UNIT-2

COURSE CODE : 18ET62

TITLE: Antenna & Propagation

Presentation by
Dr.Shanthi P,
Assoc. Prof.
Dept of ETE
 Introduction to Aperture Antennas
• Aperture antennas are most common at microwave
frequencies.
• In general aperture means opening. Aperture in antenna,
means opening in a closed surface.
• There are different geometrical configurations of an aperture
antenna shown in Fig. 1.
• They may take the form of a waveguide or a horn whose
aperture may be square, rectangular, circular, elliptical, or any
other configuration.

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Aperture Antenna Configuration

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• Aperture antennas are very practical for space
applications, because flush mounted on the surface of the
spacecraft or aircraft.
• Their opening can be covered with a dielectric material to protect
them from environmental conditions.
• This type of mounting does not disturb the
aerodynamic profile of the craft for high-speed critical
applications .
• The radiation characteristics of wire antennas can be
determined once the current distribution on the wire known.
• For many configurations, current distribution is not

known exactly & only physical experimental

measurements can provide a reasonable
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approximation.
• This is even more evident in aperture antennas.
• Analysis of aperture type antennas is the conversion of original
antenna geometry into an equivalent geometry which can be
looked at as radiation through an aperture in a closed surface.
• This equivalence is obtained by the principle known as field
equivalence principle.
• Along with this principle, the duality, uniqueness theorem
and image principles are also useful in the aperture type antenna
analysis.

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HORN ANTENNA
 Introduction to Horn Antenna
• One of the simplest and probably the most widely used microwave
antenna is the horn.
• The horn is widely used as a feed element for large radio
astronomy, communication dishes and satellite tracking through out
the world.
• The horn antenna can be considered as a waveguide with hollow
pipe of different cross-sections which is flared or tapered into a large
opening.
• When one end of the waveguide is excited while other end is kept
open, it radiates in open space in all directions.

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• As compared with the radiation through transmission line, the
radiation through the waveguide is larger.
• In waveguide, a small portion of the incident wave is radiated and
large portion is reflected back due to the open circuit.
• As one end of the waveguide is open circuited, the impedance
matching with the free space is not perfect.
• To minimize reflections of the guided wave , the mouth of the
waveguide is flared or opened out such that it assumes shape like
horn.
• A horn antenna is nothing but a flared out or opened out waveguide.
The main function of the horn antenna is to produce an uniform
phase front with an aperture larger than waveguide to give higher
directivity.
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 Types of Horn Antennas
• Basically the horn antennas are classified as rectangular horn antennas
and circular horn antennas.
• The rectangular horn antennas are fed with rectangular waveguide,
while the circular horn antennas are fed with circular waveguide.
• Depending upon the direction of flaring, the rectangular
horns are further classified as Sectoral horn and Pyramidal horn.
• A sectoral horn is obtained if the flaring (tapering) is done in one
direction only. A sectoral horn is further classified as E-plane
sectoral horn and H-plane sectoral horn.

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• The E-plane sectorial horn is obtained when the flaring is done in the
direction of the electric field vector. The H-plane sectorial horn is
obtained if the flaring is done in the direction of the magnetic field
vector.
• When the flaring is done along both the walls of the rectangular
waveguide in the direction of both the electric and magnetic field
vectors, the horn obtained is called pyramidal horn.
• Similar to the rectangular horns, the circular horn antennas can
be obtained by flaring the walls of the circular waveguide. The
circular horn antennas are of two types namely conical horn antenna
and biconical horn antenna

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• Many times, the transition region between the throat of the
waveguide and the aperture is tapered with a gradual exponential
taper. This minimizes the reflections of the guided waves. Such
horns are called exponentially tapered horn antennas.
• Fig. 2-14 shows the horn antennas such as the E-plane sectoral horn,
H-plane sectoral horn, pyramidal horn and conical horn.
• When the aperture size is large compared to the wavelength
the wave impedance approaches the free space impedance. Thus, a
pyramidal horn provides a slow transition from the waveguide
impedance to the free space impedance, provided that the length of
the transition is large compared to the wavelength 65

.
Typical Horn Antennas

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Design of Horn Antenna

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68
• The directivity of maximum value can be obtained at the largest flare
angle for which the value 𝛿𝛿 does not exceed typical value such as
0.25 𝜆𝜆 for E- plane sectora horn, 0.22 𝜆𝜆 for conical horn and 0.40
𝜆𝜆 for H-plane sectoral horn.
• The directivity of the pyramidal horn and conical horn is highest as
compared to other types of the horns because they have more
than one flare angle.
• One more advantage of the horn antenna is that it can be operated
over a wide range of high frequency as there is no resonant
element in the antenna.

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 Applications of Horn Antenna
– It is used as a feed element in antennas such as parabolic
reflectors
– It is the most wide used antenna for measurement of various
antenna parameters in the laboratories.
– It is most suitable antenna for various application in
microwave frequency range where moderate gains are
sufficient.

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 Topic 7

Reflector Antennas – Plane

Reflector, Corner Reflector,
Parabolic Reflector

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 Introduction to Reflector Antennas
• The reflector antennas are most important in
microwave radiation applications. At microwave frequencies
the physical size of the high gain antenna becomes so small that
practically any suitable shaped reflector can produce desired
directivity.
• In reflector antenna, another antenna is required to excite it.
Hence the antenna such as dipole, horn, slot which excites the
reflector antenna is called primary antenna, while the reflector
antenna is called secondary antenna.
• In general, reflector antenna can be represented in any geometrical
configuration, but the most commonly used shapes are plane
reflector, corner reflector and curved or parabolic reflectors

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 Introduction to Reflector Antennas 2
• Using reflectors, the radiation pattern of a radiating
antenna can be modified.
• By using a large, metallic plane sheet as a reflector, the
backward radiations from the antenna can be
eliminated thus improving radiation pattern of an
antenna.
• Thus for an antenna, desired radiation characteristics can be
produced with the help of a large, suitably illuminated and
suitably sized and shaped reflector surface.
• Some of the common reflectors are plane reflector, corner
reflector and curved reflector.

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 Type 3 / Parabolic Reflector
• To improve the overall radiation characteristics of the reflector antenna,
the parabolic structure used.
• A parabola is a locus of a point which moves in such a way that the
distance of the point from fixed point called focus plus the distance
from the straight line called directrix is constant shown in Fig. 2-18.
• By definition ; 𝐹𝐹𝑀𝑀 + 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀′ = 𝐹𝐹𝑁𝑁 + 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁′ = 𝐹𝐹𝑃𝑃 + 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃′ =
𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑡𝑡 ;
• When the point source is placed at the focal point, then the rays
reflected by the parabolic reflector form parallel wave front as shown in
Fig. 2-18 (b).
• This principle is used in the transmitting antenna.

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Parabolic Reflector

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 Working of Parabolic Reflector
• When the beam of parallel rays incident on a parabolic reflector,
then the radiations focus at a focal point shown in Fig. C.
This principle is used in the receiving antenna.
• Consider a parabolic reflector shown in Fig.a When point source
is kept at the focal point of the parabola, the radiations
striking the reflector are reflected parallel to the axis of
parabola irrespective of the striking angle.
• That means the rays reflected by the parabolic reflector travel
same distance to reach near the mouth of the reflector.

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• The open end of the parabolic reflector is called aperture.
• The time taken by the reflected rays to travel a distance up to the
directrix of the parabola is same. That means all the reflected rays
are in phase.
• Thus the wave front at the aperture of the parabolic reflector is
uniform phase front & very strong and concentrated beam
obtained along the axis.
• Thus parabolic reflector is the most effective microwave antenna
which produces concentrated radiation beam along the axis of
parabola.
• The power gain of the paraboloid is a function of ratio between
diameter of aperture
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 Topic 8

Reflector Antennas – Paraboloidal

Reflector or Paraboloid or Microwave
Dish Antenna

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 Introduction to Paraboloidal Reflector
• The parabolic reflector is a two dimensional structure. In practical
applications, a three dimensional structure of the parabolic reflector is
used.
• The three dimensional structure of the parabolic reflector can be
obtained by rotating the parabola around its axis and it is called
paraboloid.
• The paraboloid is as shown in Fig. 1 (a). The radiation pattern of the
paraboloid is as shown in Fig. 1 (b). As the mouth of the paraboloid is
circular in shape, the parallel, beam produced are of the circular cross-
section.
• The radiation pattern consists very sharp major lobe and smaller minor
lobes.

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Fig 1 / Paraboloid with Pyramidal Horn as Feed

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 Power Gain of Paraboloid
• Consider that the power gain of the paraboloid, with
circular mouth or aperture, with respect to half wave
dipole is given by,

• Here 𝐴𝐴0 is the capture area which is less than the actual
area 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 of the mouth and it is given by,

• where 𝑘𝑘 = constant dependent on feed antenna used. It is

0.65 for dipole.
• The actual area of circular aperture with diameter 𝑑𝑑 is
given by

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 Power Gain of Paraboloid 2
• Hence the power gain given by –

• From the above equation the power gain of the paraboloid depends on
the ratio or diameter 𝑑𝑑 of the circular aperture to the wavelength in
free space. The ratio 𝑑𝑑/𝜆𝜆 is called aperture ratio of the paraboloid.
• Hence the effective radiated power (ERP) is the product of the input
power fed and the power gain 𝐺𝐺.
• With small diameter of the paraboloid, the gain of the paraboloid is
extremely large when 𝜆𝜆 is small in microwave frequency range.
• For lower frequencies, 𝜆𝜆 is large, the diameter of the circular aperture
becomes too large – hence use of parabolic reflectors are avoided at lower
frequency

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 Topic 9

Feed Structures for Paraboloidal

Reflector (Reflector Antennas)

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 Introduction to Feed Systems
• A parabolic reflector antenna system consists of two basic parts - a
source of radiation focus and a reflector. The source placed at the
focus is called primary radiator, while the reflector is called secondary
radiator. The primary radiator is commonly called feed radiator or simply
feed.
• In case of a parabolic reflector a feed radiates entire energy towards the
reflector illuminating the entire surface of reflector & no energy
radiated in any unwanted direction.
• Practically there are number of possible feeds to the parabolic
reflector antenna. The secondary radiator used is most of the times a
paraboloid.

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 General Feed Systems-Dipole feed
• Case 1 : The simplest type of feed used is a dipole antenna. But it is
not a suitable feed for the parabolic reflector antenna. Instead of
only dipole, a feed consisting dipole with parasitic reflectors can be
used as a feed system.
• In such cases, the spacing between the dipole as a driven element
and the parasitic reflector is 0.125 𝜆𝜆 . In some cases a dipole along
with a plane reflector spaced 0.4 𝜆𝜆 apart from the dipole is used. It is
shown in Fig. 1 (a).
• Case 2: An end fire array of dipoles is used as feed radiator as shown in
Fig. 1 (b). The dipoles are spaced in such a way that the end fire pattern
of an array illuminates reflector.

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 General Feed Systems 2- Horn feed
• Case 3 : The most widely used feed system in the parabolic reflector
antenna is horn antenna as shown in Fig. 1 (c). The horn antenna is fed
with a waveguide. If circular polarization is required, then in place of a
rectangular horn, a conical horn or helix antenna is used at the focus.
• In all three cases, the feed is placed at the focus to obtain maximum beam
pattern. If the feed is moved along a line perpendicular to the main axis
then beam deteriorates. But if the feed is moved along the main axis, then
the beam gets broadened.
• Hence focus is the important point on the main axis at which the feed is
placed to obtain maximized beam pattern.

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Fig 1 / General Feed Systems

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 Case 4 - Cassegrain Feed
• This system of feeding paraboloid reflector named after a mathematician
Prof. Cassegrain. In all the feed systems, the feed is located at the focus.

• But in Cassegrain feed system, the feed radiator is placed at the vertex of
the parabolic reflector instead of placing it at the focus.

• This system uses a hyperboloid reflector, such that its one of the foci
coincides with the focus of the parabolic reflector. This hyperboloid
reflector is called Cassegrain secondary reflector.

• The primary radiator or feed radiator used is generally a horn antenna.

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 Cassegrain Feed
 The radiation emitted from primary feed radiator reach sub-
reflector. The sub reflector reflects and illuminates the main
parabolic reflector. The main reflector reflects the rays parallel to
the axis. The geometry of the Cassegrain feed system is as shown
in Fig. 2.

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 Advantages & Disadvantages of Cassegrain Feed
• It reduces the spill over & minor lobe radiations.
• Focal length greater than the physical focal length achieved.
• Ability to place a feed at convenient place.
• Beam can be broadened by adjusting one of the reflector surfaces.
• Some of the radiation from the parabolic reflector obstructed or
blocked by the hyperboloid reflector creating region of blocked rays. It is
called aperture blockage.
• For small dimension parabolic reflector it is the main drawback of the
Cassegrain feed system.

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 Case 5 – Offset Feed System
 To overcome the aperture blocking effect due to the dependence of
the secondary reflector dimensions on the distance between feed and sub-
reflector, the offset feed system as shown in Fig. 3 is used.
 Here feed radiator is placed at the focus.
 With this system all the rays are properly collimated without formation of the
region of blocked rays.

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Microstrip Patch Antennas

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 Introduction to Microstrip Patch Antenna
 Microstrip patch antenna consists of a radiating patch on one side of a
dielectric substrate which has a ground plane on the other side as shown in
Fig. 1.
 The patch is generally made of conducting material such as copper or gold
and can take any possible shape.
 The radiating patch and the feed lines are usually photo etched on the
dielectric substrate.
 In order to simplify analysis and performance prediction, the patch is
generally square, rectangular, circular, triangular, elliptical or some other
common shape as shown in Fig. 2.

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Structures & Shapes of Microstrip

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 Dimensions of Patch Antenna
• For a rectangular patch, the length L of the patch is 0.333𝜆𝜆0
≤ L ≤ 0.5𝜆𝜆0 , where 𝜆𝜆0 is free-space wavelength. The patch is selected to be very
thin such that 𝑡𝑡 << 𝜆𝜆0 (where 𝑡𝑡 is the patch thickness). The height h
of the dielectric
substrate is 0.033𝜆𝜆0 ≤ ℎ ≤ 0.05𝜆𝜆0. The dielectric constant of the substrate (𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟)
is typically in the range 2.2 ≤ 𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟 ≤ 12.
• Microstrip patch antennas radiate primarily because of the fringing fields
between the patch edge and the ground plane.
• For good antenna performance, a thick dielectric substrate having a low
dielectric constant is desirable since this provides better efficiency, larger
bandwidth and better radiation.

111
 Radiation Mechanism of Patch Antenna
• Consider a rectangular patch of length 𝐿𝐿 and width 𝑊𝑊 printed on a
dielectric substrate of height h. The length of the patch is chosen as 𝜆𝜆𝑔𝑔
/2, where 𝜆𝜆𝑔𝑔 is the guide wavelength of microstrip line of width 𝑊𝑊
printed on the same dielectric substrate.
• The electric field along 𝑥𝑥-direction undergoes a 180° phase reversal as in Fig.
3 from one edge to the other.
• It can be shown that the fields near edges 1 and 2 add up producing the
radiation with a maximum along the 𝑧𝑧- direction.

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 Radiation Mechanism of Patch Antenna 2
• Hence, edges 1 and 2 are known as the radiating edges.
• Further, the fields near edges 3 and 4 do not contribute to the radiation. The
rectangular microstrip patch shown in Fig. 4 radiates linearly polarized waves,
with the electric field oriented along the 𝑥𝑥-direction when looking in the
direction of maximum radiation.

113
 Radiation Mechanism of Patch Antenna 3
•The radiation patterns in the two principal planes, viz., the 𝐸𝐸- plane (𝑥𝑥-𝑧𝑧
plane) and the 𝐻𝐻-plane (𝑦𝑦-𝑧𝑧 plane) are shown in Fig. 4. The pattern is
very broad and has nulls along the y- direction.
•For efficient transfer of power from a transmission line to the patch antenna,
the input impedance of the antenna matched to the characteristic
impedance of the transmission line.

114
 Advantages of Patch Antenna
• Light weight and low volume.
• Low profile planar configuration easily made conformal to host
surface.
• Low fabrication cost.
• Supports both linear as well as circular polarization.
• Can be easily integrated with microwave integrated circuits (MICs).
• Capable of dual and triple frequency operations.
• Mechanically robust when mounted on rigid surfaces.

115
 Disadvantages / Applications of Patch Antenna
• Narrow bandwidth
• Low efficiency
• Low gain
• Extraneous radiation from feeds and junctions
• Poor end fire radiator except tapered slot antennas
• Low power handling capacity.
• Used for high-performance aircraft, spacecraft, satellite, and missile
applications where size, weight, cost, performance, installation and
aerodynamic profile are constraints.
• Other areas where microstrip antennas widely used are: GPS,
Telemetry, Radars, Altimeters, etc.,

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 Topic 11

Feeding Structures for Microstrip

Patch Antennas

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 Type 1 – Microstrip Line Feed
 In this type of feed technique, a conducting strip is connected
directly to the edge of the microstrip patch as shown in Fig. 1.
 The conducting strip is smaller in width compared to the patch. It has
the advantage that the feed can be etched on the same substrate to
provide a planar structure.
 An inset cut can be incorporated into the patch to obtain good
impedance matching without the need for any additional matching
element.
 This is achieved by properly controlling the inset position. Hence this is an
easy feeding technique & provides ease of fabrication and simplicity in
modeling as well as impedance matching.

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 Type 1 – Microstrip Line Feed 2
 However as the thickness of the dielectric substrate increases,
surface waves and spurious feed radiation also increases, which
hampers the bandwidth of the antenna.
 This type of feeding technique results in undesirable cross
polarization effects.

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 Type 2 – Coaxial Feed
 The Coaxial feed or probe feed is one of the most common techniques
used for feeding microstrip patch antennas.
 From Fig. 2, the inner conductor of the coaxial connector extends
through the dielectric and soldered to the radiating patch, while the outer
conductor is connected to the ground plane.

120
 Type 2 – Coaxial Feed 2
– The main advantage that feed can be placed at any desired position inside
the patch in order to obtain impedance matching. This feed method is
easy to fabricate and has low spurious radiation effects.
– The major disadvantage is that it provides narrow bandwidth and
difficult to model since a hole has to be drilled into the substrate. The
increased probe length makes the input impedance more inductive,
leading to matching problems.
– By using a thick dielectric substrate to improve the bandwidth, the
microstrip line feed and the coaxial feed suffer from numerous
disadvantages such as spurious feed radiation and matching problem.

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 Type 3 – Aperture Coupled Feed
– In aperture coupling the radiating microstrip patch element is etched on the
top of the antenna substrate & microstrip feed line is etched on the bottom
of the feed substrate to obtain aperture coupling.
– The thickness and dielectric constants of these two substrates may
thus be chosen independently to optimize the distinct electrical functions of
radiation and circuitry.
– The coupling aperture is centered under the patch, leading to lower cross
polarization due to symmetry of the configuration. The amount of
coupling from the feed line to the patch is determined by the shape, size and
location of the aperture.
– Since the ground plane separates the patch and the feed line, spurious
radiation is minimized as shown in Fig. 3.

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 Type 3 – Aperture Coupled Feed 2
 This type of feeding technique can give very high bandwidth of about 21%.
Also the effect of spurious radiation is very less as compared to other
feed techniques. The major disadvantage is that difficult to fabricate
due to multiple layers, which also increases the antenna thickness.

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 Type 4 - Proximity Coupled Feed
 This type of feed technique is also called as the electromagnetic
coupling scheme. As shown in Fig. 4, two dielectric substrates are used
such that the feed line is between the two substrates and the radiating
patch is on top of the upper substrate.

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 Advantages & Disadvantages of Proximity Feed
– Eliminates spurious feed radiation and provides very high bandwidth of
about 13%, due to increase in the electrical thickness of the microstrip
patch antenna.
– Provides choices between two different dielectric media, one for the
patch and one for the feed line to optimize the individual performances.
– Difficult to fabricate because of the two dielectric layers that need proper
alignment. Also, there is an increase in the overall thickness of the
antenna.

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Comparison of Feeds – Patch Antenna

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 Topic 12

Numerical Tool for Antenna

Analysis

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Numerical Tool for Antenna Analysis

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Applications
 Applications of Yagi Antenna
 Yagi-Uda array is the most popular antenna for the reception of
terrestrial television signals in the VHF band (30 MHz-300 MHz).
 The array for this application is constructed using aluminium pipes.
 The driven element is usually a folded dipole, which gives four times
the impedance of a standard dipole.
 Thus, a two-wire balanced transmission line having a characteristic
impedance of 300 𝛺𝛺 can be directly connected to the input terminals
of the Yagi-Uda array.
 Yagi-Uda arrays have been used in the HF, VHF, UHF, and microwave
frequency bands

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 Introduction to Helical Antenna
• Helical antenna is a broadband VHF and UHF antenna used to provide
circular polarization.
• It consists of a thick copper wire wound in the form of a screw thread
forming a helix.
• In general , helix is used with a ground plane.
• There are different forms of ground plane such as flat ground plane,
cylindrical cavity.
• The helix is usually connected to the center conductor of a coaxial
transmission line at the feed point with the outer conductor of the
line attached to the ground plane is as shown in Figure 1.

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Fig 1 / Helical Antenna with Ground Plane

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 Construction of Helical Antenna
• The geometrical configuration of a helix consists of 𝑁𝑁 turns, diameter 𝐷𝐷 and
spacing 𝑆𝑆 between each turn.
• The total length of the antenna is 𝐿𝐿 = 𝑁𝑁𝑆𝑆 while the total length of the wire is 𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛 =
𝑁𝑁𝐿𝐿0 = 𝑁𝑁√𝑆𝑆2 + 𝐶𝐶2 , where 𝐿𝐿0 = √𝑆𝑆2 + 𝐶𝐶2 is the length of the wire between each
turn and 𝐶𝐶 = 𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷 is the circumference of the helix.
• The pitch angle 𝛼𝛼 which is the angle formed by a line tangent to the helix wire
and a plane perpendicular to the helix axis.
• The pitch angles defined by –
• When 𝛼𝛼 = 0° , the winding is flattened and the helix reduces to a loop antenna of
𝑁𝑁 turns; When 𝛼𝛼 = 90° then the helix reduces to a linear wire; When 0° < 𝛼𝛼
< 90° , a true helix is formed with a circumference greater than zero but less
than the circumference when the helix is reduced to a loop (𝛼𝛼 = 0°).

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 Normal Mode of Operation
• The helical antenna can operate in many modes but the two principal
modes are the normal (broadside) and the axial (end- fire) modes.
• Normal mode: The field radiated by the antenna is maximum in a plane
normal to the helix axis and minimum along its axis, as shown sketched
in Figure 2. To achieve the normal mode of operation, the dimensions
of the helix are usually small compared to the wavelength (i.e., 𝑁𝑁𝐿𝐿0
≪ 𝜆𝜆0).

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 Normal Mode of Operation 2
• In the normal mode, the helix of Figure 3 (a) can be simulated
approximately by 𝑁𝑁 small loops and 𝑁𝑁 short dipoles connected together in
series as shown in Figure 3 (b). The fields are obtained by superposition
of the fields from these elemental radiators. The planes of the loops are
parallel to each other and perpendicular to the axes of the vertical dipoles.

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 Normal Mode of Operation 3

• Since in the normal mode the helix dimensions are small, the current
throughout its length can be assumed to be constant and its relative far-
field pattern to be independent of the number of loops and short dipoles.
• Thus its operation can be described by the sum of the fields radiated by a
small loop of radius 𝐷𝐷 and a short dipole of length 𝑆𝑆, with its axis
perpendicular to the plane of the loop, and each with the same constant
current distribution.
• Practically this mode of operation is limited and it is hardly used because
its bandwidth and radiation efficiency is very small.

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 Axial Mode of Operation
• In this mode of operation, there is only one major lobe and its maximum
radiation intensity is along the axis of the helix, as shown in Figure 4.
• The minor lobes are at oblique angles to the axis. To excite this mode, the
diameter 𝐷𝐷 and spacing 𝑆𝑆 must be large fractions of the wavelength. The
antenna is used in conjunction with a ground plane whose diameter is at
least 𝜆𝜆0/2, and fed by a coaxial line.
• However, other types of feeds are possible, especially at microwave
frequencies. The dimensions of the helix for this mode of operation are
not as critical, thus resulting in a greater bandwidth

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 Design Procedure
• The terminal impedance of a helix radiating in the axial mode
is nearly resistive with values between 100 and 200 ohms.

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Design Procedure 2

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