions
● Select suitable titles
● Authors and affiliations
● Abstract
● Highlights
● Novelty statements
● Introduction
● Materials and methods
● Results and discussion
● Conclusions
● Acknowledgements
● References

Authorship/ethics
● All authors should directly involved in entire
 ● study
● Article is free from plagiarism
● Should follow ethics

A Research Report
A Research Report generally include:

● Introduction and Statement of problem

● Review of relevant literature
● Statement of hypothesis or research objectives
● Theoretical resume
● Description of research design
● Description Experimental design
● Description of measurement and data analysis
● Error compounding
● Presentation of Results
● Discussion
● Conclusion, limitations, and implications
● Suggestions for future work
● Acknowledgements
● References cited
● Appendices

Types of Research
1. Application - Pure and Applied Research
Applied - Finding solutions for immediate problems facing a society/industry
Pure - Concerned with generalization and formulation of a theory
1. Inquiry Mode - Quantitative and qualitative
Quantitative - Measurements of quantity or amount
Qualitative - Concerned with qualitative phenomena (reasons for human behavior)

Research Studies
Based on research objectives:
● Exploratory or Formulative research - To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to
achieve new insights into it
● Descriptive research - To study accurately the characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or a group-includes survey
● Diagnostic research - To determine the frequency with which something occurs or
with which it is associated with something else
● Hypothesis-testing research - To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship
between variables

"Science is not belief but the will to find out."

CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH
© Hanadi

Research can be classified based on:

• BASED ON PURPOSE
➡️BASIC/FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH - its purpose is to expand your knowledge without
immediate application. You can know and discover something, but there is no immediate
application. Simple examples include biology, chemistry, genetics, etc., which are all
products of basic research.

In Social Science, this type of research is explored in more of a psychological view. Simply
put, there are no interventions yet, but you want to know why it is happening.

➡️APPLIED RESEARCH - its purpose is to solve practical problems and improve human
conditions. Thinking that you have discovered something in basic or Fundamental Research,
you then develop a strategy in Applied Research. Here, you would like to know the benefit,
disadvantage or impact of a certain intervention, product, or strategy.

For example, you discover computers or cellphones, and you want to study whether these
phones actually activate the braincells of students and children within a certain community.

➡️ACTION RESEARCH - this is more on the education aspect, as its purpose is to solve
immediate aspects or problem through a cyclical process of planning, observing, and
reflecting.

For example, in Social Work, you implement a way of engaging the community with certain
strategies. Let's say this community is not compliant with the rules and regulations of LGUs,
so you try to resolve that through an engagement strategy, such as giving incentives.

• BASED ON APPROACH
➡️QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH - If you want to produce data based on numbers, quantify
data and generalize your results based from the sample of a population, this is the research
used. Some examples are surveys, experimental researches, etc. (this type of research
focuses on the "what, who, when")

➡️QUALITATIVE RESEARCH - if you want to describe a social phenomenon in a more in-

depth manner, this is the research used. This research is to understand the concept,
processes, thoughts, and experiences. This equates to words and descriptions as your data
rather than numbers. These words can be taken from verbal information (interviews) and
written (journals, newspaper, social media).

(this type of research focuses on the "why and how")

In Qualitative research, digging deeper is vital and the study must be extensive. Getting
information instantly is not enough, and if results are not satisfactory, you must go back to
delve further into the topic with follow-ups.

➡️MIXED METHOD RESEARCH - it is a combination of the quantitative and qualitative

data. Its purpose is to provide a more comprehensive understanding of a social
phenomenon. Your ultimate purpose to conduct this research is because you want to
triangulate your data.

Basically, you are not convinced with a survey and just the numbers. You mix information
from both the surveys and the interviews, and connect them with each other.

• BASED ON NATURE
➡️DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH - its purpose is to describe the characteristics of a certain
group or phenomenon.

For example, your viewing habits on the television: how many hours do you consume? You
get 10,000 respondents, and you notice that males and females (70% female, 30% male)
and various college students have different practices in social media usage.

Your big question here is: why is this so? are females more inclined to use social media than
men? are men just too busy? are certain students unable to use the web because they lack
the time? One must describe the phenomenon of the nature of these groups based on the
data gathered.

➡️EXPLANATORY RESEARCH - you would like to explain the reason behind a

phenomenon. This is because you would like to know the cause-and-effect relationship.

➡️EXPLORATORY RESEARCH - this research is more on exploring a new idea where little
is known. This is similar to a Qualitative Research.

• BASED ON TIMEFRAME
➡️CROSS-SECTIONAL RESEARCH - in this research, you want to analyze a data from a
certain point in time.

For example, you would like to know the age group that gets most affected by cancer. This
means you examine different groups, but you must only examine them once in a certain
point in time, or in one specific time only. And you cross-section the age level most affected
by cancer.

➡️LONGITUDINAL RESEARCH - in this research, you study the same subjects over a long
or extended period of time. This means that you focus on the same set of groups, and
through an extensive time, such as two years, you still focus on the same people.

For example, if you want to know if all students who study STEM achieve success in life
after several years, or if they have an easier time looking for employment and good career
options, you must study the same set of people for an extended time period in order to note
the results.

• BASED ON DATA SOURCE

➡️PRIMARY RESEARCH - you collect your data first-hand, or you could get the data from
the person who actually conducted the study. If you get information based on their records
only, not through interviews or surveys yourself, then that is secondary research. This
research's tools are interviews and surveys.

➡️SECONDARY RESEARCH - you try to analyze an already existing data (such as data
from DepEd, PSA, LGUs, etc.) This research's tools are data mining and existing
information.

• BASED ON LOGIC
➡️DEDUCTIVE RESEARCH - in this research, you want to test a theory by collecting data
or analyzing empirical data and evidence. Since there is already existing data, all you do is
test its effectiveness and concreteness.

➡️INDUCTIVE RESEARCH - in this research, you want to develop a theory based on

observed data. This means that there is no intervention or theory YET, and out of the
information you get, you create a theory of your own.

Levels of Measurement
The term measurement means assigning numbers or some other symbols to the
characteristics of certain objects. When numbers are used, the researcher must have a rule
for assigning a number to an observation in a way that provides an accurate description.

Why is level of measurement important?

● First, it helps you decide how to interpret the data from that variable
● Second, it helps you decide what statistical analysis is appropriate on the values that
were assigned.

Nominal scale
This is the lowest level of measurement. Here, numbers are assigned for the purpose of
identification of the objects. Any object which is assigned a higher number is in no way
superior to the one which is assigned a lower number.

Example:
● Are you married?
● (a) Yes (b) No

Ordinal scale
The next higher level of measurement. One of the limitations of the nominal scale
measurements is that we cannot say whether the assigned number to an object is higher or
lower than the one assigned to another option. The ordinal scale measurement takes care
of this limitation. An ordinal scale measurement tells whether an object has more or less of
characteristics than some other objects.

Example:
● rank the following attributes of choosing the best university
_______ Wide Campus
_______ Strategic Location
_______ Good Reputation
_______ Academic Standards
_______ Facilities

Interval Scale
The interval scale measurement is the next higher level of measurement. It takes care of the
limitation of the ordinal scale measurement where the difference between the score on the
ordinal scale does not have any meaningful interpretation. In the interval scale the difference
of the score on the scale has meaningful interpretation. It is assumed that the respondent is
able to answer the questions on a continuum scale.

Example:
1.0 - 1.5 EXCELLENT
1.6 - 2.0 VERY GOOD
2.1 - 2.5 GOOD
2.6 - 3.0 SATISFACTORY
3.1 - 3.5 POOR
3.6 - 4.0 VERY POOR

Ratio level variables

have all the characteristics of nominal, ordinal and interval variables, but also have a
meaningful zero point. So the zero point is real and not arbitrary, and a value of zero actually
means there is nothing.

Example:
70 POUNDS - 50 kilograms (WEIGHT)
30,000 per/month (INCOME)
45 Years Old (AGE)

Scale Basic Common Marketing Descriptive Inferential

Characterist Examples Examples
 ics

Nominal Categorical Brand Store types, Mode, Binomial

variables, no names, car brand nos. percentages test, chi-
quantitative model square
meaning

Ordinal No Team Social class, Median, Friedman

quantitative rankings, market percentile ANOVA,
meaning, quality position rank-order
have a ratings correlation
definite order

Interval Have Temperature Opinions, Standard Product-

quantitative (Fahrenheit) index, range, mean moment
meaning & attitudes
fixed order

Ratio Quantitative Weight, Income, Harmonic Coefficient of

meaning, length costs, sales, mean, variation
definite age geometric
mean

Research Methodology
● Systems of Methods

Method
● an orderly procedure for doing something

Types of Scientific Research

1. Categorized by Purpose
○ Basic Research
○ Applied Research
○ Evaluation Research
○ Research and Development (R&D)
○ Action Research
2. Categorized by Method
○ Quantitative
■ Descriptive Research
■ Correlational Research
■ Causal-comparative Research
■ Experimental Research
■ Single-subject Research
○ Qualitative
■ Narrative Research
■ Ethnographic Research
 3. Categorized by Time
○ Cross-sectional Research
○ Longitudinal Research

Descriptive Research
● Refers to research that provides an accurate description of characteristics of a
particular individual, situation, or group. It is also known as Statistical Research.
● In short descriptive research deals with everything that can be counted and studied,
which has an impact of the lives of the people it deals with

For example:
Finding the most frequent disease that affects the children of a town. The reader of the
research will know what to do to prevent that disease thus, more people will live a healthy
life.

Reliability vs Validity
Reliability Validity

What does it The extent to which the results can The extent to which the results
tell you? be produced when the research is really measure what they are
repeated under the same conditions. supposed to measure.

How is it By checking the consistency of By checking how well the results

assessed? results across different observers, correspond to established theories
and across parts of the test itself. and other measures of the same
concept.

How do they A reliable measurement is not A valid measurement is generally

relate? always valid: the results might be reliable: if a test produces accurate
reproducible, but they're not results, they should be
necessarily correct. reproducible.

Type of What does it assess? Example

Reliability

Test-retest The consistency of a measure A group of participants complete a

across time: do you get the questionnaire designed to measure
same results when you repeat personality traits. If they repeat the
the measurement? questionnaire days, weeks, or months
apart and give them the same answers,
this indicates high test-retest reliability.

Interrater The consistency of a measure Based on an assessment criteria checklist,

across raters or observers: do five examiners submit substantially
you get the same results different results for the same student
when different people conduct project. This indicates that the assessment
checklist has low inter-rater reliability (for
 the same measurement? example because the criteria are two
subjective)

Internal The consistency of the You design a questionnaire to measure

consistenc measurement itself: do you self-esteem. If you randomly split the
y get the same results from results into two halves, there should be a
different parts of a test that strong correlation between the two sets of
are designed to measure the results. If the two results are very different,
same thing? this indicates low internal consistency

Type of What does it assess? Example

Reliability

Construct The adherence of a A self-esteem questionnaire could be assessed by

measure to existing measuring other traits known assumed to be
theory and knowledge related to the concept of self-esteem (such as
of the concept being social skills and optimism). Strong correlation
measured. between the scores for self-esteem and associated
trade would indicate high construct validity.

Content The extent to which the A test that aims to measure a class of students'
measurement covers level of Spanish contains reading, writing, and
all aspects of the speaking components, but no listening component.
concept being Experts agree that using comprehension is an
measured. essential aspect of language ability, so the test
lacks content validity for measuring the overall
level of ability in Spanish.

Criterion The extent to which the A survey is conducted to measure the political
result of a measure opinions of voters in a region. If the results
corresponds to other accurately predict the later outcome of an election
valid measures of the in the region, this indicates that the survey has
same concept. high criterion validity.

Correlational Research

● Attempts to determine whether and to what degree, a relationship exists between two
or more quantifiable (numerical) variables.
● It is important to remember that if there is a significant relationship between two
variables it does not follow that one variable causes the other.
● Correlation does not mean causation
● When two variables are correlated you can use the relationship to predict the value
on one variable for a participant if you know the participants value on the other
variable.
 ● Correlation implies prediction but not causation. The investigator frequently reports
correlation coefficient, and the p-value to determine strength of the relationship.

Correlational Research Examples

○ Is there a relationship between family income and grade point average?
○ Is there a relationship between part time employment and grade point
average?
○ Is there a relationship between education and income?

Cross Sectional Design

● A cross-sectional is used for research that collects data on relevant variables one
time only from a variety of people, subjects, or phenomena.
● A cross-sectional design provides a snapshot of the variables included in the study,
at one particular point in time.
● Cross-sectional designs generally use service techniques to gather data, for
example, the U.S Census.

Longitudinal Design
● Longitudinal research design is used to collect data over an extended time period
(long time study).
● Its value is in its ability to demonstrate change over a period of time.
○ For example, a researcher is interested in the perception of nursing students
towards the nursing profession from the beginning of the nursing programme
to its end.
● In this example it is appropriate to use a longitudinal research design to study this
phenomenon.
● Longitudinal studies are generally classified into three types:
I. Trend Studies
II. Panel Studies
III. Follow-up Studies

Data Collection Methods in Descriptive Research

● Observational Method
○ Quantitative Observation
○ Qualitative Observation
● Case Study Method
● Survey Research
○ Online Surveys
○ Offline Surveys
Methods of Data Collection in Non-
Experimental Designs

Test
a test or examination is an educational assessment intended to measure a test-takers
knowledge, skill, aptitude, physical fitness, or classification in many other topics

What is testing?
A test is used to examine someone's knowledge of something to determine what the person
knows or has learned. It measures the level of skill or knowledge that has been reached. An
evaluative device or procedure in which a sample of an examinee's behavior in a specified
domain obtained and subsequently evaluated and scored using a standardized process.

Assessment
(?)

Assessment versus Testing: what's the difference?

Assessment and testing are often used interchangeably. A test is a "product" that means a
particular behavior or set of objectives. Meanwhile assessment is seen as a procedure
instead of a product. Assessment is used during and after the instruction has taken place.
After you've received the results of your assessment, you can interpret the results in case
you need to alter the instruction. Tests are done after the instruction has taken place, it's a
way to complete the instruction and get the results. The results of the tests don't have to be
interpreted unlike assessment.

Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions for the purpose
of gathering information from respondents. The questionnaire was invented by the Statistical
Society of London in 1838.

Questionnaires are usually paper-and-pencil instruments that the respondent completes.

When most people think of questionnaires, they think of the mail survey. All of us have, at
one time or another, received a questionnaire in the mail. There are many advantages to
mail surveys. They are relatively inexpensive to administer. You can send the exact same
instrument to a wide number of people. They allow the respondent to fill it out at their own
convenience. But there are some disadvantages as well. Response rates from mail surveys
are often very low. And, mail questionnaires are not the best vehicles for asking for detailed
written responses.

A second type is a group administered questionnaire. A sample of respondents is brought

together and asked to respond to a structured sequence of questions. Traditionally,
questionnaires were administered in group settings for convenience. The researchers could
give the questionnaire to those who were present and be fairly sure that there would be a
high response rate. If the respondents were unclear about the meaning of a question they
could ask for clarification. And, there were often organizational settings where it was
relatively easy to assemble the group in a company or business for instance).

Focus Group
is a research technique used to collect data through group interaction. The group comprises
a small number of carefully selected people who discuss a given topic. Focus groups are
used to identify and explore how people think and behave, and they throw light on why,
what and how questions.

Observation
is a systematic data collection approach. Researchers use all of their senses to examine
people in natural settings or naturally occurring situations. Observation of a field setting
involves: prolonged engagement in a setting or social situation.

What is an observation?
A way to gather data by watching people, events, or noting physical characteristics in their
natural setting. Observations can be overt (subjects know they are being observed) or covert
(do not know they are being watched).

Participant Observation
● Researcher becomes a participant in the culture or context being observed
● Requires researcher to be accepted as part of culture being observed in order
for success

Direct Observation
● Researchers strive to be as unobtrusive as possible so as not to bias the
observations; more detached.
● Technology can be useful (i.e video audio recording).

Indirect Observation
● Results of an interaction, process or behavior are observed (for example,
measuring the amount of plate waste left by students in the school cafeteria
to determine whether a new food is acceptable to them).

Experimental Research Designs

Experimental Research
● is a scientific approach to research, where one or more independent variables are
manipulated and applied to one or more dependent variables to measure their effect
on the latter. The effect of the IV on the DV is usually observed and recorded over
 some time, to aid researchers in drawing a reasonable conclusion regarding the
relationship between these 2 variable types.

Can You Recall?

Independent Variable Dependent Variable
Cause Effect
Variable of Influence Variable of Being Influenced

What Makes A Study Experimental?

To be considered an experimental design, the following must be present:
● An intervention or treatment. — something that should be manipulated (the
independent variable)
● Control for extraneous variable — various control techniques - having the control
group allows the researcher to compare and evaluate the performance of the
experimental group on the outcome (DV)
● Randomization — randomly assigns each participant to a group so that each person
has an equal chance of being in either group. - to avoid bias.

Note!!!
Do not confuse random assignment with random sampling! Random sampling produces a
sample. Specifically, random sampling (also called random selection) involves the selection
of units from a population by chance so that the sample selected is similar to population.
Random assignment starts with a sample, usually a convenience or purposive sample, and
then makes assignment to groups on the basis of chance to maximize the probability that the
groups generated will be similar.

Generally, experimental designs can be categorized into two:

● Weak Designs - they do not provide for maximum control of potentially confounding
variables.
● Strong Designs - they provide for the maximum control of confounding variables.
Weak Designs

One-Group Posttest-Only Design (also known as One-Shot Experimental Case study)

Group 1 Tx Ob
(experiment of
treatment)

Example: If a school system wanted to find out whether implementation of a new reading
program enhances students' desire to read.

One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design

Group 1 Obs Tx Obs

(measure DV) (experimental treatment administer IV) (measure DV

Pre-test Post - test

Consider a hypothetical study in which a teacher wants to test a new hypothetical program
for teaching reading to slow learners in the fifth grade.

Strong Designs

Pretest - Posttest Control Group Design

Random Group 1 Obs Tx Obs

Assignment
(experimental Pre-test DV) Administer IV Post-test
group) DV)
Group 2 Obs -- Obs
Non administration of
(control group) Pre-test DV) IV Post-test

For example, if you want to determine which one is most effective - if teaching with practice
(immersion) is better than teaching with lecture only - you would randomly assign
participants to two groups and then pretest each before administering the teaching strategy.

Weak Designs

Posttest-Only Design With Nonequivalent Groups (also known as Static Group

Comparison
 Group 1 Tx Obs
(administer w/ a
treatment)
Group 2 -- Obs
(no treatment)

Example: Using a software to take statistics course. The teacher who handles both class -
one introduce the software in teaching stat, the other one with the software. At the end of the
course, you would compare the two classes in terms of their statistics performance.

Strong Designs

Posttest - Only Control Group Design

Random Assignment Group 1 Tx Obs

(experimental group) Administer IV (measure DV)

Group 2 -- Obs

(control group) (measure DV)

Strong Designs

Factorial Designs
A factorial design is a strong experimental design in which two or more independent
variables, at least one of which is manipulated, are simultaneously studied to determine their
independent and interactive effects on the dependent variable.

Random Assignment Group 1 Tx1 Tx2 Obs

(exp) (test IV1) (test IV2) (measure DV)
Group 2 Tx1 --- Obs
(exp) (test IV1) (no test IV2) (measure DV)
Group 3 --- Tx2 Obs
(exp) (no test IV1) (test IV2) (measure DV)
Group 4 --- --- Obs
(exp) (no test IV1) (no test IV2) (measure DV)

If you are interested in investigating the effect of anxiety level and type of instruction on
mathematics performance, you are obviously investigating two independent variables.
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
A quasi-experimental research design is an experimental research design that does not
provide for full control of potential confounding variables. The primary reason why full control
is not achieved is that participants cannot be randomly assigned to groups.

Quasi-Experimental Designs

Nonequivalent Control Pretest/Posttest Group Design

Group 1 O1 Tx - Treatment O2
Experimental Group (Pretest) (Administer IV)
(posttest - measure DV)
Group 2 O1 --- O2
Control Group (pretest) (non-administration of IV)
(posttest - measure DV

A study would like to determine whether math pupils who participated in a tutorial
intervention would increase the performance in class more than those pupils without any
tutorial intervention.

Quasi-Experimental Designs
Interrupted time-series design
A design in which a treatment condition is assessed by comparing the pattern of pretest
responses with the pattern of posttest responses obtained from a single group of
participants.

Group 1 Obs Obs Tx Obs Obs

1st month 2nd month (administer 4th month 5th month
(exp) (test DV) (test DV) interventio
n) (treatment phase) (treatment
(baseline (baseline) phase)
phase)

The Basics of Experimental

Research in Communication
"Let's Do Something and See What Happens"
Objectives
At the end of this presentation' you should be able to:
● Define jargons in experimental designs;
● Identify three types of experiments done in communication research;
● Discuss the different types of experimental designs; and
● Explain threats to validity

Outline
1. The nature of experimental research
2. The different types of experimental designs
3. Threats to validity

Nature of Experimental Research

What is it?
(Shandish, Cook, & Campbell, 2002, pp. 1, 12; Treadwell, 2011 p. 142):
● From Latin word experimentum meaning “to try”
● A study in which an intervention is deliberately introduced to observe its effects
● The focus is on manipulating one variable to see what will happen to another variable
● Aim is to determine whether significant variables have a causal relationship to others

The Concept of Variables

(Treadwell, 2011):
● The aspects of a concept that are capable of being measured
● Independent variable (IV) – a variable whose changes in values result in changes in
another (dependent variable)
● Dependent variable (DV) – a variable whose values change as a result of changes
in another (independent variable)
● Confounding variable – a variable “woven” or highly related to an independent
variable that produced the effect on the DV

The Concept of Groups:

● Experimental group – the group composed of participants who are either randomly
selected or not, which will be exposed to treatment
● Control group – the group composed of participants who are either randomly
selected or not, which will not be exposed to treatment and will thus become the
basis (benchmark) to which the experimental group shall be compared with

Experiments in ComRes
(Baxter & Babbie, 2003, p.p. 205-206):
● Appropriate method to test hypothesis and establish cause-effect explanation than
descriptive purposes
● Three kinds
1. IV = Comm-related (e.g., fear appeal in message)
DV = non-comm-related (change in attitude/ behaviors)
1. IV = non-comm-related (e.g., task complexity)
DV = comm-related (e.g., conflict management style)
1. IV = Comm-related (e.g., truthfulness of talk)
 DV = comm-related (e.g., nonverbal involvement)
● Questions:
○ How does communication affect people’s attitudes, beliefs and behaviors?”;
○ How is communication affect by some phenomenon or factor?”;
○ How does some aspect of communication affect another aspect of
communication?

Establishing causation
(Treadwell, 2011, p.p. 143-144):
● Three assumptions
○ A must precede B: if B is caused by A, then A should not occur before B (e.g.,
change in behavior will never occur before the intervention)
○ A and B must vary together: if B did not change after the introduction of A,
then A will never be the cause of B
○ B must demonstrably be caused by A and not by something else (e.g., CV): B
should be clearly caused by A, and not by C (which happened to cause both
of them)

Types of Experiments
(Shandish, Cook, & Campbell, 2002, pp. 12-18):
● Randomized experiment – units are assigned to receive the treatment by a random
process i.e., participants are randomly assigned to experimental and control groups
● Quasi-experiment – units are not assigned to conditions randomly, i.e., researchers
decide which persons should get which treatment
● Natural experiment – treatments are not manipulable

Types of experimental designs

(Baxter & Babbie, 2003, pp. 209-223):
● Pre-experimental designs
○ One-shot case study
○ One-group pretest-posttest
○ Static group comparison
● Quasi-experimental designs
○ Time series
○ Non-equivalent control group
○ Multiple time series
● Randomized experimental designs
○ Pretest-Posttest Control group
○ Posttest-only control group
○ Solomon Four-group

Validity Threats
● Internal validity – the possibility that the conclusions drawn from experimental
results may not accurately reflect what ahs gone on in the experiment itself
● External validity – addresses the issue on generalizability; do they really tell us
anything about life about life in the wilds of society?
Threats to Internal Validity
● Experimenter effect – the researcher who knows the purpose of the research might
unintentionally or inadvertently influence the behavior of the participants
● Observer bias – researcher’s knowledge of the study’s purpose biases their
observations of the dependent variable in some way
● Hawthorne effect – participants’ responses are influenced by the fact that they are
aware they are being observed
● Testing effect – the process of measuring and re-measuring will influence people’s
behavior
● Experimental mortality – participants will drop out of the experiment before it’s
completed, which can affect the statistical results and conclusion
● History – results of experimental study could be the result of current events that take
place while the experiment is being conducted
● Instrumentation – instrument used to measure dependent variable in the first
measurement is changed in the second
● Compensation – participants in the control group try to compensate on their “loss”
by working harder

Threats to External Validity

● Setting – are these results applicable also in other setting?
● Selection – can it be generalized in other participants?
● History – will it be generalizable across time?
● Testing – can it be generalized in different testing conditions?

Assessment
● What constitutes an experimental study?
● What are the three types of experiments done in communication research?
● What are the different types of experimental designs?
● What are the different threats to validity, and why should researchers be wary about
them?

Sampling Methods
A sample is a smaller connection of units from a population used to determine truths about
that population (Field, 2005)

Why sample?
● Resources (time, money)
● Gives result with known accuracy that can be calculated mathematically

Probability Sampling
It uses randomization to make sure that every element of the population gets an equal
chance to be part of the selected sample.

Non-Probability Sampling
This technique is more reliant on the researchers ability to select elements for a sample.
Outcome of sampling might be biased and makes difficult for all elements of population to be
part of the sample equally.

Probability Sampling
● Simple Random Sampling
● Stratified Sampling
● Systematic Sampling
● Cluster Sampling
● Multi stage Sampling

Simple Random Sampling

Ever element has an equal chance of getting selected to be part of the sample.

Stratified Sampling
This technique divides the element of the population into small subgroups (strata)
based on the similarity in such a way that the elements within the group are
homogenous and heterogeneous among other subgroups formed and each of the
elements are randomly selected from each of these strata.

Systematic Sampling
Elements of a sample are chosen at regular intervals of population. All elements are
put together in a sequence first where each element has an equal chance of being
selected.

Cluster Sampling
The entire population is divided into clusters or sections and then the cluster are
randomly selected. All of the elements from the cluster are used for sampling.

Multi stage Sampling

Population is divided into multiple clusters and these clusters are further divided and
grouped into various sub groups (strata) based on similarity. One or more clusters can
be randomly selected from each stratum. This process continues until the cluster can’t
be divided anymore

Non-Probability Sampling
● Convenience Sampling
● Purposive Sampling
● Quota Sampling
● Referral/Snowball Sampling

Convenience Sampling
The samples are based on the availability. This sample is used when availability of
sample is rare and also costly.
Purposive Sampling
This is based on the intention or the purpose of the study. Only those elements will be
selected from the population which suits the best for the purpose of our study.

Quota Sampling
This type of sampling depends on some pre-set standard. It selects the representative
sample from the population. Proportion of the characteristics/traits in the sample
should be the same as the population. Elements are selected until exact proportions of
certain types of data are obtained or sufficient data in different categories are selected.

Referral/Snowball Sampling
This technique is used in situations where the population is completely unknown and
rare. It will take the help from the first element which we select for the population and
ask him to recommend other elements who will fit the description of the sample
needed.

Methods for Research and Evidence

Based Practice
Purpose of Sampling
● Sampling is the process of selecting a representative part of a population for the
purpose of determining characteristics of the whole population
● The purpose of sampling is to be able to draw conclusions about populations from
smaller samples
● Findings from the sample are generalized back to the population that the sample was
originally selected from

Sampling Terms
● Population - a group of individuals from which samples are taken
○ Target Population – population of interest,
■ ie, Category 5 Hurricane Victims
○ Accessible Population – population you have access to,
■ ie, Hurricane Katrina Victims
● Sample – a part of a population whose properties are studied to gain information
about the whole (Webster, 1985)
○ ▪ ie, Hurricane Katrina Victims who agree to participate in your study

● Researchers must use samples because it is not feasible to study all members of a
population

Sample Bias/Error
● A sample is expected to mirror the population from which it comes
○ When it does, you have external validity – the ability to generalize findings
○ There is no guarantee that any sample will be precisely representative of the
population
● Unrepresentative samples are caused by making sampling errors
 ● Sampling error occur because of:
○ One, chance – just bad luck.
■ The main protection against this kind of error is to use a large enough
sample.
○ Two, sampling bias – design flaw.
■ The main protection against this is a good sampling plan (probability
sampling)

Types of Quantitative Samples

Probability Non-Probability
○ Simple random ○ Convenience
sampling sampling
○ Stratified random ○ Snowball sampling
sampling ○ Quota sampling
○ Cluster random ○ Purposive sampling
sampling
○ Systematic random
sampling

● Involves Random Selection

○ Everyone in the
population has an
equal chance of
getting into the
sample.
○ DO NOT confuse
random sampling
with random
assignment.

Determining Sample Size

● Before deciding how large a sample should be, you have to define your study
population.
○ For example, victims of Hurricane Katrina
 ● Then determine your sampling frame
○ a list of all the residents in New Orleans
● Power Analysis is a procedure that is performed to tell you how many from this list
you need to include in your study to achieve valid results

Check Your Understanding

What type of sampling technique does this describe:

1. A researcher recruits 60 participants from a clinic population. The researcher then

randomly assigns the participants into the intervention and control group.

Answer:
Convenience sampling (non probability)
● this is when the most convenient participants are chosen from a population
for observation
● The researcher does not randomly select the sample
● Do not be confused by what the researcher does after s/he recruits the
participants – assignment to groups

2. A researcher has a list of 100 patients. She/He wants a sample of 25 people. She/He
randomly selects a starting point and takes every 4th person on a patient list

Answer:
Systematic (probability) - Simple Random
● each person in the population has an equal chance of being selected
● The researcher calculated a sampling interval and has a random starting
point.
● A simple random sample is free from sampling bias

3. A researcher divides her sampling frame into BNS, MS, and PhD students. She
wants to have equal amount of each level of education.

Answer:
Quota (non probability)
● taking a tailored sample that’s in proportion to some characteristic or trait of a
population
● The researcher does not randomly select the sample
● The researcher divides the list into strata and then takes equal amounts from
each stratum.

4. A researcher randomly selects a state in the United States, then randomly selects a
county in the state, and then randomly selects a census tract in the county to study
low income families.
 Answer:
Cluster (probability)
● making multiple random selections
● A cluster sample is obtained by selecting clusters from the population on the
basis of simple random sampling.
● The researcher randomly selected the sample
● Cluster sampling is susceptible to sampling bias

Choosing a Research Topic for Social

Work: A Comprehensive Guide
Choosing a research topic in social work is a critical step that sets the stage for a meaningful
and impactful study. Given the breadth and complexity of social issues, selecting a focused,
relevant, and feasible topic requires careful consideration. Below is a detailed discussion of
the process involved in choosing a research topic for social work.

1. Identify Personal and Professional Interests

Start by reflecting on your personal interests and professional experiences. Social work
covers a wide array of areas such as child welfare, mental health, substance abuse,
community development, and social policy. Selecting a topic that resonates with your
passion and aligns with your career goals can provide motivation throughout the research
process.

2. Review Existing Literature

Conduct a thorough review of existing literature to understand the current state of research
in your area of interest. This helps identify gaps in knowledge debates, and emerging trends.
Academic journals, books, and reputable online sources are valuable resources for this
purpose.

3. Consider Relevance and Impact

Choose a topic that addresses pressing social issues and has the potential to make a
significant impact. Consider the relevance of the topic to current social work practice, policy,
and the communities you aim to serve. Topics with high societal relevance are more likely to
attract funding and support.

4. Narrow Down the Scope

Ensure that your research topic is specific and manageable. A broad topic can be
overwhelming and difficult to address comprehensively within the constraints of your study.
Narrowing down the scope allows for a more focused and in-depth investigation.

5. Assess Feasibility
Evaluate the feasibility of your research topic by considering available resources, time
constraints, and access to data. Ensure you hage the necessary skills, support, and
resources to carry out the research successfully.

6. Ethical Considerations
Social work research often involves vulnerable populations, making ethical considerations
paramount. Ensure your research topic adheres to ethical guidelines, including informed
consent, confidentiality, and minimizing harm to participants.

7. Consult with Mentors and Peers

Seek advice from mentors, colleagues, and peers. They can provide valuable feedback,
suggest resources, and help refine your research question. Collaboration and discussion
with experienced researchers can enhance the quality and feasibility of your study.

Sampling Methods
What is research?

“Scientific research is systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of natural

phenomena guided by theory and hypotheses about the presumed relations among such
phenomena.”
● Kerlinger, 1986

Research is an organized and systematic way of finding answers to questions

Important Components of Empirical Research

● Problem statement, research questions, purposes, benefits
● Theory, assumptions, background literature
● Variables and hypotheses
● Operational definitions and measurement
● Research design and methodology
● Instrumentation, sampling
● Data analysis
● Conclusions, interpretations, recommendations

SAMPLING

A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully representative) collection of units from a

population used to determine truths about that population” (Field, 2005)

Why sample?
● Resources (time, money) and workload
● Gives results with known accuracy that can be calculated mathematically
The sampling frame is the list from which the potential respondents are drawn
● Registrar’s office
● Class rosters
● Must assess sampling frame errors

3 factors that influence sample representative-ness

● Sampling procedure
● Sample size
● Participation (response)

When might you sample the entire population?

● When your population is very small
● When you have extensive resources
● When you don’t expect a very high response

Types of Samples

Probability (Random) Samples

● Simple random sample
● Systematic random sample
● Stratified random sample
● Multistage sample
● Multiphase sample
● Cluster sample

Non-Probability Samples
● Convenience sample
● Purposive sample
● Quota

Process
The sampling process comprises several stages:
● Defining the population of concern
● Specifying a sampling frame. Specifying a sampling frame, a set of items or events
possible to measure
● Specifying a sampling method for selecting items or events from the frame
● Determining the sample size
● Implementing the sampling plan
● Sampling and data collecting
● Reviewing the sampling process
Population Definition
● A population can be defined as including all people or items with the characteristic
one wishes to understand.
● Because there is very rarely enough time or money to gather information from
everyone or everything in a population, the goal becomes finding a representative
sample (or subset) of that population.
● Note also that the population from which the sample is drawn may not be the same
as the population about which we actually want information. Often there is large but
not complete overlap between these two groups due to frame issues etc.
● Sometimes they may be entirely separate - for instance, we might study rats in order
to get a better understanding of human health, or we might study records from
people born in 2008 in order to make predictions about people born in 2009.

SAMPLING FRAME

● In the most straightforward case, such as the sentencing of a batch of material from
production (acceptance sampling by lots), it is possible to identify and measure every
single item in the population and to include any one of them in our sample. However,
in the more general case this is not possible. There is no way to identify all rats in the
set of all rats. Where voting is not compulsory, there is no way to identify which
people will actually vote at a forthcoming election (in advance of the election)
● As a remedy, we seek a sampling frame which has the property that we can identify
every single element and include any in our sample .
● The sampling frame must be representative of the population

PROBABILITY SAMPLING

A probability sampling scheme is one in which every unit in the population has a chance
(greater than zero) of being selected in the sample, and this probability can be accurately
determined.

When every element in the population does have the same probability of selection, this is
known as an 'equal probability of selection' (EPS) design. Such designs are also referred to
as 'self-weighting' because all sampled units are given the same weight.

Probability Sampling includes:

● Simple Random Sampling
● Systematic Sampling
● Stratified Random Sampling
● Cluster Sampling
● Multistage Sampling
● Multiphase sampling
NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Any sampling method where some elements of population have no chance of selection
(these are sometimes referred to as 'out of coverage'/'undercovered'), or
where the probability of selection can't be accurately determined. It involves the selection of
elements based on assumptions regarding the population of interest, which forms the criteria
for selection. Hence, because the selection of elements is nonrandom, nonprobability
sampling does not allow the estimation of sampling errors..

Example: We visit every household in a given street, and interview the first person to
answer the door. In any household with more than one occupant, this is a non
probability sample, because some people are more likely to answer the door (e.g. an
unemployed person who spends most of their time at home is more likely to answer
than an employed housemate who might be at work when the interviewer calls) and it's
not practical to calculate these probabilities.

Nonprobability Sampling includes:

● Accidental Sampling
● Quota Sampling
● Purposive Sampling

In addition, nonresponse effects may turn any probability design into a

nonprobability design if the characteristics of nonresponse are not well understood, since
nonresponse effectively modifies each element's probability of being sampled.

SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

● Applicable when population is small, homogeneous & readily available
● All subsets of the frame are given an equal probability. Each element of the frame
thus has an equal probability of selection.
● It provides for the greatest number of possible samples. This is done by assigning a
number to each unit in the sampling frame.
● A table of random numbers or lottery system is used to determine which units are to
be selected.
● Estimates are easy to calculate.
● Simple random sampling is always an EPS design, but not all EPS designs are
simple random sampling.

Disadvantages
● If the sampling frame is large, this method is impracticable.
● Minority subgroups of interest in the population may not be present in sample in
sufficient numbers for study.
Sampling schemes may be without replacement ('WOR' - no element can be selected more
than once in the same sample) or with replacement ('WR' - an
element may appear multiple times in the one sample).

For example, if we catch fish, measure them, and immediately return them to the water
before continuing with the sample, this is a WR design, because we might end up catching
and measuring the same fish more than once. However, if we do not return the fish to the
water (e.g. if we eat the fish), this becomes a WOR design.

SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING

Systematic sampling relies on arranging the target population according to some ordering
scheme and then selecting elements at regular intervals through that
ordered list.

● Systematic sampling involves a random start and then proceeds with the selection of
every kth element from then onwards. In this case, k=(population size/sample size).
● It is important that the starting point is not automatically the first in the list, but is
instead randomly chosen from within the first to the kth element in the list.
● A simple example would be to select every 10th name from the telephone directory
(an 'every 10th' sample, also referred to as 'sampling with a skip of 10').

As described above, systematic sampling is an EPS method, because all elements have the
same probability of selection (in the example given, one in ten). It is not 'simple random
sampling' because different subsets of the same size have different selection probabilities -
e.g. the set {4,14,24,...,994} has a one-in-ten probability of selection, but the set
{4,13,24,34,...} has zero probability of selection.

ADVANTAGES:
● Sample easy to select
● Suitable sampling frame can be identified easily
● Sample evenly spread over entire reference population

DISADVANTAGES:
● Sample may be biased if hidden periodicity in population coincides with that of
selection.
● Difficult to assess precision of estimate from one survey.

STRATIFIED SAMPLING

Where the population embraces a number of distinct categories, the frame can be organized
into separate "strata." Each stratum is then sampled as an independent sub-population, out
of which individual elements can be randomly selected.
 ● Every unit in a stratum has the same chance of being selected.
● Using the same sampling fraction for all strata ensures proportionate representation
in the sample.
● Adequate representation of minority subgroups of interest can be ensured by
stratification & varying sampling fraction between strata as required.
● Finally, since each stratum is treated as an independent population, different
sampling approaches can be applied to different strata.

Drawbacks to using stratified sampling.

● First, the sampling frame of the entire population has to be prepared separately for
each stratum.
● Second, when examining multiple criteria, stratifying variables may be related to
some, but not to others, further complicating the design, and potentially reducing the
utility of the strata.
● Finally, in some cases (such as designs with a large number of strata, or those with a
specified minimum sample size per group), stratified sampling can potentially require
a larger sample than would other methods

POSTSTRATIFICATION

Stratification is sometimes introduced after the sampling phase in a process called

"poststratification“.

This approach is typically implemented due to a lack of prior knowledge of an appropriate

stratifying variable or when the experimenter lacks the necessary information to create a
stratifying variable during the sampling phase. Although the method is susceptible to the
pitfalls of post hoc approaches, it can provide several benefits in the right situation.
Implementation usually follows a simple random sample. In addition to allowing for
stratification on an ancillary variable, poststratification can be used to implement weighting,
which can improve the precision of a sample's estimates.

CLUSTER SAMPLING
● Cluster sampling is an example of 'two-stage sampling'.
● First stage a sample of areas is chosen;
● Second stage a sample of respondents within those areas is selected.
● Population divided into clusters of homogeneous units, usually based on
geographical contiguity.
● Sampling units are groups rather than individuals.
● A sample of such clusters is then selected.
● All units from the selected clusters are studied.

Advantages:
● Cuts down on the cost of preparing a sampling frame.
● This can reduce travel and other administrative costs.
Disadvantages:
● Sampling error is higher for a simple random sample of the same size.
● Often used to evaluate vaccination coverage in EPI

Identification of clusters

● List all cities, towns, villages & wards of cities with their population falling in the target
area under study.
● Calculate cumulative population & divide by 30, this gives a sampling interval.
● Select a random no. less than or equal to sampling interval having same no. of digits.
This forms the 1st cluster.
● Random no.+ sampling interval = population of 2nd cluster.
● Second cluster + sampling interval = 4th cluster.
● Last or 30th cluster = 29th cluster + sampling interval

Two types of cluster sampling methods.

One-stage sampling. All of the elements within selected clusters are included in the
sample.
Two-stage sampling. A subset of elements within selected clusters are randomly selected
for inclusion in the sample.

Difference Between Strata and Clusters

● Although strata and clusters are both non-overlapping subsets of the population, they
differ in several ways.
● All strata are represented in the sample; but only a subset of clusters are in the
sample.
● With stratified sampling, the best survey results occur when elements within strata
are internally homogeneous With stratified sampling, the best survey results occur
when elements within strata are internally homogeneous. However, with cluster
sampling, the best results occur when elements within clusters are internally
heterogeneous

MULTISTAGE SAMPLING
● Complex form of cluster sampling in which two or more levels of
● units are embedded one in the other.
● First stage, random number of districts chosen in all states.
● Followed by a random number of talukas, villages.
● Then third stage units will be houses.
● All ultimate units (houses, for instance) selected at the last step are surveyed.

● This technique is essentially the process of taking random samples of preceding

random samples.
 ● Not as effective as true random sampling, but probably solves more of the problems
inherent to random sampling.
● An effective strategy because it banks on multiple randomizations. As such,
extremely useful.
● Multistage sampling is used frequently when a complete list of all members of the
population does not exist and is inappropriate.
● Moreover, by avoiding the use of all sample units in all selected clusters, multistage
sampling avoids the large, and perhaps unnecessary, costs associated with
traditional cluster sampling.

MATCHED RANDOM SAMPLING

A method of assigning participants to groups in which pairs of participants are first matched
on some characteristic and then individually assigned randomly to
groups.

● The Procedure for Matched random sampling can be briefed with the following
contexts,
● Two samples in which the members are clearly paired, or are matched explicitly by
the researcher. For example, IQ measurements or pairs of identical twins.
● Those samples in which the same attribute, or variable, is measured twice on each
subject, under different circumstances. Commonly called repeated measures.
● Examples include the times of a group of athletes for 1500m before and after a week
of special training; the milk yields of cows before and after being fed a particular diet.

QUOTA SAMPLING

● The population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-groups, just as in

stratified sampling.
● Then judgment is used to select subjects or units from each segment based on a
specified proportion.
○ For example, an interviewer may be told to sample 200 females and 300
males between the age of 45 and 60.
● It is this second step which makes the technique one of non-probability sampling.
● In quota sampling the selection of the sample is non-random.
● For example interviewers might be tempted to interview those who look most helpful.
The problem is that these samples may be biased because not everyone gets a
chance of selection. This random element is its greatest weakness and quota versus
probability has been a matter of controversy for many years

CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
 ● Sometimes known as grab or opportunity sampling or accidental or haphazard
sampling.
● A type of nonprobability sampling which involves the sample being drawn from that
part of the population which is close to hand. That is, readily available and
convenient.
● The researcher using such a sample cannot scientifically make generalizations about
the total population from this sample because it would not be representative enough.
○ For example, if the interviewer was to conduct a survey at a shopping center
early in the morning on a given day, the people that he/she could interview
would be limited to those given there at that given time, which would not
represent the views of other members of society in such an area, if the survey
was to be conducted at different times of day and several times per week.
● This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing.
● In social science research, snowball sampling is a similar technique, where existing
study subjects are used to recruit more subjects into the sample.

Judgmental Sampling or Purposive Sampling

The researcher chooses the sample based on who they think would be appropriate for the
study. This is used primarily when there is a limited number of people that have expertise in
the area being researched.