Qualitative Analysis:

Coding and Categorizing

Philip Adu, Ph.D.

Methodology Expert
National Center for Academic & Dissertation Excellence (NCADE)
The Chicago School of Professional Psychology
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Qualitative Analysis
“It is about reducing Outline
data without losing
its meaning” 1. Meaning of coding
~Philip Adu 2. Essence of coding
Codes 3. Coding process
4. Pre-coding stage:
Think about
Things to Consider
5. Choosing
Qualitative appropriate coding
findings
methods
Categories
6. Coding cycles
7. Presenting
Address the
Represent
research findings (writing
the data chapter 4)
question(s)
8. Example of a coding
process
Themes

Theory
 Meaning of Coding

Data
1. Interview transcripts
Assigning
labels to 2. Documents
3. Artifacts
4. Field notes

A code is a word, phrase, or sentence

that represents aspect(s) of a data or
captures the essence or feature(s) of a
data

(Saldana, 2013)
 Essence of coding

1. Reducing data
• Not losing the meaning of the data
• Capturing the significant ideas or issues
2. Understanding phenomenon
3. Developing construct
• Developing categories and themes
– Constructs/conceptual variables: “[They] are the mental
definitions of properties of events of objects that can vary”.
“…[They] are often expressed in general, theoretical,
qualitative, or subjective terms…”
Read more: Conceptual Variables - Constructs in Science

4. Developing theory

(Hani, 2009; Saldana, 2013)

 Coding Process

Coding Sorting Synthesizing Theorizing

Real Abstract
or or
Particular General

Codes Categories Themes Theory

(Saldana, 2013)
Pre-coding Stage: Things to Consider
1. Researcher’s Influence
Factors influencing the data
analysis process
• Background
• Beliefs and biases
• Interests
• Philosophical paradigm

a. Being aware of your ‘influence’

b. Bracketing your ‘influence’
Pre-coding Stage: Things to Consider

2. Memoing
Documenting personal reflections and
impressions
• Data collection phase
Documenting your thoughts about:
 What you are observing in the field
 Your interaction with participants
 Your experience during the data collection process

• Data Analysis phase

Documenting your thoughts about:
Data analysis process
Codes and their respective meanings
Relationship among codes, categories, and themes
 3. Manual or Electronic Coding
Manual Coding Electronic Coding
Tools Paper, pencil, pen, note cards, hard Computer-Aided Qualitative Data
copy of the transcripts or documents, Analysis Software (CAQDAS) such as
artifact to be coded Nvivo, Atlas ti, and Transana

Word document (using comment or

‘inset Endnote’ function), excel
spreadsheet
Usability Easy to use especially when data is not Need to familiarize with the functions
a lot of the software before starting
analyzing data
Recommendation: Watching YouTube
instructional videos and practicing
When to use Small data Large data
Recommendation: At the initial stage including videos, and audios that have
of data analysis – when familiarizing not been transcribed
yourself with the data
Organization Time consuming Easy to organize codes, run code
frequencies, explore the relationship
between codes, and do ‘memoing’
 CAQDAS (Computer-Aided Qualitative Data Analysis Software)

ATLAS.ti: www.atlasti.com
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p2RaRSaNZF8&list=PL8CTEd
sSSmZG7znMUsXLekGikQYrPB-v5
MAXQDA: www.maxqda.com
NVivo: www.qsrinternational.com
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oelXFnJ-7Ms
HyperRESEARCH: http://www.researchware.com
QDA Miner: http://provalisresearch.com/
Qualrus: www.qualrus.com
Transana: www.transana.org
Weft QDA: www.pressure.to/qda/

(Saldana, 2013, p. 29)

 Coding Strategies/Methods

Coding Sorting Synthesizing Theorizing

First Cycle Coding

methods
After First Cycle Coding
Second Cycle Coding Methods
1. Attribute coding
Categorizing codes and
2. Descriptive coding
generating themes – based 1. Pattern coding
3. Emotion coding on:
4. Evaluation coding a. Relationship
2. Focused coding
5. In Vivo coding between codes 3. Axial coding
6. Magnitude coding b. Code frequencies 4. Theoretical coding
7. Narrative coding c. Underlying
8. Process coding meaning across
9. Values coding codes
10. Themeing data Abstract
or
General

(Saldana, 2013)
Choosing Appropriate Coding Methods
(Type of Qualitative Research Question)

(Saldana, 2013; Trochim, 2006)

Choosing Coding Methods Based on Research Question(s)
Type of Meaning Examples Coding
Research Methods
Question (1st Cycle Coding)

Ontological Related to studying  “What is the nature • Attribute

research “the nature of of…?” • Emotion
question participants’  “What are the lived • In Vivo
realities” experiences of…?” • Narrative
 “What is it like • Process
(Capturing participants‘ being…?” • Values
realities)
• Themeing
Epistemological Related to  “How does…?” • Descriptive
research “knowing and an  “What does it mean • Evaluation
question understanding of to be…?” • Magnitude
the phenomenon  “What factors • Narrative
of interest” influence…?” • Process
• Themeing
(Understanding
phenomenon)
(Saldana, 2013, p.61)
 First Cycle Coding Methods Related to Ontological Research Questions
(Capturing participants‘ realities)
Coding Function Examples
Methods
Attribute Coding features of research site(s),  Participants’ age, gender, & educational
Coding participant(s), and material(s) being studied level

Emotion Coding participants’ sentiments, feelings,  Hopelessness

Coding reactions, excitements and sensations  Anxiety
• From participants’ viewpoint  Pessimism
• From researcher's standpoint  Denial
In Vivo Coding by using participants’ own words  “Never again”
Coding  “Pay back time”
 “No negotiation”
Value Coding participants’ “values [V], attitudes  [V] – Education
Coding [A], and beliefs [B]” (p. 268)  [A] – Sense of uncertainty
 [B] – Existence of discrimination
Narrative Coding participants’ stories including their They can be structured as follows:
coding interaction with others and retelling them. (1)Abstract [summary],
(2) Orientation [characters, setting & time]
(3) Complicating action [response/reaction]
(4) Evaluation [essence]
(5) Results [consequence]
(6) Coda [lessons & conclusion]
(p. 133)
 First Cycle Coding Methods Related to Epistemological Research Questions
(Understanding phenomenon)
Coding Functions Examples
Methods
Descriptive • Assigning topics to aspects of the data  Churches, Schools, Playing ground,
coding • Normally nouns Banks, Public library, and Recycle bins
• For “social environments” (p. 262)
Evaluation • “Assign[ing] judgments” (p. 119)  (-) ‘Foreign’ to them
coding  (-) Not part of program planning
 (+) Sense of independence
 (+) Increase in family income
 (-) increase in domestic violence
Magnitude Assigning “intensity, frequency, direction,  High, Moderate & low income
coding presence, or evaluative content” to code(s)  Present & absent motivation
 More & less determined
Process • Also called action coding  Walking
Coding • Coding “observable activity” and/or  Cooking breakfast
“conceptual action” (p. 96)  Checking emails
 Making calls
 Enjoying music
 Reflecting
Themeing • Using phrase or sentence to describe or  Ability to take care of their children
data capture the meaning of an aspect of a  Ability to pay bills
data  Ability to have time with their children
(Saldana, 2013)
 After First Cycle Coding
(Sorting)

Categorizing codes and generating themes – based on:

a. Relationship between codes
i. Reference: Are a group of codes making reference to
a specific concept?
ii. Occurrence: How does a group of codes happen?
iii. Sequence: Does one code/a group of codes come
before/after the other?
b. Code frequencies
i. Frequency: How many times does a specific code
assigned to parts of the data?
c. Underlying meaning across codes
i. Essence: Is there an underlying meaning among a
group of codes?
 Second Cycle Coding Methods
(Associated with grounded theory approach)
Coding Functions
Methods
Pattern • Examining initial codes
coding • Identifying trends, patterns, relationships
• Assigning labels (they could be categories or themes)
Focused • Identifying “the most frequent or significant initial codes” (p.
coding 264) – looking for: code frequencies, codes relationships, and central
codes
• Building categories around them
Axial coding • Identifying core category (“Core phenomenon”) and related
categories
• Examining the features and dimensions of categories
Causal conditions Core phenomenon Strategies
Intervening conditions Consequence (Creswell, 2013, p. 86)
Theoretical • Connecting the core category and related categories to create a
or Selective storyline
coding • The narrative (proposition/theory) should explain a phenomenon
(Saldana, 2013)
 Presenting Findings
(in Chapter 4)

1. Providing background information about participants or

the observed (especially the first cycle coding: attribute coding)
a. To better understand what they said or you observed

2. Presenting the coding strategies used, number of codes,

categories and themes emerged

3. Systematically presenting the findings

a. Stating each theme
b. Describing what the theme stands for (i.e. meaning of the
theme)
c. Supporting the theme with an evidence from the data (e.g.
Quote from participants)
 Presenting Findings cont...
(in Chapter 4)
• Showing how the findings address the research question(s)
• Having a findings summary table (“Findings “at a glance”
– Saldana, 2013, p. 254)
Category or Meaning Evidence from the data
Theme (very brief) (very brief)
Theme 1
Theme 2
Theme 3

• Presenting the relationship between themes

• Creating diagram to show the relationship between themes

Creating diagram: Cmap

Creating code landscaping: http://www.wordle.net/create
 Example of a Coding Process
1. Assign labels to your research questions: Anchor codes
2. Code relevant statements and putting the codes under their
respective Anchor codes
a. Using “comment” or “Insert Endnote” function
b. Using multiple coding methods depending on the type of research
question(s)
3. Compile a list of initial codes
4. Group codes into their respective anchor codes
5. Tally frequency for each code
6. Generate categories from the codes
7. Examine the categories to generate themes
8. Use the themes to address the research question(s)
Coding is like using Lego bricks to make an art:
it always starts with using meaningless pieces
of bricks to create meaningful piece of art
~Philip Adu

By Nathan Sawaya
Philip Adu, Ph.D.
Methodology Expert
National Center for Academic & Dissertation Excellence (NCADE)
The Chicago School of Professional Psychology
[email protected]
You could reach me at [email protected] and @drphilipadu on twitter.

To cite this document, copy the following:

Adu, P. (2013, November 22). Qualitative analysis coding and categorizing. Retrieved from
http://www.slideshare.net/kontorphilip/qualitative-analysis-coding-and-categorizing
 References

Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among

Five Approaches (3rd). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Hani (2009,January 20). Conceptual Variables. Retrieved from Explorable website:

http://explorable.com/conceptual-variables

Saldana, J. (2013). The coding manual for qualitative researchers. London: Sage

Trochim, W. M. (2006, October 20). Qualitative validity. Retrieved from Research

methods knowledge base website:
http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/qualval.php