FOOD PROCESSING AND PRESERVATION TECHNIQUES

History of Food Processing

Food processing dates back to the prehistoric age when crude processing including various types
of cooking, such as over fire, smoking, steaming, fermenting, sun drying and preserving with salt
were in practice. Foods preserved this way were a common part of warriors’ and sailors’ diets.
These crude processing techniques remained essentially the same until the advent of the
Industrial Revolution. Nicolas Appert developed a vacuum bottling process to supply food to
troops in the French army, which eventually led to canning in tins by Peter Durand in 1810.
Modern food processing technologies, in the 19 th century were also largely developed to serve
military needs. In the early 20 th century, the space race, change in food habits and the quality
conciousness of the consumers in the developed world furthered the development of food
processing with advancements such as spray drying, juice concentrates, freeze drying and the
introduction of artificial sweetners, colorants, and preservatives. In the late 20 th century products
including dried instant soups, reconstituted fruit juices, and self-cooking meals such as ready-to-
eat food rations etc., were developed.

Benefits of Processing
 Converts raw food and other farm produce into edible, usable and palatable form
 Helps to store perishable and semi-perishable agricultural commodities, avoid glut in
the market, check post-harvest losses and make the produce available during off-
season
 Generates employment
 Development of ready-to-consume products, hence saves time for cooking
 Helps in preservation
 Helps in improving palatability and organoleptic quality of the produce by value
addition
 Helps in easing marketing and distribution tasks
 Increases seasonal availability of many foods
 Enables transportation of delicate perishable foods across long distances
 Makes foods safe for consumption by checking of pathogenic microorganisms
  Modern food processing also improves the quality of living by way of healthy foods
developed for allergics, diabetics, and other people who cannot consume some
common food elements
 Food processing can also bring nutritional and food security
 Provides potential for export to fetch foreign exchange

FOOD PRESERVATION
The meaning of the word “preserve” is to keep safe, retain quality and prevent decomposition or
fermentation. Food preservation can be defined as:-
A process by which foods (like fruits and vegetables) are prevented from getting
spoilt for a long period of time. The colour, taste and nutritive value of the food is also
preserved.
Examples of food preservation techniques
 Use of brine solution; acid (fermentation); preserves by use of sugar.
 Heat; refrigeration and freezing

NEED FOR FOOD PRESERVATION

Preservation of foods is done during the months when food is available in large quantity and
therefore at low cost. Reasons for food preservation is:
1. One of the important reasons for preserving foods is to take care of the excess produce.
2. The second reason for preserving foods is that they add variety to our meals. Eating some
pickle along with the meals adds to the variety. Preserving foods when they are in season makes
this possible.
3. Reaches areas where the food item is not grown. In some areas of Rajasthan which are
desert areas and in Himalayan regions that are covered with snow most of the time, very few
foods can be grown. Availability of some preserved foods can add to the variety and nutritive
value of meals. For -example inclusion of dehydrated peas, green leafy vegetables, canned fruits
etc, in the meals is a good idea in such areas.
4. Makes transportation and storage of foods easier. Preservation of foods usually reduces
bulk. This makes their transportation and storage easier since it requires less space. For example,
if you dry green leafy vegetables, their weight and volume reduces, thus making their storage
easy.
5. Prevent spoilage due to the following
– Micro-organisms e.g.
– Chemical reactions e.g.
– Enzymatic reactions e.g.
Major aim of preservation is to obtain a wholesome product, including sensory and nutritional
attributes

PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PRESERVATION

A good method of food preservation is one that slows down or prevents altogether the action of
the agents of spoilage. Also, during the process of food preservation, the food should not be
damaged. The principles of food preservations are:

1. Removal of micro-organisms or inactivating them: This is done by removing air,

water(moisture), lowering or increasing temperature, increasing the concentration of salt
or sugar or acid in foods. For the preservation of green leafy vegetables, the water should
be removed from the leave so that microorganisms cannot survive. This is done by drying
the green leaves till all the moisture evaporates.

2. Prevention or delay of self-decomposition of the food

 By destruction or inactivation of food enzymes e.g. blanching
 By prevention or delay of purely chemical reactions e.g. prevention of oxidation
by means of an antioxidant.
3. Removal of insects, worms and rats: By storing foods in dry, air tight containers the
insects, worms or rats are prevented from destroying it.

Food Preservation Techniques

Food may be preserved using a variety of techniques.
Heat - Heating food products is a technique used to destroy microorganisms and endogenous
enzymes. Most microbial growth occurs between 61°-100°F. Heat-loving (thermophilic)
microbes grow in the range of 110°-130°F. In order to destroy these microbes, food products
must be heated to an internal temperature greater than 180°F. Heat-enduring (thermoduric)
bacteria survive temperatures as high as boiling so food is often canned under pressure to
provide a temperature above 212°F. Sterilizing food means heating the food to about 240°F and
maintaining that temperature for 15 minutes or longer.

Cold - Refrigeration, or maintaining 33°-40°F, is useful to slow microbial growth. Freezing is

achieved by reducing the temperature to 0°F or lower, which virtually stops enzymatic action
and microbial growth.

Drying - Dehydrating is the removal of moisture to limit microbial and chemical activity.
Freeze-drying is the removal of moisture from a frozen food under reduced atmospheric
pressure.

Irradiation - Irradiation is a technique that uses gamma rays or beta particles to

bombard and kill microbes and inactivate enzymes.

Packaging - Vacuum packaging is the removal of most of the oxygen from food products. This
prevents aerobic microbial activity and is usually applied during packaging of refrigerated solid
foods. Sometimes an atmosphere rich in CO2 is used to preserve food, particularly fruits and
vegetables. Often the packaging material is very important in creating and maintaining the
desired conditions. This type of process is called modified or controlled atmosphere packaging,
commonly referred to by the acronym MAP/CAP.

Additives - The use of additives or chemicals to prevent microbial growth is another

preservation technique. Sweetening, or achieving a high sugar content, produces a high osmotic
pressure which causes water to be withdrawn from microbes. A 70 percent sugar level is
necessary to prevent all microbial growth. Salting produces a high osmotic pressure or low water
activity (Aw) and restrains microbial growth. Salt levels of 2.5-3.0 percent are common in salt
cured food products. Smoking food products allows formaldehyde and phenolic compounds to
settle on the food surface. The compounds inhibit microbial growth. Spicing is a technique used
to slow the growth of some microbes. However, processors must use spices that are free from
undesirable microbial contaminants.

Fermentation - Fermenting, also known as souring or pickling, slows bacterial growth. Acids
produce a low pH, which restrict microbial growth. Sometimes, desirable microorganisms are
allowed to grow in the food. They convert carbohydrates into acids or alcohol. These by-
products inhibit the growth of undesirable microorganisms and provide unique flavors in foods.
The use of desirable microorganisms to preserve food is called fermentation. Bacteria convert
carbohydrates into acids and alcohol.

Problems with Food Deterioration

Food is subject to physical, chemical, and biological deterioration. The most obvious to the
human eye, physical deterioration.

Physical Changes from Food Deterioration

When food is exposed to excessive amounts of heat, cold, or circulating air, it may become
dehydrated. Cracked skin found on fruits that have been frozen and thawed is another type of
physical change. A broken or separated emulsion (example, salad dressing) in liquid foods
that have been frozen and allowed to thaw is a third type of physical change. A fourth is texture
degradation. This can be found in fluid milk that has been frozen, which causes curdles to
develop.

Lumping, caking, or crystallization may result from an excess of moisture. Surface

pitting on fruit is the result of storage temperatures that were too cold.

External off-color development may be the most obvious physical change caused by food
deterioration. Meat exposed to fluorescent or incandescent light too long develops a brownish-
red color. Meat color is determined by its predominant pigment, myoglobin. Myoglobin is a
purple red pigment due to its iron constituents. When exposed to air, myoglobin adds two
oxygen atoms and becomes oxymyoglobin. Oxymyoglobin is responsible for an intense red
color. Oxygen permeable wrapping is preferred on meat cuts to promote this appealing color. If
insufficient amounts of oxygen are available, however, oxymyoglobin oxidizes to
metmyoglobin, a brownish-red pigment. Mold growth on the surface comes in a rainbow of
colors. Some fruits, when stored at low temperatures may develop internal browning.

Chemical Changes
Chemical deterioration is due to a change in the chemical or molecular structure, of food.
1. Fermentation of sugars is a chemical change that, under controlled conditions, is a
beneficial process in the production of bread, buttermilk, and yogurt. Fermentation can cause
deterioration in uncontrolled environments. Fermentation splits a glucose molecule into two
ethyl alcohol and two carbon dioxide atoms. (Figure 2.1)

Figure 2.1 - Fermentation

2. Carbohydrates (starches) and proteins may undergo hydrolysis. Hydrolysis is defined as

the splitting of a molecule by the uptake of a molecule of water. Corn syrup is produced by the
hydrolysis of corn starch with hydrochloric acid. The end product is called corn sugar.
Hydrolysis of proteins is usually undesirable in foods.
3. lipolysis, a third type of chemical reaction that cause deterioration, or the reaction of a water
and fat molecule that releases a fatty acid in the presence of heat or the lipase enzyme. This
process alters the flavor and aroma of fats or oils and creates a rancid odor.

4. Proteins also can denature, losing their unique structure. If the protein is an enzyme, it
loses its ability to be a catalyst. Often a denatured protein is less soluble. Denatured proteins
often coagulate. Think about what happens when you fry an egg. The proteins in the egg white
denature when heating. The once clear liquid becomes an opaque rubber solid. Denatured
proteins may be more easily digested by microorganisms resulting in development of
undesirable flavors, odors, or textures.

5.Toxin production is the fifth chemical change resulting from food deterioration. A food
intoxication results from a toxic substance being produced in a food item before consumption.
Certain molds can produce mycotoxins, which are poisonous. One well known mycotoxin is
aflatoxin. Aflatoxins may be found on moldy grains and peanuts. Ergot is a mold toxin that can
cause hallucinations. It may have been responsible for the Salem witch trials.

6.Enzymatic reactions are the advanced stage of normal enzymatic reactions. While the plant
or animal is alive, enzymes are busy catalyzing chemical reactions. These reactions are kept in
control by the living system. However, when the tissue is dead, these enzymes continue to
work and ultimately cause degradation. These chemical changes may be inactivated by heat,
chemicals, and/or radiation.

7.Pigment conversion is an example of deteriorative chemical changes. For example, as the

green pigmented chlorophyll molecule in plants is transformed into the pheophytin molecule, the
bright green is converted to greenish-gray and olive green. A magnesium ion is replaced by
hydrogen. Similarly, the oxymyoglobin molecule in red meat is chemically changed to
metmyoglobin.
Microorganisms that Contribute to Food Deterioration
An important point to remember is that microorganisms are generally not found within the living
tissue of a healthy plant or animal. Milk, for instance, is sterile when secreted. Fruits, vegetables,
grains, and nuts become contaminated when their protective skin or shell is broken or weakened.

Bacteria - Not all bacteria cause food spoilage. Many types of bacteria are used to
preserve food, like the lactic-acid producing organisms of of cheese, sauerkraut, and
certain types of sausage. Others are used for flavor production.

Bacteria are found everywhere from the hides and feathers of animals, to shells of nuts, in the
soil, water, and air, and on processing equipment that has not been sanitized.

Bacteria are unicellular organisms; they are cells without a nucleus, known as procaryotes. They
are classified based on their shape: spherical shapes are cocci; rod shapes are bacilli; and spiral
forms are spirilla and vibrios. Many bacteria move by means of a flagella, a whip-like tail.
Others produce spores, which are seed-like and incredibly resistant to heat, chemicals, and other
adverse conditions. Bacterial spores are more resistant than yeast or mold spores. They resist
most processing conditions to a greater extent than natural food enzymes. Needless to say,
sterilization processes are aimed at these bacterial spores.

Bacteria are small, one to a few micrometers (um) in length, and can penetrate the smallest
openings. Most bacteria multiply at 60 -100 F, the temperature range of mesophilic bacteria.
Recall, however, that psychrophilic bacteria multiply at very low temperatures while
thermophilic bacteria can withstand very high temperatures. Some bacteria are aerobic, while
others are anaerobic.

Bacteria multiply in an exponential fashion. Under favorable conditions, their numbers can
double every 30 minutes.

Bacteria are also classified based on their staining characteristics. Gram-positive bacteria retain a
dark violet or purple color after a purple dye/iodine mixture is applied followed by an alcohol
treatment in an attempt to decolorize. Gram-negative bacteria lose the dark violet color after the
alcohol is applied. The Gram method of bacterial identification is one of the most important
methods used. While this method is not absolute, it does provide valuable information in
determining which bacteria are present. Thus, a corresponding method of treatment or sanitation
can be established.

Fungi - Fungi, or yeasts and molds, are also helpful/harmful agents in food science, depending
on which specific ones are present. Yeasts are necessary in making bread, wine, and beer
because of their fermentation qualities. Molds are used to ripen Danish blue, Roquefort, and
Camembert cheeses. They are also used to manufacture soy sauce and citric acid. The mold
penicillium produces the antibiotic penicillin.

Yeasts and molds are found everywhere and can cause food spoilage. Yeasts and molds like
warm, moist growing conditions. Yeasts are larger than bacteria, around 20 micrometers in
length. Most yeasts are spherical or ellipsoidal in shape. Yeasts reproduce asexually in the form
of spores. Most yeast colonies are creamy white in color and slimy in appearance.

Molds are larger than yeasts and grow by hairlike fibers call mycelia. Mold spores create the
blackness of bread mold and the blue-colored veins in blue cheese. All molds are aerobic.

Causes of Food Deterioration

Food is subject to physical, chemical, and biological deterioration. In practical terms, food
starts deteriorating at the time it is harvested or slaughtered. The critical question becomes:
How slow or how rapid is this process? The principle causes of food deterioration are heat,
cold, light and other radiation, oxygen, moisture/dryness, natural food enzymes,
microorganisms, macroorganisms, industrial contaminants, and time.

Microorganisms, like bacteria, mold, and yeast, ferment sugars and hydrolyze fats, proteins,
starches and cellulose. Those that hydrolyze fats produce rancidity. Those that digest
proteins make putrid odors. Others produce acid, make food sour, and discolor it. A few
produce toxins that can lead to food poisoning.

Natural enzymes can become catalysts of chemical reactions in food. Ripening and tenderizing
are examples of natural enzymatic reactions. Some reactions, like the aging of beef or the
ripening of tomatoes, are desirable if they are not allowed to continue too far. Tenderizing and
ripening beyond an optimal point causes deterioration.

Pests include insects, parasites, birds and rodents. Insects are very destructive to cereal grains,
fruits, and vegetables. While an insect may create only a small hole in a melon, this allows
microorganisms to invade and cause decay. Freezing, irradiation, and O2 removal are commonly
used to kill insects in food. A common food-borne parasite is Trichinella spiralis. This worm can
enter hogs that eat uncooked animal food wastes. If an infected pork carcass is cooked
insufficiently, this parasite can enter man. Fish may also harbor parasitic worms that can enter
the consumer if the fish is eaten raw.

Rodents, such as rats, not only consume large quantities of stored grain, but also contaminate it
with bacteria-infested feces and urine. Flies, rats and cockroaches are all known to transmit
disease causing microorganisms to food. For example, rats can transmit salmonellosis,
leptospirosis, typhus fever, the plague, and other infectious diseases.

Other Factors - Heat can denature proteins, break emulsions, dry out food, and destroy vitamins.
Within the temperature range of 50°-100°F, chemical reaction rates double for every 18°F rise in
temperature. These chemical reactions include both enzymatic and non-enzymatic reactions.

Cold temperatures (i.e., below freezing) disrupt the texture and crack the skins of fruits and
vegetables. Freezing milk breaks its emulsion and curdles its protein. Temperatures that are too
cold cause off-colors, surface pitting, and decay, especially in fresh fruits and vegetables.

Light destroys some vitamins, specifically riboflavin, vitamin A, and vitamin C. It also can
cause food discoloration. Ultraviolet light oxidizes milk fat and protein and changes milk's
flavor. Not all wavelengths of radiation are absorbed equally. Gold colored filters for
fluorescent lights in display cases and opaque packaging are preventative measures.

Moisture or dryness are factors that may contribute to food deterioration. Moisture is required
for all microbial growth and for chemical reactions. Too much moisture can cause lumping,
crystallization, and stickiness of dried food products. Too little moisture in baked foods can
cause dehydration and staleness. Even when fruits and vegetables are placed in a moisture-
proof bag, water is given off through respiration and transpiration and the produce shrivels.

Oxygen can have negative effects on vitamins A and C, food color, flavor, and other
constituents. Oxygen's presence is essential for mold growth. Oxygen can be removed by
deaeration (inert gas purging), vacuum packaging, or flushing containers with nitrogen (N2) or
carbon dioxide (CO2).

Industrial contaminants are a minor cause of food spoilage. Chemicals may

inadvertently come in contact with food and cause discoloration and off-flavors.

Most of these factors are dependent on how long the food is stored. As more time passes, the
causes of food deterioration (explained above) are more likely to cause food spoilage. Food
quality decreases over time. Two common sense rules of food preservation are: 1) keep food
alive as long as possible, and 2) following harvest or slaughter, the product must be cleaned,
and preserved as quickly as possible.

Factors that affect Food Safety and Quality

Food safety is closely related to food spoilage, but they are not always the same thing. Food
becomes unsafe when pathogens, pesticides, toxins or other potentially harmful chemicals are
present. Foods that appear safe may contain toxins (poisonous plants), while other foods may
look and smell very bad - yet still be quite edible (Limburger cheese). Food quality is a
combination of safety and aesthetic factors.
Food Spoilage
Feeding a growing population is a large task. The effort is compounded due to food spoilage.
Even if an adequate food supply is produced, it must be stored and prevented from deteriorating.
Several factors cause deterioration: microorganisms in the form of bacteria, yeasts, and molds;
activities of natural food enzymes; insects, parasites, and rodents; temperature (both cold and
hot); moisture or dryness; air; light; and time. In essence, food undergoes progressive
deterioration beginning at harvest. It is critical to know how much time the deterioration process
takes.

Contaminants Influence on Food Safety and Quality

When microorganisms attack food, they cause many deteriorative effects. They can ferment
sugars; hydrolyze starches and fats; digest proteins; and form acids, pigments and
discoloration. These can lead to rancid flavors, putrid odors, gas and foam production, and
poisonous toxin production.

Enzyme activity is necessary in living plants and animals; however, it continues after harvest or
slaughter. Unless these enzymes are inactivated by heat, chemicals, or radiation, they continue to
catalyze reactions. Some of these reactions are desirable, like continued ripening of a tomato.
Unfortunately, ripening or tenderizing beyond a critical point becomes food deterioration. The
weakened tissue is subject to microbial invasion and rotting, development of rancid flavors, or
browning and other discoloration.

In addition, insects cause damage, which permits microbial invasion. Parasites, like worms in
raw fish, can infect the person who consumes them and cause nerve and muscle
damage.Parasites can also cause dysentery. Rodents not only consume large quantities of food,
but their excrement and urine can harbor several diseases such as typhus fever, the plague,
salmonellosis, and leptospirosis.

Natural dehydrating may cause skin breakage which allows bacterial invasion.
Freezing causes cell swelling which causes the cell membrane to rupture.
The remaining factors, temperature, moisture, air, light, and time, can contribute to physical
and chemical deterioration. These can also lead to microbial invasion.

Production Practices

If a food product is to be consumed safely, it must be safe when it arrives at the processing
plant, at the grocery store, and at the place and time of consumption. Food producers are
responsible for growing safe products. Many producers are following Quality Assurance
programs to document their practices.

Producers of animals must follow withdrawal guidelines for antibiotics and vaccines, follow
recommended injection site procedures so as not to damage muscle tissue; and must sort, load,
and transport animals as gently as possible to avoid bruising (bruised tissue deteriorates more
quickly). Plant food producers document proper use and timing of pesticides.

Grain grade standards regulate grain quality. Producers use honesty as their policy in grain sales.
To place rodent damaged grain on the bottom or treated wheat on the sides of the truck to avoid
the grain sampler is dishonest and may be unsafe.

Food Additives

Food additives are one very useful tool to maintain the safety and quality of food during
processing, storage, and distribution. A food additive is any substance added intentionally or
incidentally to food to improve its appearance, flavor, texture, nutritional value, or storage
properties. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) tests all potential additives over a two -
year period on at least two different species of animals. The FDA has compiled a Generally
Recognized As Safe (GRAS) list which can be added to or subtracted from as needed. Additives
may not be used to deceive the customer or lower the nutritional quality of the food. They
cannot be used to conceal spoilage, damage, or low quality. There are over 2,000 additives
which perform a variety of functions. The Food Additives Amendment of 1958 provides legal
standards for both intentional and incidental additives.

Antioxidants prevent the breakdown of vitamins and lipids in foods exposed to oxygen. Common
antioxidants are butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), Vitamin E,
ascorbic acid (Vitamin C), and lecithin.

Bleaching and maturing agents change the yellowish color of freshly milled flour to white.
Hydrogen peroxide whitens milk for certain cheese manufacturing processes.

Buffers, acids, and alkalies modify the pH.

Flavoring agents include spices, herbs, plant extracts, and artificial flavors.

Food colors are used extensively. Extract of annatto, caramel, carotene, and saffron are used in
carbonated beverages, candies, and gelatin. In 1976, FD & C Red No.2 and FD & C Red No.4
were banned. Reliance on natural reds from grapes, beets, and cranberries has subsequently
increased.

Nitrates and nitrites contribute to the flavor and pink color in cured pork. They also are
antimicrobial agents.

Non-nutritive and special dietary sweeteners are used in low-calorie soft drinks, in dietetic
foods, and by diabetics.

Nutrient supplements such as Vitamin D in milk, iodine in salt, and iron in cereal
products are useful supplements to diets that may otherwise be deficient in those
nutrients.
Preservatives extend shelf life and prevent deterioration. Common preservatives include sodium
nitrite in processed meats, sodium benzoate in soft drinks, sodium and calcium propionates in
breads and cakes, sorbic acid in cheese, and chlorine as a germicidal wash on fruits and
vegetables. Sulfur dioxide is used to control browning of fruits and ethylene oxide is used to
fumigate spices.

Sequestrants chelate or sequester trace metals and prevent them from causing oxidation or off-
coloring. Citric acid and ethylenediamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA) are examples.

Stabilizers prevent food products from changing chemically. They are also called thickeners.
Pectin, casein, gelatin, carrageenan, and gum arabic are common stabilizers use to thicken
gravies, pie fillings, chocolate milk drinks, jellies, puddings, and salad dressings.

Surface active ingredients include emulsifiers to stabilize oil-in-water, water-in-oil, gas-in-

liquid and gas-in-solid mixtures. Lecithin, mono-clycerides and di-clycerides are commonly
used.

Miscellaneous additives include yeast in breads, calcium chloride used to firm fruits and
vegetables, anticaking agents in salt, and gibberellic acid to stimulate growth in barley for
malting.

Pasteurization
Pasteurization is a process that kills microbes (mainly bacteria) in food and drink, such as milk,
juice, canned food, and others. It requires heating a food especially a liquid to or below its
boiling point for a defined time with an aim of extending the shelf life. Pasteurization is also the
process of heat processing a liquid or a food to kill pathogenic bacteria to make the food safe to
eat. Pasteurization does not intend to kill all microorganisms in the food. Instead, it aims to
reduce the number of viable pathogens so they are unlikely to cause disease.
Process and mechanism
Many foods especially liquids can be pasteurized but let us take milk because it’s the most
common.
The milk enters as whole and fresh with the viable micro organisms and the enzymes in full
working conditions. The heating is done in either High Temperature Short Time for example
720C for 15 seconds or Low Temperature Long Time for example 63 0C for 30 minutes, this helps
to stop pathogen growth by stopping the functionality of the cell. The milk then is cooled to
prevent the Maillard reaction and caramelization.

Types of Pasteurization:
There are basically two methods of pasteurization in use today- batch and continuous flow. In the
batch process a large quantity of milk is held in a heated vat at 149°F./65°C. for 30 minutes,
followed by quick cooling to about 39°F./4°C.In the continuous flow process also known as
HTST, for high temperature, short time, milk is forced between metal plates or through pipes
heated on the outside by hot water. While flowing under pressure, the milk is held at
161°F/72°C. for at least 16 seconds. Before being chilled back to 39°F./4°C , it flows through a
heat exchanger to pre-warm cold milk just entering the system.
Pasteurization can be locally done by using a large container and relatively smaller container,
cold water is poured in the large container and the content to be pasteurized is placed in the small
container and covered or sealed. The small container is placed in the larger one with water and
the whole setup is covered or sealed, heat is applied to boil the water hence raising the
temperatures in the content to be pasteurized reducing pathogens and denaturing the enzymes.
Foods involved in pasteurization
Milk is a food product that is pasteurized worldwide, but few other foods are commonly
pasteurized in certain parts of the world. Here is the list:
Canned foods – these foods include meats, vegetables and fruits that are generally heated in the
can or container itself to kill the micro-organisms.
Juices – most of the tetra-pack and bottled juices are pasteurized first before filling in the packs
and bottles.
Low-alcoholic beverages – Like juices, these beverages are also heated and cooled before filling
in bottles.
Water – The bottled water is usually pasteurized and in places where polluted water is available,
the pasteurization becomes quite necessary
Advantages of pasteurization
 The flavor and the texture of the milk have improved after pasteurizing it.
 The method kills the pathogens or bacteria present in the raw milk and makes is safe to
consume without any health risk.
 UHT method is the best to apply, as it has less of an adverse effect on milk’s nutritional
value and taste.
 This method may prevent many diseases such as diphtheria, tuberculosis, scarlet fever
and brucellosis by killing some of the most harmful bacteria.
Disadvantages: of pasteurization
 Milk pasteurized with HTST method is believed to lose 1/3rd of the thiamine present in
the milk and half of vitamin B12.
 The discovery of heat resistant pathogens has increased the risk of the presence of
bacteria even after pasteurizing the food.
 Due to loss of certain enzymes in food during pasteurization, few people consider raw
milk a better option to pasteurized milk.

HEAT STERILIZATION
Heat sterilization of food products is one of the main techniques in the food industry for food
conservation.
The heat sterilization involves exposing food to a temperature generally exceeding 100 ° C for a
period sufficient to inhibit enzymes and all forms of microorganisms, including bacteria spore.
Heat sterilization stops bacterial and enzyme activity; thus, preventing a loss of quality and
keeping food non-perishable.
Sterilization is a controlled heating process used to completely eliminate all living micro-
organisms, including thermo resistant spores in milk or other food. It can be achieved by moist
heat, dry heat, filtration, irradiation, or by chemical methods. Compared to pasteurization, a heat
treatment of over 100°C is applied for a period long enough to lead to a stable product shelf-life.
PROCESS AND MECHANISMS OF HEAT STERILIZATION
Generally in sterilization, the product is canned or bottled and then heat-treated in a sterilizer.
Sterilizers may be batch or continuous. In heat treatment processes, various time/temperature
combinations can be applied, depending on the product properties and shelf-life requirements.
Sterilization with moist heat:
In sterilization with moist heat, temperatures generally range from 110 to 130°C with
sterilization times being from 20 - 40min. For example, canned foods are sterilized in an
autoclave at about 121°C for 20min. Higher temperatures and shorter times may have similar
effects, e.g. 134°C for 3min. However, if conditions do not allow the germination of spores,
lower temperatures and shorter times can also be applied.
Sterilization with dry heat:
For killing bacterial endospores by dry heat, longer exposure times (e.g. up to 2 hours) and
higher temperatures (e.g. 160 – 180°C) are required than with moist heat.

UHT Treatment (ultra high temperature)

UHT treatment means a very short heat treatment at temperature of approximately 140°C (135 -
150°C) for only a few seconds. This results in a sterilized product with minimal heat damage to
the product properties. UHT treatment is only possible in flow-through equipment. The product
is thus sterilized before it is transferred to pre-sterilized containers in a sterile atmosphere. This
requires aseptic processing. There are two principal methods of UHT treatment:

Direct heating:
The product is heated by direct contact with steam of potable or culinary quality. The main
advantage of direct heating is that the product is held at the elevated temperature for a shorter
period of time. For a heat-sensitive product (for example milk), this means less damage. There
are two methods of direct heating: (a) injection and (b)infusion.
(a) Injection:
High pressure steam is injected into pre-heated liquid by a steam injector leading to a rapid rise
in temperature. After holding, the product is flash-cooled in a vacuum to remove water
equivalent to amount of condensed steam used. This method allows fast heating and cooling, and
volatile removal, but is only suitable for some products. It is energy intensive and because the
product comes in contact with hot equipment, there is potential for flavour damage.
(b) Infusion: The liquid product stream is pumped through a distributing nozzle into a chamber
of high-pressure steam. Product temperature is accurately controlled via pressure. Additional
holding time may be accomplished through the use of plate or tubular heat exchangers, followed
by flash cooling in vacuum chamber. This method has several advantages instantaneous heating
and rapid co
Indirect heating:
The heating medium and product are not in direct contact, but separated by equipment
contact surfaces. Several types of heat exchangers are applicable:
 plate
 tubular
 scraped surface and
 Double-cone.
(a) Plate Heat Exchangers:
Similar to that used in HTST but operating pressures are limited by gaskets. Liquid velocities are
low which could lead to uneven heating and burn-on. This method is economical in floor space,
easily inspected, and allows for potential regeneration.
(b) Tubular Heat Exchangers:
There are several types: shell and tube, shell and coil, double tube and triple tube. All of these
tubular heat exchangers have fewer seals involved than with plates. This allows for higher
pressures, thus higher flow rates and higher temperatures. The heating is more uniform but
difficult to inspect.

(c) Scraped Surface Heat Exchangers:

The product flows through a jacketed tube, which contains the heating medium, and is scraped
from the sides with a rotating knife. This method is suitable for viscous products and particulates
such as fruit sauces, and can be adjusted for different products by changing configuration of
rotor. There is a problem with larger particulates; the long process time for particulates would
mean long holding sections which are impractical. This may lead to damaged solids and over
processing of sauce.
(d) Double-cone Heat Exchangers:
Suitable for large particulates because it involves separation of solids/liquids and combines
indirect heating in double cone (batch) with direct heating of liquid portion (maybe also scraped
surface if too viscous). The solid pieces are fed into a double-cone, rotated slowly on horizontal
axis with steam injection and heated surfaces. There is no burn-on because they are the same
temperature. The liquid is directly heated with steam separately, then added after pre-cooling.
The double cone acts as a blender and coats solids. The product is then discharged to aseptic
filler by overpressure with sterile air. Used for soups, stews, carrots, and vegetables.
Foods involved in heat sterilization
Acid fruit juices, jam, or desserts for moist heat sterilization.
Heat sterilization is used to treat all types of food products. These include milk, juices, beer and
many others.
UHT sterilization is used for low viscosity liquid products milk, juices, cream, wine, salad
dressings, foods with discrete particles like baby foods, tomato products, fruits and vegetables
juices, soups and larger particles.

Advantages of dry heat sterilization

 A dry heat cabinet is easy to install and has relatively low operating costs
 It penetrates materials
 It is nontoxic and does not harm the environment
 Its noncorrosive for metal and sharp instrument

Disadvantages of dry heat sterilization
 Time consumer methods because of slow rate of heat penetration and microbial killing
 High temperatures are not suitable for most materials.
Advantages of moist heat sterilization
 Cycle easy to control and monitor.
 It’s rapidly microbicidal.
 Its least affected by organic or inorganic salts.
 It has a rapid cycle time.
 It does not burn food to ash.
Disadvantages of moist heat sterilization.
 May leave metallic instruments like cans rusted.
 Over exposure to some nutrients causes deterioration.
 Cannot be used in heat sensitive instruments.
 It can cause potential burns.
 HEAT REMOVAL
Achieved by cold preservation
A reduction in temperature of food reduces the rate of quality changes during storage caused by
various factors;
At low temperatures:
Microbial growth is retarded and microbial reproduction prevented.
Rate of chemical reaction e.g
Oxidation, maillard browning, enzymatic browning, formation of off-flavors, lipolysis can be
reduced.
Most food spoilage organisms grow rapidly at temperatures above 10 0C though some grow at
temperatures below 00C as long as there is unfrozen water / bulk water available.
Below -9.50C, there is no vital growth of spoilage microorganisms.
Chilled food has a higher quality but shorter shelf life while frozen food has a much longer shelf
life.
Chilling
It is a gentle method of preservation with least changes in taste, texture, nutritive value and other
attributes of foods.
Chilling refers to storage temperature above freezing, 0- 5 0C
(32-23oF) in other words in preservation in which row or processed food is cooled to a
temperature between zero to five degree
Most foods freeze until -20C or lower because of solutes such as sugars and salts because of
depression in freezing point.
In low acid chilled food, strict hygiene is required. It is also used in combination with other
methods like pasteurization, fermentation, irradiation and controlled atmospheres.
Not all foods require chilling e.g Tropical and sub-tropical fruits suffer chilling injury when
stored below 130C resulting into abnormal physiological changes e.g skin browning e.g mango,
failure to ripen e.g tomato.
Process and mechanism
1. Quick removal of heat at chilling stage
Refrigeration starts at harvest especially perishables like fruits and vegetables
 Evaporative cooling
Spray water and then put food in vacuum e.g leafy vegetables
 Nitrogen gas (evaporating liquid nitrogen on produce); Remove heat from products
 Heat exchangers; Stainless steel plates with enclosure cool food faster
2. Maintain low temperature during chill stage
 Refrigeration design (cooling capacity and insulation)
If the refrigeration design is not suitable, it may lead to changes in temperature which
may affect the quality of food.
 Refrigeration load; Avoid overloading of the refrigerator as it may affect its
effectiveness.
 Types of food; Specific heat of the food affects the rate of heat removal which depends
on water content of food
  Respiration rate of food; Fruits and vegetables respire and thus produce their own heat at
varying rates. Products with high respiration rates include sweet corn, green peas,
strawberry and should be monitored through separating them to achieve proper chilling
effectiveness.

3. Maintain appropriate air circulation and humidity

Air velocity has to be controlled in the chilling stores and chillers through the installation of
coolers.
4. Modification of gas atmosphere
 CAS- Controlled Atmosphere Storage
The concentration of oxygen, carbon dioxide and ethylene are monitored and regulated
throughout the storage Controlled Atmosphere Storage inhibits over ripening in fruits
during cold storage.
 MAS- Modified Atmosphere Storage
The chilled products are in sealed storage of modified gas composition, so the products
are allowed to change their gas composition by normal respiration but little control is
used. The oxygen is reduced but not eliminated and carbon dioxide is increased (to the
optimum of each fruit differs)
 MAP- Modified Atmosphere packaging
The fruits or vegetables, meats among others are sealed in a package under flushed gases
(Nitrogen or carbon dioxide) and the air in the packet is modified overtime by the
respiring product.

5. Efficient distributive system

e.g chilled stores, chilled retailed display

Foods involved in chilling

Milk shakes, soft drinks like soda, fruit juices like splash, fruit salads, desserts, soups.
Advantages of chilling
 It enhances the flavors and texture of foods e.g ice-cream, fruit juices
 It preserves the quality of foods like fruits and vegetables
Disadvantages
 It is expensive to maintain e.g the chiller equipments
 Over chilling may lead to loss of moisture of food especially when temperatures are not
stable.

FREEZING
Unit operation and preservation method in which temperature of food is reduced below the
freezing point and proportions of water undergoes a phase change to form ice.
Freezing requires temperature of -180 C or below.
Process and mechanism
When food reaches a temperature of 32 oF, moisture on the surface freezes. Time consumed in
freezing dependent upon the difference between food and freezing medium, thus the more rapid
freezing the better the results.
In Rapid freezing there is less withdrawal of water from cells and less damage to tissue
structure. It also leaves most of the cells intact and in most cases reduces crystal size as
compared to slow freezing.
In slow freezing, most ice crystals are found in the intercellular spaces of the tissues.
Freezing involves two processes which include;
 Lowering of temperature
 Change of phase from liquid to solid.
Liquid to ice increases concentration of unfrozen matrix therefore leads to dehydration
and lowering of water activity for microbial growth.
Low temperature decreases water activity which makes freezing a good preservation method.
Food is cooled bellow its freezing point. . Freezing point depends on water content and solutes
present in the food.
Water in food freezes first leaving the dissolved solids in concentrated form which requires low
temperatures to freeze. Freezing point decreases during freezing as concentration increases.
The rate of freezing
Faster freezing leads to formation of small crystals for high quality products e.g ice-cream
Driving force
It helps to freeze products quickly due to difference in temperature between medium and
products so” the bigger the difference, the faster the product will cool down. The higher the
efficiency of the thermal conductivity of the freezing medium the refrigerating agent extracts heat
from the fruit faster due to direct surface contact between the medium and the products.”
Forces that resist freezing e.g product packed in large size, irregular products with freezing
agents, product composition with high heat capacity and thermal conductivity of food packages
such as cardboards and plastics that may retard (by acting as an insulator ) heat transfer and thus
slow down freezing rate.
Foods involved
Fruits like berries, citrus, tropical fruits, pine apples
Vegetables like peas, green beans, spinach, sweet corn, potatoes, fish fillets and sea food, fish
cakes, fish fingers
Meats like beef, lamb, and poultry as carcasses
Baked foods like bread, cakes, pasty dough
Prepared foods like pizzas, yoghurt, ice-cream, soups
Advantages of freezing
 Extends shelf life
  Ensure product safety and nutritional value
 Maintenance of product quality
 Slow defrosting allows more of the free juices to be reabsorbed into the tissues.
 It slows down enzyme activity.
 It destroys varying percentages of the bacteria present in foods.
Market advantages
 Distribution of foods over long distances far from the point of harvest is easy
 Ensures just-in-time delivery especially aquatic food products to retailers, distributers and
buyers which saves a customer the cost of storage and permit delivery of customers the
highest quality products based upon market demand.
 Preserves food without causing major changes in shape, texture, colour and flavor.
Disadvantages
 Enlarged crystals disrupt emulsions (milk and butter)
 It is expensive –power costs
 Freezing gradually extracts water from the cell protoplasm and produce precipitation of
protein, concentration salts increase leading to partial collapse of the cell wall.
 Irreversibility in structure of fruits and vegetables.
 Formation of ice changes food quality due to freeze concentration effect and re-
crystallization e.g change in consistency in orange juice

In freeze concentration effect there is precipitation of solutes in products thus leading to

loss in quality e.g loss in consistency e.g in frozen fruit juices like orange juice because
of aggregated pectic substances and syneresis of starch puddings because of starch
aggregation.
Increase in ionic strength due to freeze concentration effect leads to “salting out” of
proteins causing protein denaturation (reason for toughening of frozen fish)
Increase in solid concentration may lead to an ion/cation disturbance thus change in PH
of foods.
Concentration of the active compound accelerates reactions such as liquid oxidation.
Large size crystal and crystallization
Due to unsteady and insufficient cold temperatures; Ice crystals grow into large ice
crystals which cause damage to the food texture. e.g rupture of cell walls and membranes,
separation of plant and animal cells in vegetables and meat respectively.
Freezer-burn problem occurs when there is a headspace in the packaged food and the
food is subjected to fluctuating storage temperatures. When temperatures increase, ice at
the warmer surface will sublime into a head space.
As temperature of the freezer cools down, the water vapour recrystallizes on the inner
surface of the package instead of going back into the product. This leads to dehydration
of the surface of the product. If the product is not packaged, the freezer-burn problem is
more severe and common.
 Fermentation

Fermentation is the process in which a substance breaks down into a simpler substance.
Microorganisms like yeast and bacteria usually play a role in the fermentation process, creating
beer, wine, bread, yogurt and other foods.

Fermentation in food processing: is the process of converting carbohydrates to alcohol or

organic acids using microorganisms like yeasts or bacteria are under anaerobic conditions.
Fermentation usually implies that the action of microorganisms is desired. The science of
fermentation is known as zymology or zymurgy.

The term fermentation sometimes refers specifically to the chemical conversion of sugars into
ethanol, producing alcoholic drinks such as wine, beer, and cider. However, similar processes
take place in the leavening of bread (CO2 produced by yeast activity), and in the preservation of
sour foods with the production of lactic acid, such as in sauerkraut and yogurt.

Apart from alcohol, widely consumed fermented foods include vinegar, olives, yogurt, bread,
and cheese. In various parts of the world, more localized foods prepared by fermentation may
also be based on beans, dough, grain, vegetables, fruit, honey, dairy products, fish , meat,

The first step, is common to all fermentation pathways:

C6H12O6 + 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP + 2 Pi → 2 CH3COCOO− + 2 NADH + 2 ATP + 2 H2O +

2H+

Pyruvate is CH3COCOO−. Pi is inorganic phosphate. Two ADP molecules and two Pi are
converted to two ATP and two water molecules via substrate-level phosphorylation. Two
molecules of NAD+ are also reduced to NADH[2]

Humans have used fermentation to produce drinks and beverages since the Neolithic age. For
example, fermentation is used for preservation in a process that produces lactic acid as found in
such sour foods as pickled cucumbers, kimchi and yogurt (see fermentation in food processing),
as well as for producing alcoholic beverages such as wine (see fermentation in winemaking) and
beer..

Examples of foods

Fermentation does not necessarily have to be carried out in an anaerobic environment. For
example, even in the presence of abundant oxygen, yeast cells greatly prefer fermentation to
aerobic respiration, as long as sugars are readily available for consumption (a phenomenon
known as the Crabtree effect).] The antibiotic activity of hops also inhibits aerobic metabolism in
yeast.
Fermentation react NADH with an endogenous, organic electron acceptor.[1] Usually this is
pyruvate formed from the sugar during the glycolysis step. During fermentation, pyruvate is
metabolized to various compounds through several processes:

 ethanol fermentation, aka alcoholic fermentation, is the production of ethanol and carbon
dioxide
 lactic acid fermentation refers to two means of producing lactic acid:
 homolactic fermentation is the production of lactic acid exclusively
 heterolactic fermentation is the production of lactic acid as well as other acids and
alcohols.
 Oxidative fermentation is type of fermentation which in presence of oxygen

Sugars are the most common substrate of fermentation, and typical examples of fermentation
products are ethanol, lactic acid, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen gas (H2). However, more exotic
compounds can be produced by fermentation, such as butyric acid and acetone. Yeast carries out
fermentation in the production of ethanol in beers, wines, and other alcoholic drinks, along with
the production of large quantities of carbon dioxide. Fermentation occurs in mammalian muscle
during periods of intense exercise where oxygen supply becomes limited, resulting in the
creation of

MECHANISM OF FERMENTATION

1. Ethyl Alcohol Fermentation:

It is quite common in fungi (e.g., Rhizopns, Yeast) and bacteria. Yeast can respire both
aerobically and anaerobically. Anaerobic respiration occurs in sugary solution if the fungus is not
in contact with atmosphere. It causes fermentation. In the presence of pyruvate decarboxylase
and TPP (thiamine pyrophosphate), pyruvate is broken down to form acetaldehyde.Carbon
dioxide is released.

In the second step,

acetaldehyde is reduced to
alcohol by alcohol
dehydrogenase. Hydrogen
is obtained from NADH-, produced during oxidation of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate to 1,3-
diphospho- glvceric acid in glycolysis.
 Thus form 1 molecule of glucose, 2molecules of pyruvice acid are formed and from 2 molecules
of pyruvate (pyruvice acid) 2 molecules of ethyl alcohol and 2 molecules of co2 are produced.
The overall equation is as follows.

2.lactic acid fermentation. Less familiar in higher plants. But quit common in animal tissue, this
pathway leads to the formation of lactic acid. A NADH-requiring lactic dehydrogenase brings
about this reaction. The NADH required for the reaction is produced in fermentation.

Fermentation process will increase acid levels in the food which will provide un
favorable condition in the food which will not support microorganism to survive. This is
as result of providing acidic media to food .This increases the shelf life of the food.

Store-bought items lose beneficial bacteria.

Fermented foods sold in many stores are processed differently than those that are traditionally
formed. They have too much acid and have pasteurized so they don’t spoil right way. Research
has also shown that fermented cheese products contain way too much salt than water. While
eating fermented foods certainly has some disadvantages, this doesn’t mean you have to shy
away from it. As they say, always eat a balanced diet and everything should be in moderation

Lacto-Fermentation As A Method Of Food Preservation

Lacto-fermentation, in one form or another, has existed in just about every society and culture
that we have record of. From sauerkraut in Germany to kimchi in Korea, lacto-fermented foods
are prevalent in pre-industrial societies.
The reason for this is simple: The process of fermentation allows foods to stay edible longer.
While a cabbage might rot within a couple of weeks at room temperature, sauerkraut can be kept
for months, and in some cases years.

HOW FERMENTATION PRESERVES FOOD

The brine used in lacto-fermented foods creates an anaerobic, acidic environment. Anaerobic
means that there is no oxygen present in the environment. Many lacto-fermented recipes
emphasize keeping the food below the level of the brine because the “bad guys” are unable to
grow in this environment, while the “good guys” have everything they need.

. The acids produced by fermentation protect against the toxin, and help to make lacto-
fermentation one of the safest methods of food preservation.

Learn the basic process of lacto-fermenting vegetables and start preserving at home.

Advantages of Fermentation

The End Product Has More Nutrients

In the canning and freezing process some or all of the nutrients present in the freshly picked are
lost. Lacto-fermentation enhances the nutritive value of the food, and many enzymes and
probiotics are created.

The Process is Easier

Canning food is a lot of work Pressure canning equipment needs to be checked regularly by a
professional. Lacto-fermentation is as simple as chopping up some vegetables, mixing them with
some salt and maybe water, and allowing them to ferment. That’s it!

It is Sustainable

Lacto-fermentation is safe, easy, healthy, and economical. Gallons of lacto-fermented vegetables

may be kept in cool storage for months, providing enzyme Where freezing and canning require a
lot of energy in the form of gas or electricity, lacto-fermentation can be done easily with neither
of these things. For people looking to be self-sufficient or less dependent on fuels in general,
lacto-fermentation is definitely the way to go. rich foods during the darkest periods of the year
when fresh produce is scarce.

List of Advantages of Fermented Foods

1. It helps restore proper bacteria balance in the intestines. Probiotics are mostly part of a group
of bacteria that produces lactic acid and are found in fermented milk, yogurt and other foods
that have undergone the fermentation process. Not only that, consuming such foods can also
improve the bioavailability of nutrients, minimize the symptoms of lactose intolerance and
reduce the prevalence of allergy in those who are susceptible.

Food fermentation serves five main purposes: to enrich the diet through development of a
diversity of flavors, aromas, and textures in food substrates; to preserve substantial amounts
of food through lactic acid, alcohol, acetic acid, and alkaline fermentations; to enrich food
 substrates with protein, essential amino acids, and vitamins; to eliminate antinutrients; and to
reduce cooking time and the associated use of fuel.

2. It improves heart health.

The consumption of dairy is associated with the risk of coronary heart disease. However, there is
certain milk products that have undergone fermentation considered good for the heart. There is
evidence to prove that fermented milk products can mildly decrease really high blood pressure .

3. It improves the immune system.

Eating foods that have been fermented can make the intestine stronger and thus less at risk for
intestinal illnesses. The consumption of fermented foods can also boost the immune system as
seen with kefir, an acidic beverage made by fermenting milk with grains.

4. Liver Protection: Fermented foods could help people with Hepatitis C and liver issues.
Consuming fermented brown rice can assist minimize the risk of developing severe hepatitis, l.
Fermented brown rice might likewise help minimize the action of complimentary radicals that
can harm the liver and cause or aggravate the development of hepatitis and other liver issues

List of Disadvantages of Fermented Foods

1. It is linked with the development of gastric cancer.

The study was a meta-analysis of reports showing the effects of fermented and non-
fermented soy food consumption on the risk of gastric cancer development. The study
indicated that a high intake of fermented soy foods increased the risk of gastric cancer
while a diet that was high in non-fermented soy foods reduced the risk of gastric cancer.
2. Store-bought items lose beneficial bacteria.

Fermented foods sold in many stores are processed differently than those that are
traditionally formed. While eating fermented foods certainly has some disadvantages, this
doesn’t mean you have to shy away from it. As they say, always eat a balanced diet and
everything should be in moderation

3. Threat of Botulism Contamination

Foods fermented in your home position a danger of botulism contamination. The episode was
caused by consuming fermented beaver tail and paw, a traditional local delicacy. The Orange
County Health Care Company took care of other cases of botulism poisoning caused by home-
prepared fermented.
Smoking
Smoking foods is one of the most ancient food preservation processes, and in some communities
one of the most important. The use of wood smoke to preserve foods is nearly as old as open-air
drying.
Although not primarily used to reduce the moisture content of food, the heat associated with the
generation of smoke also causes a drying effect. Smoking has been mainly used with meat and
fish.
The main purposes of smoking are:
 It imparts desirable flavors and colors to the foods.
 Some of the compounds formed during smoking have a preservative effect (bactericidal
and antioxidant) due to the presence of a number of compounds.

In many cases, smoking is considered as a pre-treatment rather than a drying process. Smoking is
effective in preventing lipid oxidation in meat and fish products. The level of fats affects texture,
oiliness, and color of smoked salmon during storage.
Smoking is a slow process and it is not easy to control.

Smoke contains phenolic compounds, acids, and carbonyls, and the smoky flavor is primarily
due to the volatile phenolic compounds. Wood smoke is extremely complex and more than 400
volatiles have been identified. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are ubiquitous in the
environment as pyrolysis products of organic matter.
Their concentration in smoked food can reach levels hazardous for human health, especially
when the smoking procedure is carried out under uncontrolled conditions.

Wood smoke contains nitrogen oxides, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, phenolic compounds,
furans, carbonylic compounds, aliphatic carboxylic acids, tar compounds, carbohydrates,
pyrocatechol, pyrogallols, organic acids, bases, and also carcinogenic compounds like 3:4
benzpyrene. Nitrogen oxides are responsible for the characteristic color of smoked foods,
whereas polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon components and phenolic compounds contribute to its
unique taste. These three chemicals are also most controversial from a health perspective.

It is important to scrutinize processing conditions, which must be standardized, controlled,

monitored, and documented so that the potential for producing toxic, or even lethal, food
products is eliminated. This is important especially for seafood products, which may contain
food-poisoning organisms of marine origin that are more difficult to control than those from land
sources.
Color development in smoked fish is a complex process. Maillard type with glycolic aldehyde
and methyglyoxal in the dispense phase of smoke is dominant role in developing golden color.
Several types of synthetic colors, paprika, caramel, and seasoning can also be used.
All smoked fish must be stored chilled or vacuum packed to prolong shelf life. Brining and
smoking affects the sensory quality as well as microbial preservation.
The traditional method of smoking fish involves passing hot smoke, from a range of woods, over
the fish to partially dry it and impart the flavor and aroma of the smoke.

Disadvantages of this method include;

  lack of control over the process and the finished product, with consequent health
concerns if the surface of the fish is not properly dried.
 The smoking process involves extensive handling of raw and finished products.

Smoked food is prepared with either of two basic procedures. One cooks the product
(hot smoking) and the other does not (cold smoking). Cold smoking devices have one basic
function to apply smoke to the product. Hot smoking devices have the added function of
applying heat. The hot smoke process for smoking fish differs from the cold-smoke process in a
fundamental way. The cold-smoke process requires that the fish reach an internal cooking
temperature below 35°C, while the hot-smoke process cooks the fish to the center at a
minimum of 62.8°C for at least 30 minutes.
Also, both processes should ensure at least 3.5% salts in water-phase of fish muscle. Between
these two extremes are the temperatures that can create an environment favorable to the growth
of food-poisoning bacteria.

As an additional safety margin, hot-smoked fish should always be cooled to less than 3.3°C
immediately after smoking and held at that temperature until consumed to prevent the growth of
food-poisoning bacteria.
Both hot- and cold-smoked fish are preserved primarily by controlling the salt and moisture
Content (water-phase salt). Smoke deposition is effective only in controlling surface spoilage

The hot smoking of fish requires five steps, each with different goals and operating conditions.
These steps include: surface drying, smoking, drying, heating/cooking, and cooling.
Surface drying is the removal of surface moisture, leaving a protein coating (pellicle) on each
piece of fish so that it accepts an even smoke deposit.
The second step involves producing a dense atmosphere of smoke and conditions where smoke
is deposited evenly on the surface of each piece to insure good flavor, color, and surface
preservation. Often, color does not develop until after the surface of the fish reaches 54.4°C–
60°C during the cooking step. The next step involves evenly drying the fish to reduce moisture,
raise the water-phase salt, and establish final texture. This is a critical step in producing safe
products––heating each piece of fish to at least 62.8°C (Cooking) and holding that temperature
for at least 30 minutes. This is followed by cooling the fish to below the cooking temperature
(48.9°C–60°C) in the smokehouse as quickly as possible.

A suitable sanitary refrigerated room is usually more practical and cost-effective than a
refrigerated smoke-house.

Cold-smoke procedures do not use step 4, i.e., heating/cooking. Usually these five cycles require
8–12 h. Cycles of 4 h or less are possible with thin and lightly smoked products. The differences
in the process employed depend primarily upon the type of fish and regional preferences for a
particular product.

A smokehouse is equipped with a smoke generator where smoke is passed over water to remove
tar and solid particles. Good manufacturing practice (GMP) from the FDA sets the minimum
standards for time/ temperature smoking cycles, salt and moisture content, manufacturing,
holding and shipping temperatures, process monitoring and record keeping, and packaging.
More modern methods of smoking fish use formulations of liquid smoke to provide flavor
and a range of methods of drying to reduce water activity on the surface. The fish is dipped in
smoke solutions prior to drying. Most drying methods use heat to change the relative humidity of
the air passing over the fish.
This is an inefficient way of using energy, and in addition the heat drives off many of the
aromatic chemicals that go to make up the aroma, flavor, and color of the product. This can be
overcome by using an energy-efficient heat pump dryer, where drying is performed in a closed
chamber.

Smoke solutions are available, either being condensed products from the dry distillation of wood
or synthetically prepared mixtures of phenols. The use of smoke condensates offers some
advantages.
 They are easy to apply.
 Their concentration can be controlled.
 They can be analyzed, purified if necessary,
 Their antimicrobial activity can be evaluated.
SALTING
Salting is the preservation of food with dry edible salt. It is related to pickling in general and
more specifically to brining (preparing food with brine, that is, salty water) and is one form of
curing. It is one of the oldest methods of preserving food, and two historically significant salt-
cured foods are salted fish (usually dried and salted cod or salted herring) and salt-cured meat
(such as bacon). Vegetables such as runner beans and cabbage are also often preserved in this
manner.

Salting is used because most bacteria, fungi and other potentially pathogenic organisms cannot
survive in a highly salty environment, due to the hypertonic nature of salt. Any living cell in such
an environment will become dehydrated through osmosis and die or become temporarily
inactivated.

Process of salting

There are two methods used to salt meats, fish and pork and these are dry salting and wet salting
(pickling). Though use of salt is most common but salt petre (potassium Nitrate) is also used in
salting non-vegetarian foods. Sugar or a combination of salt and sugar is sometimes also used to
cure meats.

With dry salting meat is packed in dry salt or salt is rubbed with a coating of salt but this method
does not preserve the meat as long as wet salting. In wet salting meat is first rubbed with salt and
salt is also placed between the layers of meat; then brine is poured over the packed salted meat
and kept submerged in brine solution. Pickling does not leave the meat as salty as in dry salting
but it still needs to be pre-soaked, which removes excess salt, before cooking.

Process of pickling

Pickling is a method of preserving food in an edible anti-microbial liquid. Pickling is of two

types

 chemical pickling (brining)

In chemical pickling, food is placed in an edible liquid that inhibits or kills bacteria and other
micro-organisms. A number of pickling agents can be used like brine, vinegar, alcohol, and
vegetable oil (olive or mustard oil). The chemical pickling process could also involve heating
or boiling so that the food being preserved becomes saturated with the pickling agent.

How to preserve seafood by dry and wet salting

There are two basic methods of preserving food with salt: dry salting and wet salting (brining).
Salt at appropriate concentrations inhibits the growth of bacteria and also aids the dehydration
process. Salting is often done before other preservation or preparation methods such as smoking,
although it can also be done simply to add flavor.

Dry salting is used to draw the moisture out of food, which helps to reduce the growth of
unwanted bacteria.

Brining is a wet cure equivalent of dry salting. The brine, a flavored solution of salt or
sometimes sugar, both draws out moisture and permeates the seafood. The salt and sugar also
inhibits bacterial growth.

Equipment required

Glass, enamel, glazed ceramic or stainless steel (never aluminum) container

Dry salting

Process

1. Place prepared seafood in a single layer in a container. Sprinkle generously with salt.
Turnover and salt the other side. Another layer can be placed on top and the salting
process repeated. Use about a quarter of the seafood weight in salt.
2. Cover, and leave in a cool place (20°C or less) for the required time. In hot weather it is
preferable to store in the chiller.
3. Rinse under cold running water.
4. Dry with disposable paper towels.

Wet salting Process

1. Mix brine. A strong brine is made by dissolving about 270 g of salt in a litre of water; a
weak brine requires about 120 g of salt.
2. Submerge the seafood in the brine for the required time (a strong brine will require a
shorter time than a weak brine), in a cool place (20°C or less). In hot weather it is
preferable to store in the chiller.
3. Wash well under cold water.
4. Dry with disposable paper towels.

The advantages and disadvantages of road salt

In winter, most regions in Canada use road salt to provide better tire traction on ice and snow and
prevent cars from skidding on slippery roads. So what are the advantages and disadvantages of
road salt?

The advantages
Cheap method to carry out n by people in rural areas.

Less technical skills are not required carry out this preservation method.

Less poisons are present compared to other methods of preservation which requires use
of chemicals in process.

The disadvantages

Salt may have considerable environmental impact if used excessively.

 Salt dissolves in water, an effect that increases the salt concentration of groundwater. Salt
can also affect the fauna and flora in river systems.
 Sodium, which comprises road salt, can raise the pH level of soil and make it less
permeable. That makes it less fertile.
 Salt can have a negative impact on vegetation bordering roads. In fact, trees, shrubs,
plants and grasses can deteriorate if the salt content of the water and soil is too high.

MECHANISM OF SALTING

. The oldest methods to preserve fish are therefore by salting or dehydrating the food. Salting fish
is a way of drying the flesh because it draws out moisture and so prevents bacterial growth. The
,microorganism will tend have unsuitable condition for their survival . This trend lower
number of toxins in the food thus increasing the shelf life. The free water is lowered
which leads to presence of only bounded water which is not present microorganism.

METHODS OF SALTING FOOD

Often neglected or underestimated, salt is essential to seasoning food, an ingredient missed when
it's underused and detested when it's overdone. To salt food correctly, you must understand how
food responds to it. There are several methods of salting food, most importantly "to taste." Other
methods include curing, brining and salt crusting.

To Taste

 Taste serves as the most important barometer for measuring salt. Most recipes designed
for the home cook prescribes the amount of salt to incorporate into a preparation -- that
amount should be considered a recommendation. Always salt a preparation before, during
and after cooking.
 Salt curing, also referred to as corning (as in corned beef), is one of the simplest and most
effective methods of preserving meat. In addition to its preservation properties, salt
 curing contributes flavor elements and assists in producing a moist and juicy final
product. This results from two processes -- osmosis and diffusion. Osmotic pressure
draws moisture to the surface of the meat, killing bacteria in the process.

Brining

 Brines, similar to salt cures, serve as a preservation method, a flavor enhancement

and a tenderizing agent for meat. Brines work on the same principles as salt cures
diffusion and osmosis. Cooks brine several meats, most commonly pork, poultry
and fish. Muscle cells take in moisture from the brine, causing them to swell and
retain water during the cooking process.

Salt Crusting

 Salt crusting refers to covering an item, most commonly vegetables or meats, with a thick
layer of salt and baking it. The salt essentially seals the food, trapping steam -- and
moisture -- inside. If salt crusting a fish (whole fish works very well when roasted in a
salt crust),.. The salt crust alleviates the need to season the fish further, and the flesh
inside will have a moistness unattainable with dry roasting.

Vegetables

 Salt raw vegetables with a coarse salt, such as sea or kosher. Unlike meat, do not salt
vegetables prior to cooking; this draws out moisture and results in a wilted final product.
Season vegetables to taste during the cooking process.

Sun-drying

 Sun drying is oldest method of drying food materials because it uses heart from
the sun and the natural movement of the air . Bright sun, low humidity and
temperature around 100 degrees are necessary .In Illinois the humidity is usually too
high for successful sun drying. Do not sundry and cover at night Sun drying is not
sanitary as other methods of drying. D o not sun dry food if you live near busy
road or areas which are not clean. Natural draft dryer were used for drying.

Sun Drying Mechanism

Sun drying is one of mankind's oldest preservative techniques. It was used in ancient Egypt and
Mesopotamia. It is a slow, gentle process whose benefits more than compensate for its time-
intensive nature - especially when compared to modern mechanical drying methods.

Sun drying relies on the sun to allow the processed product to reach optimum moisture and
quality levels. Tomatoes, which contain more moisture than an average stone fruit, must bask in
the sun for a period of 4 to 10 days to develop the characteristics prized by culinary experts and
gourmets. The changes in Central California Valley temperatures from the low 100's during the
day to a cooler 70-80° at night, ensures that the tomatoes dry very gradually.

The moisture content will tend to reduce lowering effect of microorganisms in food material.
This tends to increase on shelf life of product storage.

Process of sun drying

The method involves exposure of food material in the sun shine in order to reduce the water
activity in the food.

The process begin by exposing sun food material into sun rays which tends to remove the
moisture content from the food

When water is removed after exposing food in sun for longer period, moisture will
reduce which will make the dried.

How to Preserve Food Using Sun Drying and Natural Methods

Sun drying one of the oldest food preservation methods known to man is still highly efficient in
areas of strong sunlight and low humidity such as the arid section of Washington State where
action too if they'll take the time to fabricate a simple homemade indoor dryer like the one Peter
Murphy describes in the pages that follow. Either way whether you try sun drying or dehydrating
your edibles with artificial heat this age-old method of storing food deserves your consideration.
Drying, which doesn't require the support of heavy industry as do canning and freezing, is too
valuable a skill to be forgotten.

To those of us who prefer organically grown fruits and vegetables and also like to save money
home preservation of food is a major concern and everyone has his or her favorite method.

Drying is such a simple method of preserving edibles that you really have to remember only two
ironclad roles:

1. The food must be clean.

2. Juicy fruits and vegetables must be cut in half, and are sometimes better quartered or
sliced. The more moisture an item contains, the smaller we cut it.

Other predrying treatments — including blanching, sulfuring, dipping in salt water, or adding
sugar or honey — are said to help dried foods retain a better color and flavor.

EXAMPLES OF FOODS BY SUN DRYING

Dried tomatoes

There's nothing more flavorful than sun-dried tomatoes, and making your own couldn't be
simpler. Plum or paste tomatoes, such as Roma or Pomodoro, are generally considered the best
choices for sun-drying, but any variety will work. The main thing to consider is thickness - slice
paste tomatoes in halves or thirds, while plum tomatoes can be cut in half. Make your slices
consistent in thickness so they will dry at the same rate.

Wash and cut the tomatoes to the desired thickness, then arrange them leaving space in between
them on a frame that has stainless steel screens on the bottom and top. You can make the frame
any size you want; the screen's purpose is to provide airflow and to keep insects from getting in.
You can season them with herbs or sea salt if you like.

Advantages of sun drying

1. Sun is a cheap source of energy. Energy needed for food processing purposes. Some
intuitive individuals are able to cook rice and other dishes using sunlight. Rays are
reflected, using special device, and directed to the cooking vessel. Maintaining the
quality of the food though using natural draft dryer material help to trap heat
from the sun in order to protect food from insect , birds and other living organisms.

2 The method is cheap to carry out thus simple requirements can used in
process.

3 Less technical skill is required for process to be carried out.

4 The is cheap to carry out thus being inexpensive.

Disadvantages sun drying

The sun itself is a major disadvantage. The drying can only be done effectively from 9 am to 4
pm. The rest of time is idle. It should be done in open field. Trees, buildings and other structures
may block sunlight and hinder the drying process. Cloud formation will also deny sunlight.
Rainy and stormy days will completely deny drying.

2. Exposure to dirts, microbes and animals. Unless the commodity is placed inside a
shielded equipment, glass or thick plastic, getting dirt and microbes from surrounding
environment is likely. Some never want an enclosure cause it add to investment cost and
hinder the airflow and makes the drying slower. Animals like dogs, cats and rodents have
an easy access to the commodity. They are always ready to get some of your precious
fish.
3. The idle time in between drying sessions allow the growth of unwanted microorganisms.
 4. In case of open sun drying, sudden rains and strong winds might completely ruin the
whole batch.
5. Unrepeatable results. Some parameters could not be set, like dry 50 kilograms of fish for
five days. The parameter might be attainable but often not. The reason – read
disadvantages above

Nutrition loss and conservation during processing and storage

Introduction
Almost all food is processed in some way before it is eaten. Commercially, the main reasons to
process food are to eliminate micro-organisms (which may cause disease) and to extend shelf
life.
Simply cooking or combining a food with other foodstuffs to create a recipe is also considered a
form of food processing. Whatever the case, the nutrient value of any food is often altered by the
processing.
Effects of processing and storage of food
Some vitamins are more stable (less affected by processing) than others. Water-soluble vitamins
(B-group and C) are more unstable than fat-soluble vitamins (K, A, D and E) during food
processing and storage.
The most unstable vitamins include:
 folate
 thiamine
 Vitamin C.
More stable vitamins include:
 niacin (vitamin B3)
 vitamin K
 vitamin D
 biotin (vitamin B7)
 Pantothenic acid (vitamin B5).
Processes affecting food nutrient content
A variety of things can happen during the growing, harvesting, storage and preparing of food that
can affect its nutritional content. Processes that expose foods to high levels of heat, light or
oxygen cause the greatest nutrient loss.
Fertilizers
Most plant crops are produced with the aid of fertilized soils. High use of nitrogen fertilizers
tends to reduce the vitamin C content in many fruit and vegetable crops. It does not seem to
make any difference to the plant’s nutrient value whether the fertilizer is organic or not.
Milling
Cereals such as wheat can be ground to remove the fibrous husks. The husks contain most of the
plant’s dietary fibre, B-group vitamins, phytochemicals and some minerals.
That is why products such as white bread are less nutritious than whole meal varieties, even if
they have been artificially fortified with some of the nutrients that were lost after milling. It is
impossible to add back everything that is taken out, especially the phytochemicals. The ‘fibre’
that is added back to some products is often in the form of resistant starch, which may not be as
beneficial as the fibre removed.
Blanching
Before a food is canned or frozen, it is usually heated very quickly with steam or water. The
water-soluble vitamins, including vitamin C and B-complex, are sensitive and easily destroyed
by blanching.
Canning
Food is heated inside the can to kill any dangerous micro-organisms and extend the food’s shelf
life. Some types of micro-organisms require severe heat treatment and this may affect the taste
and texture of the food, making it less appealing. Preservatives are generally not needed or used
in canned foods.
Water-soluble vitamins are particularly sensitive to high temperatures. Many people believe that
canned foods are not as nutritious as their fresh counterparts, but this is not always the case, as
fresh food often deteriorates more rapidly than canned foods.
Freezing
The nutrient value of a food is retained when it is frozen. Any nutrient losses are due to the
processing prior to freezing and the cooking once the frozen food is thawed.
Pasteurization
Pasteurization involves heating liquid foods such as milk and fruit juices to specific temperatures
to destroy microorganisms.
The nutrient value of milk is generally unaffected. In the case of pasteurized fruit juices, some
losses of vitamin C can occur.
High pressure processing
This alternative preservation method subjects a food to elevated pressures, with or without the
use of heat to kill micro-organisms. This method has been used in foods such as fruit juices. As
heat is not required, this process impacts less on the vitamin content, flavour and colour of foods.
Dehydrating
Drying out foods such as fruits can reduce the amount of vitamin C they retain, but it can also
concentrate other nutrients, particularly fibre in plant foods. Dehydrating food also makes food
products more energy dense, which may contribute to weight gain. If a dehydrated food is
reconstituted and cooked with water, further nutrients are leached out of the food and lost in the
cooking water.
Preparation of vegetables
Most vegetables are peeled or trimmed before cooking to remove the tough skin or outer leaves.
But most nutrients, such as vitamins, tend to lie close to the skin surface, so excessive trimming
can mean a huge reduction in a vegetable’s nutrient value.
Losing nutrients through cooking
Some vitamins dissolve in water, so you lose your vitamins to the cooking water if you prefer to
boil your vegetables. For example, boiling a potato can cause much of the potato’s B and C
vitamins to migrate into the boiling water.
It is still possible to benefit from these nutrients if you consume the liquid, for example, by
turning the potato and the liquid into a soup. Alternative cooking methods such as grilling,
roasting, steaming, stir-frying or microwaving generally preserve a greater amount of vitamins
and other nutrients.

Conservation of nutrients
 The canning processing result in nutrients loss. However, newer techniques such as high
temperature/short time heating combined with aseptic packaging reduces the temperature
and time necessary for sterilization of the food, resulting in less nutrient loss.
  The use of high pressure processing nutrients can be preserved by use of high pressure
without heat. As heat is not required, this process impacts less on the vitamin content,
flavour and colour of foods.
 During process of blanching, the effect of bleaching can be reduced by use of steam or
hot air instead of hot water for blanching.
 In milling nutrients can be conserved by use of total consumption of cereals so that
nutrient losses can be reduced.
 Store foods properly, such as keeping cold foods cold and sealing some foods in airtight
containers. Keep vegetables in the crisper section of the refrigerator.
 Try washing or scrubbing vegetables rather than peeling them.
 Use the outer leaves of vegetables like cabbage or lettuce unless they are wilted or
unpalatable.
 Microwave, steam, roast or grill vegetables rather than boiling them.
 If you boil your vegetables, save the nutrient-laden water for soup stock.
 Use fresh ingredients whenever possible.
 Cook foods quickly Preserving the nutrient value of vegetables
 Keep fruits and vegetables cool to prevent enzymes from destroying vitamins.
 Refrigerate food in airtight moisture-proof containers. The loss of nutrients is slowed
near freezing temperatures, at high humidity, and less air contact.
 Avoid trimming and cutting fruits and vegetables into small pieces. The greater surface
area allows oxygen to break down vitamins faster. The outer leaves of all greens and
under the skins of fruits and vegetables, such as potatoes, carrots and apples, have more
nutrients than the inner portion.
 Microwaving cooking, steaming, or using a pan or wok with very small amounts of
water and a tight-fitting lid are best. More nutrients are retained when there is less contact
with water and a shorter cooking time with less exposure to heat. Cook fruits and
vegetables with their skins on.
 Minimize reheating food.
 Do not add baking soda to enhance a vegetable’s green color. Alkaline products destroy
vitamins.
 Store canned goods in a cool place and serve any liquid packed with the food. If you
don’t need all the liquid to cook the food, reserve the remainder for soup stock.
Keep milk refrigerated and tightly capped, away from strong light. Riboflavin is very sensitive
to direct light.