Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 1

ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Language
Language is the collection of sounds, which is used as a
means of communication.

Structure of Language

a) Semantics: It is the study of words and their meanings.

(Vocabulary)

b) Grammar: It consists of the following sub-fields:

1. Morphology: It deals with the formation and composition

of words.

2. Syntax: It is a collection of rules that determine how

words combine into phrases and sentences.

3. Phonology: It is the study of sound systems and abstract

sound units.

4. Phonetics: It is a related branch of linguistics concerned

with the actual properties of speech sounds called phones,
non-speech sounds, and how they are produced and
perceived. (Pronunciation)

Skills of Language

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 2

1. Listening (input)
2. Speaking (output)
3. Reading (input)
4. Writing (output)

NB: If one increases inputs of the language, the outputs

always increase. The approaches to learn L1 (language one)
and L2 (language two) are different; therefore, the learner is
required to adopt personal deliberation and individual
involvement for learning any desired language, which is not
the L1 of the learner.

GRAMMAR
Linguistics: It is the systematic study of language,
encompassing a variety of scientific and humanist
methodologies for its inquiry. It is further divided into many
sub-fields. For better study, it is divided into two major
topical divisions viz. the study of language structure which
is called grammar and the study of meaning which is called
semantics. Further, grammar consists of morphology, which
deals with the formation and composition of words, syntax,
which is a collection of rules that determine how words
combine into phrases and sentences and phonology, which is
the study of sound systems and abstract sound units.
Phonetics is a related branch of linguistics concerned with
the actual properties of speech sounds called phones, non-
speech sounds, and how they are produced and perceived.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 3

Grammar: English grammar is a body of rules specifying

how phrases and sentences are constructed in the English
language. There are two approaches to the study of
grammar: the descriptivist and the prescriptivist, the former
specifies some grammatical rules, regulation and system of
English language whereas the latter does not describe
English grammar but rather sets out a small list of social
regulations that attempt to govern the linguistic behaviour of
native speakers. In fact, the descriptivist method is highly
helpful for those who are not native English. Thus, grammar
is the science of language. It is an art of supplying the right
words in the right places, with the help of grammar we can
read, write and speak any language accurately, in poor
words: Grammar is an ornament and base of language.

Letter: A written or printed sign representing a sound used

in speech. English Alphabet has (26) twenty-six signs, each
sign or sound is called a letter. Example: A, B, C ...Z.

Vowels: Among the twenty-six letters the five letters are

vowels viz. (a, e, i, o, u). The vowels are unobstructed
pronounced sounds, the vocal organs do not move, only air
passes out of mouth and the vowels sounds are pronounced.
Vowels are called sound carrier which help in producing
sounds by mixing consonant sound with them.

Consonant: The letters except the vowels are known as

consonants: (b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x,
y, z)
Note: - Sometimes, "W" and "Y" are considered as vowels,
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when they produce the sound of a vowel as “y” in the word

“happy” produces the sound of vowel “e” or “y” in sky
produces the vowel sound of “a”.

Syllable (Sound): Vowels are used to make syllable with

the help of consonant. Every syllable must have at least one
vowel. For instance, the word “beautiful” consists of two
syllables viz. beau / tiful.

Word: A single unit of language which means something

and can be spoken or written. It is the combination of
syllables, which has complete meaning.
Example: book- pen- teacher- flower.

Phrase: A group of words working as part of a sentence,

which has neither complete sense nor does it have the
subject is called phrase.
Example: The book, that pen, on the table, over the wall,
early in the morning.

Clause: A clause is a part of a sentence which contains a

subject and verb, usually joined to the rest of the sentence
by a conjunction. For instance: Ali said that he would come the
next day. Sometimes, the word clause is also used for
structures containing participles of infinitives with no
subject or conjunction. For example (a) Realizing his mistake,
he stopped arguing. (b) The situations compelled her to
withdraw from her point of view. The former is the example of
participle whereas the latter is of infinitive. Clauses are of
three types.
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(a) Subordinate Clause: The subordinate clause works as a

part of another clause as a subject, object or adverbial in the
main clause of a sentence. For example: (a) I thought that you
understood. (b) What they want is delicious food. (c) You will
find fast food, wherever you go. In example (a) "that you
understood" functions as an object of the sentence. In
example (b) "What they want" functions as the subject of the
sentence. In example (c) "wherever you go" functions as
adverbial of the sentence.

(b) Co-ordinate Clause: Coordinate clauses are one of the

two or more clauses of equal rank or value that make up a
sentence. A co-ordinate clause does not function as a
subject, object, complement or adverbial in another clause
like a subordinate clause. For example: (a) Will you come to me
or should I come to you? (b) It is sunny today and there is a bit
cloudy. In these instances all the clauses are of equal rank or
value.

(c) Main Clause: Some sentences consist of a main or

principal clause and one or more subordinate clause. In this
kind of combination, a subordinate clause functions like the
part of the main clause as a subject, or an object, or an
adverbial. For example: (a) How she works does not matter.
The subordinate clause "How she works" functions like the
subject of the main clause. (b) I thought that you understood.
The subordinate clause "that you understood" functions like
the direct object of the main clause. (c) You will find fast
food, wherever you go. The subordinate clause "wherever you go"
functions like the adverbial of the main clause. The same
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 6

sentence can be re-written like this: You will find fast food
anywhere.
Sentence: A group of words that makes a complete sense is
called sentence. It denotes to a single thought.
Example: (I) He is a good boy. (II) Asif writes for the
national and international newspapers as a freelancer
journalist.
(a) The parts of sentences: A sentence consists of two parts
viz. “Subject” and “Predicate”. Furthermore “predicate”
may consists of four main parts, i.e. “verb”, “object”,
“adverbial” and “complement.”
Example:
(a) Wasim laughs.
(subject) (predicate)
laughs.
(verb) (intransitive verb having no object)
(b) Katherine wrings a shirt.
(subject) (predicate)
wrings a shirt.
(verb) (object)
(c) My father is a doctor.
(subject) (predicate)
is a doctor.
(complement)
(d) Aslam writes a letter to his brother monthly.
(subject) (predicate)
writes a letter to his brother monthly.
(verb) (object) (complement) (adverbial)
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(e) Shut the door. (Imperative sentence)

(predicate) (shut (v) the door (o)
Note: Generally, the imperative sentence consisting of
either an order or request does not have subject but its
subject is always "you". "Shut the door" in fact is "(You)
shut the door." This "you" is understood but not spoken or
written.
(a) The Police (s) immediately (a) arrested (v) the thief. (o)
(b) He (s) is (v) now (a) a visiting faculty member (c) at
University of Sindh. (a)
(c) He (s) became (v) confident (c) gradually. (a)
(d) It (s) rained (v) steadily (a) all day. (a)
(e) I (s) bought (v) Ali (o) a pen (o).
(f) The executive committee (s) selects (v) a woman (o) as
the chairman (c) every year (a).
Note: Some examples given below show internal
relationship of these elements in the sentences of advance
level when they have dual existence; hence, "subject" or
"verb" in one part of the sentence may work as "object" to
other part of the sentence.
(g) He thought that they (s) had understood (v) him (o).
(sub:) (verb) Object
(h) Wasim grew happier when his friend (s) arrived (v).
(sub) (verb) (comp) (adverbial)
Note: The sentences, which consist of intransitive verbs, have
only verb but they have no object at all in their predicates.
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES ACCORDING
TO MEANING

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 8

1) Declarative Sentence: It has two forms:

a) Affirmative Sentence: An affirmative sentence is a

positive statement:
Example: Wasim writes a letter. Too many cooks spoil the
broth.

b)Negative Sentence: A negative sentence is a negative

statement:
Example: Aslam does not write a letter. There is no
substitute of compassion in human life.

2) Interrogative Sentence: An interrogative sentence is

used to ask question:
Example: What is your name? Will you accompany me to
the station?

3) Exclamatory Sentences: An exclamatory sentence

expresses a sudden emotion, feeling or a desire:
Example: a) Hurrah! We have won the match. b) Oh! He
is dead.
c) Yippee, grandfather is coming! d) What fun!

4) Optative Sentences: An optative sentence expresses a

strong wish or pray:
Example: a) May God bless you! (b) May God blacken
her / his face!

5) Imperative Sentences: An imperative sentence expresses

a command, request or a piece of advice.
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Example: a) Shut the window. (Command or order)

b) Please give me a pen (Request).

6) Assertive Sentence: An assertive sentence expresses

opinions or desires strongly and with confidence, so that
people take notice.
Example:
a) You should try and be more assertive.
b) You had better work hard if you want to shine about the
firmament of the success.

7) Clef Sentence: It is a kind of sentence in which special

emphasis is given to one of its parts that may be subject or
object by using the structure with "it" or "what".
Example:
a) It is teachers who guarantee the future of the students.
b) What I need is your trust.

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES ACCORDING

TO CONSTRUCTION

1. Simple Sentences: A simple sentences contains one finite

verb and therefore one clause. It expresses one main idea.
Thus it has one main clause only which may have word or
phrase modifier (adjectives or adverbs or prepositional
phrases):
Example:
a) My mother was born in Pakistan. (b) The Holy Quran
guides mankind.
c) They are going to Karachi.
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2. Compound Sentence: A compound sentence expresses

two or more main ideas in two or more independent or
main clauses. It has more than one finite verb and more
than one clause joined by co-ordinate conjunction. A
compound sentence can be broken into two or more
simple sentences:
Example:
a) My mother was born in Pakistan but she came to
England as a small girl.
b) I am going to Multan today and I shall return
tomorrow.
c) I went to pay the utility bill, but the bank was off.

Note: Above sentences can be broken into two simple

sentences by omitting co-ordinate conjunction “and” with
“full stop”; as: (a) I am going to Multan. (b) I shall return
tomorrow.

3. Complex Sentence: A complex sentence has one

independent or principal clause and one or more
subordinate clauses. The independent clause expresses a
complete idea and remains meaningful even if the
dependent clauses are removed from the sentence. The
dependent or subordinate clauses are meaningful only if
the meaning of the independent clause is added to them:
Example:
a) My mother came here from India when she was a small
girl.
b) Wasim, who is a prominent psychiatrist, thought the
patent would recover from the mental retardation.
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4. Multiple Sentences: A multiple sentences, also called

“compound complex”, have at least two independent
clauses and one or more subordinate clauses:
Example: He was visiting his home district (independent
clause) and looking at the familiar scenes (independent
clause), which reminded him of his childhood. (sub-
ordinate clause)

WORD CLASSES: PARTS OF SPEECH

The words used in English languages are generally

classified or categorized among nine classes which in
English grammar are called: "word classes" or "lexical
units" or “Parts of Speech”. They are: Noun, Pronoun,
Adjective, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction,
Interjection and Articles.
1. NOUN
Noun: A noun is a naming word and it provides better
identification. It is the name of a person, place or thing. But
the nouns like "jump" or "destruction" which show an action
are called deverbal noun.
Example: Aslam - school - apple - fan.

KINDS OF NOUN

Noun, basically are classified into two main groups viz.

Proper Noun and Common Noun. Further, Common Nouns
are subdivided into minor categories like concrete, abstract,
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mass, compound and collective nouns.

Noun

Proper Noun Common Noun

e.g. e.g. book, copy
Ali, Pakistan, Karachi mango, cow, cat,

Concrete Abstract Mass Compound

Collective
Noun Noun (uncount:) Noun
Noun
e.g. e.g. Noun e.g. e.g. e.g.
house freedom butter doorknob
team

1. Proper Noun: A Proper Noun is a particular name of a

particular person, place or thing. A proper noun is unique in
its properties, features and characteristics and it does not
share them with another noun. A proper noun always
commences or begins with a capital letter.
Example: Waseem - Asif - Pakistan - Badin - Farhan Public
School Kadhan - The Holy Quran.
2. Common Noun: A common noun is a common name of
a common person, place or thing. All the common nouns
have common features or properties to share with. The word
common means "shared by all". The common nouns are
further subdivided into following subgroups.
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Example: boy - women - apple - table - chair.

a) Concrete Noun: A concrete noun refers to an object,
substance or anything that exists in physical sense, whose
physique can be felt by the dint of senses. They are
countable nouns, therefore possesses singular and plural and
are used with articles (a, an, the) or any numeral.
Example: book, pen, bird, apple.
b) Abstract Noun: An abstract noun is a name of an idea,
state, quality, emotion or action. They have dual
characteristics of "mass" and "countable" noun.
Example: love - happiness - darkness - honesty - truth -
democracy - joy - tennis.
c) Mass Noun: A mass noun generally denotes to the
substance in liquid or solid form which are indivisible. The
most probably they are uncountable; therefore, they are not
used in the plural sense, nor do they need article (a, an, the)
nor numerals.
Example: rice - sugar - can - gold - glass - milk - oil - water
d) Compound Noun: When two or more words are put
together to form a name is called a compound noun. The
compound nouns are hyphenated or written separately but
they mean one thing.
Example: post office - living-room - brother-in-law -
textbook - check-up - grown-up - policeman.
e) Collective Noun: A collective noun is a name given to a
group or set of person, places, and things, taken together.
There lies a choice of using either singular or plural helping
verb or pronoun with the collective nouns with certain
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exceptions depending on whether they refer to individuals

which make up the group or the group as a unit.
Example: army - assembly - team - flock - herd - swarm -
family.
a) Family has used its car. b) Family have used their car.
c) The team is about to win. d) The team are losing morale.
d) The police are in blue uniform. (Not: The police is ….)

THE NOUN: CASES

It means the position of a noun in a sentence. A noun has

following six cases:

1. Nominative or Subjective Case: A noun or pronoun,

which is the subject of a verb is said to be in subjective case.
It always comes before the verb.
Example: Faheem is my friend. The cow gives milk. The
boy played well.

2. Accusative or Objective case: A noun or a pronoun,

which is the object of a verb is said to be in objective case. It
always comes after the verb.
Example: They eat mangoes. She cooks food. Asif writes a
letter. They play cricket.

3. Dative Case: A noun or a pronoun, which is the indirect

object of a verb is said to be in dative case:
Example: They give Ali a quilt. I bought my brother a book.
She told Asif a story.

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4. Obligative Case: A noun or a pronoun, which is

preceded by a preposition said to be in obligative case.
Example: The mother bought ice-cream for children. I
bought a pen for Asif. She told a story to Nasreen.

5. Vocative Noun: A noun which addresses is said to be in

vocative case:
Example: Naeem! Come here. Asif! Help me please. Boys,
work hard.

6. Possessive Case: A noun or a pronoun which shows

ownership or possession is said to be in possessive or
genitive case. A noun in this case always bears an
apostrophe (‘) over it:
Example: Asif’s cow gives much milk. This is Naeem’s car.
Father’s love is incomparable, but mother’s love is
unsurpassable.

NOUN: GENDER

Nouns can generally be categorized under the umbrella of

four genders:

1. Masculine Gender: A noun, which denotes a male

person or animal is said to be in masculine gender.
For instance: father - husband - boy - horse.
2. Feminine Gender: A noun, which denotes a female
person or animal is said to be in feminine gender.
Example: mother - wife - girl - mare.

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3. Common Gender: A noun, which denotes both male and

female person and animal is said to be in common gender.
Example: friend - teacher - student – cousin, camel, buffalo.
4. Neuter Gender: A noun that denotes a thing that is
neither male nor female (such nouns are the things without
life) is said to be the nouns of neuter gender:
Example: table - pen - picture - clock - tree.

FORMATION OF GENDER
Rule # 01: Some masculine nouns have totally words as
their feminine gender; as:

Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine

Gender Gender Gender Gender
father mother daddy/ papa mummy/
mama/mom
brother sister son daughter
uncle aunt Nephew niece
bachelor spinster fiancé fiancée
bride-groom bride husband wife
King queen sir madam
widower widow boy girl
male female man women
lord lady gentlemen lady
hero heroine Adam Eve
sultan Sultana bull, ox cow
drone bee bullock, steer heifer
horse/ mare drake duck
stallion
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stag hind dog bitch

cock/rooster hen colt filly
duke duchess barman barmaid
manservant maidservant ram (sheep) ewe
boar (pig) sow buck (deer)/ doe
rabbit
grander goose
Rule # 02: By adding “ess” at end:

Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine

gender gender gender gender
host hostess heir heiress
poet poetess mayor mayoress
author authoress manager manageress
count countess prince princess
lion lioness god goddess
millionaire millionairess murder murderess
prince princess proprietor proprietress

Rule # 03: By adding “ess” at the end after dropping the last
vowel:

Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine

gender gender gender gender
actor actress master mistress
head master head mistress waiter waitress
emperor empress post master post mistress
tiger tigress master mistress
conductor conductress

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Rule # 04: By using feminine word.

Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine

gender gender gender gender
grand-father grand-mother grand-son grand-
daughter
step-father step-mother step-son step-daughter
father-in-law mother-in- brother-in- sister-in-law
law law
son-in-law daughter-in- maternal- maternal-aunt
law uncle
land-lord land-lady paternal- paternal-aunt
uncle
sales-man sales-woman washer-man washer-
woman
milk-man milk-maid pea-cock pea-hen
cock-sparrow hen-sparrow bull-calf cow-calf
tom-cat tabby-cat he-goat she-goat
billy-goat nanny-goat

Common Gender:
(a) Person: These nouns are preferably used as common
gender: "adult, ancestor, baby, Buddhist, child, Chinese,
citizen, companion, cousin, doctor, European, friend,
guardian, guest, infant, judge, juvenile, lawyer, lecturer,
Minister, orphan, owner, parent, passenger, principal, pupil,
relation, relative, singer, student, teacher, teenager, tourist,
traveler, worker."
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(b) Animals: These nouns used for the names of animals

have common gender: "animal, bear, bird, butterfly, cat,
cattle, deer, eagle, fowl, goat, horse, insect, octopus, owl,
pig, sheep, snake, swan, wolf."

Neuter Gender:
These nouns used for the names of non-living or inanimate
things have no gender: "bag, book, box, bread, chalk,
chimney, desk, dishes, floor, house, kettle, mirror, pillow,
ruler, school, seat, stairs, street, table, wall."
SINGULAR AND PLURAL

Generally, all the common, countable nouns are found in

two forms viz. singular and plural. The general rules to
change the singular noun into plural noun are as under:
a) Monosyllabic singular nouns mostly add “s”:
Example: bat - bats; book - books; cat - cats.

b) Singular nouns ending in a hissing sound, e.g. s, ch, x,

add “es”:
Example: glass - glasses; watch - watches; box - boxes.

c) Singular nouns ending in “y” proceeded by a consonant,

change “y” into “i” and add “es”:
Example: party - parties; company - companies; library -
libraries.

d) Singular nouns ending in “y” preceded by a vowel simply

add “s”:
Example: boy - boys; toy - toys; journey - journeys.
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e) Most of the singular nouns ending in “o” preceded by a

consonant add “es”:
Example: tomato - tomatoes; hero - heroes; mosquito -
mosquitoes.
Note: The following words ending in “o” preceded by a
consonant have an exception to above rule; they simply take
“s” for their plural:
Example: kilo - kilos; piano - pianos; photo - photos;
dynamo - dynamos; Eskimos – Eskimos.
Besides, cargo and zero have two correct plural forms:
cargo - cargos (British English) - cargoes (American-
English); zero - zeros (BrE) - zeroes (AmE).

f) Singular nouns ending in “oo” add “s”:

Example: cuckoo - cuckoos; zoo - zoos; bamboo - bamboos;
kangaroo - kangaroos.
g) There are some words or singular nouns ending in “f” or
“fe”, change “f” or “fe” into “v” and add “es”:
Example: knife - knives; wife - wives; thief - thieves; life -
lives; leaf - leaves; sheaf - sheaves; calf - calves; self -
selves; wolf - wolves; shelf - shelves; half - halves; loaf -
loaves.

h) Some singular nouns ending in “f” simply add “s”:

Example: roof - roofs; belief - beliefs; chief - chiefs; cliff -
cliffs; handkerchief - handkerchiefs; safe - safes.
Note: The nouns "hoof", "scarf" and "wharf" take either "s"
or "ves" in the plurals.

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Irregular Plural Forms:

a) By changing the inside vowels: foot - feet; goose - geese;
tooth - teeth; louse - lice; woman - women; man - men; ox -
oxen; child - children.
b) Plural forms of compound noun: major- general - major-
generals; step-father - step-fathers; father-in-law - fathers-
in-law. If the first part of compound noun is fixed then both
nouns are pluralized like man-driver – men-drivers; woman
driver – women-drivers. Sometimes, the first part is made
plural when a compound noun is made of a verb+ er noun +
adverb like: hanger-on – hangers-on; looker-on – lookers-
on; runner-up – runners-up.
c) The following nouns have no plural forms but can be used
both as singular and plural nouns as shown below:

Word Singular Plural

bread a piece of bread pieces of bread
a loaf of bread loaves of bread
music a piece of music pieces of music
furniture a piece of furniture pieces of furniture
equipment a piece of equipment Pieces of equip.
salt a pinch of salt
a spoonful of salt spoonfuls of salt
grass a blade of grass blades of grass
a leaf of grass leaves of grass
ink a bottle of ink bottles of ink
water a glass of water glasses of water
a bucket of water buckets of water
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d) The following nouns are both singular and plural:

deer one deer two deer

fish one fish two fish
sheep one sheep two sheep
innings one innings two innings
head quarters his head quarters their head quarters

e) The following nouns are always used as plural and take

plural verb. Some garments consisting of two parts:
breeches, pants, pajamas, trousers. Some tools and
instruments consisting of two parts: binoculars, pliers,
scissors, spectacles, glasses, scales, shears. Some other
words like arms, damages, earnings, goods/ wares, greens,
grounds, outskirts, pains particulars, premises/quarters,
riches, savings, spirits (alcohol), stairs, surroundings,
valuables, people, cattle, wages, spectacles, clothes, police.
Example: The police are in blue uniform. Your pants are
long. I need two pairs of trousers.

f) There are some words, which are plural in form but

singular in meaning and will take singular helping verb and
pronoun like: "news, hair"; some diseases like: "mumps,
rickets, shingles"; certain games like: "billiards, darts,
draughts, bowls, dominoes".
Example: The news is very sad. Billiards is my favourite
game. My hair is long.

g) There are some nouns ending in "ics" are plural in form

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and generally take plural verb like "acoustics, athletics,

ethics, hysterics, mathematics, physics, politics." But, the
names of sciences are used in singular sense.
Example: His mathematics are weak. Mathematics (as
scientific subject) is the mother of all knowledge. Acoustics
is the scientific study of sound.

h) The words of foreign languages sometimes follow

English rules but to great extent they have different format
for making plurals. Some of the foreign nouns' plurals are
dealt as under:

Singular Foreign Plural Regular Plural Both Plural

Ending Ending Ending Endings
-us -i -uses -i / -uses
stimulus stimuli
bonus bonuses
campus campuses
chorus choruses
circus circuses
virus viruses
cactus cacti / cactuses
nucleus nuclei / nucleuses
radius radii / radiuses
syllabus syllabi/syllabuses
terminus termini/terminuses

Singular Foreign Regular Both Plural

Ending Plural Plural Endings
-a Ending Ending -as / -ae
-ae -s
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 24

larva larvae
vertebra vertebrae
area Areas
dilemma dilemmas
diploma diplomas
drama dramas
antenna antennas/ antennae
formula formulas/formulae

Singular Foreign Regular Both Plural

Ending Plural Plural Endings
-um Ending Ending -a / -s
-a -s
curriculum curricula
album albums
museum museums
stadium stadiums
forum forums
memorandum memoranda/
memorandums
aquarium aquaria/aquariums
symposium symposia/symposiums
medium media / mediums
datum data
stratum strata

Singular Foreign Regular Both Plural

Ending Plural Plural Endings
-ex, ix Ending Ending -ices / -es
-ices -es
index indices
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 25

matrix matrices/matrixes
appendix appendices/appendixes

Singular Foreign Regular Both Plural

Ending Plural Plural Endings
-is Ending Ending
-es
basis bases
analysis analyses
crisis crises
thesis theses
diagnosis diagnoses
hypothesis hypotheses

Singular Foreign Regular Both Plural

Ending Plural Plural Endings
-on Ending Ending -a / -s
-a -s
criterion criteria
phenomenon phenomena
demon demons
electron electrons
neutron neutrons
automaton automata/ automatas

Singular Foreign Regular Both Plural

Ending Plural Plural Endings
-eau Ending Ending -eaux / -s
-eaux -s
bureau bureaux
plateau Plateaux/plateaus

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 26

CLASSIFICATION OF NOUN

A noun is classified as under:

1. Countable Noun: The common names of objects, things

that we can count are called countable nouns. Those all
things would fall in the ambit of countable noun which by
shape, structure or form are divisible into number or counts.
Hence, noun "star" is a countable noun no matter they are
infinite or countless. The countable nouns take articles (a,
an, the) or numerals. The countable nouns have singular and
plural as well.
Example: boy - tree- toy – book - chair.
2. UN Countable Noun: The names of objects, things that
we cannot count are called uncountable nouns. Those all
things would fall in the ambit of uncountable noun which by
shape, structure or form are indivisible into number or
counts. The uncountable nouns do not take articles (a, an,
the) or numerals, nor do they have singular or plural forms.
Example: milk - water - salt - atmosphere - food - butter.
SUBJECT AND VERB AGREEMENT
A couple of the machines are ready.
A lot of the book is completed. (only one book)
A lot of the lectures are waiting to join us.
A pair of pants is purchased for him.
These pairs of pants are new.
The pants/trousers/scissors/pliers are sold.
A series of computers is reached in the market.
Anyone/anybody/anything is ready.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 27

Each of my sisters is hardworking.

Every one of the streets is made clean. (NOTE: Everyone is
one word when it means everybody. Every one is two words
when the meaning is each one)
None of the computers are ready. (informal usage)
None of the computers is ...(formal usage)
None of the students have done their homework. (In this
last example, the word their precludes the use of the singular
verb.
NOTE: Apparently, the SAT testing service considers none
as a singular word only. However, according to Merriam
Webster's Dictionary of English Usage, "Clearly none has
been both singular and plural since Old English and still is.
The notion that it is singular only is a myth of unknown
origin that appears to have arisen in the 19th century. If in
context it seems like a singular to you, use a singular verb; if
it seems like a plural, use a plural verb. Both are acceptable
beyond serious criticism" (p. 664).
Nothing in this school is...
One of my employees is...
Some of the book is...(only one book, but this refers to part
of the book)
Some of the homework is...
Some of the notes are...
Somebody/someone/something is...
Ten thousand dollars is a lot of money to spend on an
education.
The furniture is...

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 28

The piece of furniture is …..

The pieces of furniture are …
The information is…
My hair is long/short.
The number of words is...
The sugar is…
Ten dollars is a high price to pay.
Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense
Three hours is the adequate time to complete the test.
Traveling fifty thousand miles is a long time to spend in an
airplane.
Two thirds of the books have already arrived.
Two thirds of the population of Lebanon are Muslims
Two thirds of the population of Lebanon is Muslim.
The English are accustomed to... (people from England)
know the English. (person).
I know English. (language)
This list of names is not very complete. (The verb "is"
agrees with the subject "list.")
The teacher as well as the students agrees with this opinion.
(The verb "agrees" modifies the subject "teacher.")
The mayor as well as his brothers is going to prison.
The mayor and his brothers are going to jail.
There are four hurdles to jump. (“are” agrees with hurdles
[plural]
There is a high hurdle to jump. (“is” agrees with hurdle)
[singular])
The teacher and the student are tired.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 29

Neither the teacher nor the students are excited about the
lesson. (The subject "are" agrees with "students," the closer
subject.)
My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.
Either Kiana or Casey is helping today with stage
decorations.
Neither of them is/are available to speak right now.
Neither answer is correct.
Neither of the answers is/are correct.
Either of us is/are capable of doing the job.
He is mistaken, or else I am.
He is not to blame, nor are you.
The serving bowl or the plates go on that shelf.
A car and a bike are the means of my transportation.
The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.
Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her
shaking.
Fifty percent of the pie has disappeared. (Pie is the object of
the preposition of)
Fifty percent of the pies have disappeared. (Pies is the object
of the preposition)
One-third of the city is unemployed.
One-third of the people are unemployed.
(NOTE: Hyphenate all spelled-out fractions)
All of the pie is gone.
All of the pies are gone.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 30

Some of the pie is missing.

Some of the pies are missing.
The number of people we need to hire is thirteen.
A number of people have written in about this subject.
(The expression “the number” is followed by a singular verb
while the expression “a number” is followed by a plural
verb.)
Salma is the scientist who writes/write the reports. (The
word in front of who is scientist, which is singular.
Therefore, use the singular verb writes.)
He is one of the men who does/do the work. (The word in
front of who is men, which is plural. Therefore, use the
plural verb do.)
The staff is in a meeting. (Staff is acting as a unit here.)
The staff are in disagreement about the findings. (The staff
are acting as separate individuals in this example. The
sentence would read even better as: The staff members are
in disagreement about the findings.)
My assets were wiped out in the depression.
The average worker's earnings have gone up dramatically.
Our thanks go to the workers who supported the union.
The news from the front is bad.
Measles is a dangerous disease for pregnant women.
Forty percent of the students are in favor of changing the
policy.
Forty percent of the student body is in favor of the policy.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 31

The department members but not the chair have decided not
to teach on Valentine's Day.
It is not the faculty members but the president who decides
the issue.
It was the speaker, not his ideas, that has provoked the
students to riot.
Four times four divided by two is eight.
The people who listen to that music are few.
The team captain, as well as his players, is anxious.
The book, including all the chapters in the first section, is
boring.
The woman with all the dogs walks down my street.
The President, accompanied by his wife, is traveling to
India.
The wages of sin is death.
Great pains have been taken.
Much pains has been taken.
All possible means have been tried.
The means employed by you is sufficient.
The bike is a means of transport.
My means were much reduced owing to that heavy loss.
(income)
His means are ample. (income)
According the present market rate twelve dozen cost one
hundred rupees.
Gulliver’s Travels was written by Swift. (Name of book)
The Arabian Nights is still a great favourite.
The United States has a big navy.
The following nouns are always plural and take a plural
verb.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 32

Police – Police are charging him with the murder of the

princess.
People – People in general are not very approachable.
(Peoples (with '–s') refers to peoples from more than one
race or nation. (EXAMPLE: the peoples of Asia.)
Football Team – Liverpool are a very successful football
team. (BUT: Liverpool is a great city.)
Clogs, sandals, slippers, and sneakers, jeans, knickers,
panties, pants, pyjamas, shorts, tights, trousers, and
underpants – E.g. These trousers are not mine. ("a pair of"
can be used with these plural nouns. E.g. A pair of jeans is
available. Two pairs of jeans are available.
Glasses (= spectacles), binoculars – E.g. My glasses are
used only for reading.
Pincers, pliers, scissors, shears, tongs – E.g. Pliers are a
handy tool. My garden shears trim the hedge very well.
Clothes – My clothes need to be washed but I don't have
time.
Earnings – Earnings in the agricultural sector have increased
by 5% in the fourth quarter.
Cattle – Cattle are reared for their meat or milk.
Committee – The Committee have rejected all the proposals.
(“has” is also used in some books)
Nouns which are plural in form but take a singular verb
The following plural nouns are used with singular verbs as
they are treated as singular:
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 33

Athletics, economics, gymnastics, linguistics, mathematics,

mechanics, numismatics, physics, politics and pyrotechnics
– Economics was my favourite subject at school.
News – The good news is that we've all been invited.
Mumps, measles – An infectious illness, mumps was
common among children.
Measurements and amounts that are considered as a single
unit:
One hundred years is a century.
Ten kilometres is a long distance.
Twenty dollars is not enough to buy a good shirt.
Seven days in prison is all he got for shoplifting.
What is the news?
Shingles is caused by the same virus as chicken pox.
Billiards is a game which connects mathematics and
football.
A noun can be used as singular or plural
The following collective nouns can be singular or plural. It
depends on how they are regarded. Viewed as a single unit,
it takes a singular verb; viewed as a group of separate
members or parts, it is treated as a plural noun and used with
a plural verb.
Our team competes in a local tournament.
Our team have just won the quarterfinal.
My family is a large one.
My family are always arguing about how to share the bills.
The new government has gained more support since taking
office.
The Government are determined to keep inflation in check.
The explorers stumble across a species of plant unknown to
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 34

science.
The coastal waters of the island are rich in different fish
species.
Data indicates that most of the offenders come from broken
home.
We will not draw any conclusion until we have looked at all
the data.
Data is collected from 40 countries.
These data are sufficient for drawing conclusion (in
Technical English)
Statistics is included in this year's Mathematics syllabus.
The statistics tell us the current trend is towards more
consumers' spending.
The full orchestra includes a fair number of female
instrumentalists.
The orchestra do not agree to the venue for their next
performance.
The enemy is calling for a ceasefire.
Security is very tight as the enemy are everywhere.
Nouns ending in -ics can either take a singular (if they are
considered as the name of a science) or a plural verb (if they
express a specific application of the science):
Mathematics was never easy for Geoffrey.
The teacher told Geoffrey that his mathematics were below
the standard. (his understanding of mathematics or his
results)
Rhetorics was one of the seven free arts.
His rhetorics were doing more harm to our case than any
mistake we had ever made. (his way of expressing ideas)
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 35

Acoustics is the study of sounds.

Poor classroom acoustics create a negative learning
environment for many students. (audibility in the classroom)
Two subjects expressed as a single unit and take a
singular verb.
Ali, the secretary, is coming.
Time and tide waits for no man.
Bread and jam is what he eats most in the morning.
Two and two is four.
The horse and carriage is at the door.
Honour and glory is his reward.
The rise and fall of the tide is due to lunar influence.
My friend and benefactor has come.
The novelist and poet is dead.
(2) PRONOUN
Definition: Pronoun is a noun substitute, which is used
instead of a noun. Its main purpose is to avoid the repetition
of a noun, besides; it is time saver.
Example: I, we, you, he, she, it, they one etc.

KINDS OF PRONOUN
A pronoun has ten kinds:

1) Demonstrative Pronoun: It is used to point out things,

person already mentioned in the sentence.
Example: this; that (for singular); these; those (for plural)
a) This is my book and that is yours. b) These are my copies
and those are your copies.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 36

2) Indefinite Pronoun: Indefinite pronouns refer to

unspecified person or thing.
Example: somebody; anyone; anything.
a) If somebody calls inform them that we are in the field.
b) If anyone tries do not allow them to use this computer.

3) Intensive Pronoun: These are used to intensify or

emphasize the preceding noun or pronoun. Intensive
pronouns immediately follow the subject of the sentence.
Example: a) He himself told me the whole story.
b) I myself have seen him at the hotel.

4) Interrogative Pronoun: These pronouns are such that

produce question.
Example: What; which; who.
a) What is your name? b) Which is your book?
c) Who does teach you English?

5) Distributive Pronoun: These pronouns show that the

persons or things are taken singly. These pronouns are
always singular:
Example: each; every; either; neither.
(a) Each / Every is longing for gallery seats.
(b) Either he or they are going to Karachi.
(c) Neither they nor he is taking the test.

6) Reciprocal Pronoun: These are used in order to indicate

persons or things mutually affected. They occur in such
phrases, as:
Example: each other; one another.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 37

a) David and Katherine loved each other. (for two)

b) All Muslims are brothers to one another.(more than two)

7) Reflexive Pronoun: These pronouns are used when the

subject and the object of the sentence are the same or the
action passes back to the subject. The reflexive pronoun
always comes in the end of the sentence it is used in; if it
comes immediately after the subject of the sentence it turns
to be intensive case rather reflexive one.
Example: myself; ourselves; yourself; yourselves; himself;
herself; themselves; itself.
a) They are teaching themselves. b) She speaks herself.

8) Relative Pronoun: These pronouns are used to connect a

subordinate clause to the main clause, and serve as
conjunctions also.
Example: who; whom (for person or persons); whose; that
(for persons or things); which (for animals and things)
a) The teacher who teaches English is posted.
b) The person whom you are calling is actually deaf.
c) The person whose wallet is stolen is very much worried.
d) The tree that /which got its leaves shed is sprouting.

9) Possessive Pronoun: These are used to indicate the

possession or, in same cases, intimate relationship, which
cannot be strictly called possession. They are grouped into
two categories:
a) my; our; your; his; her; its; their.
b) mine; ours; yours; his; hers; its; theirs.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 38

Note: The forms in the first group, sometimes called

"possessive adjective", are used with nouns following them
immediately as in the examples given bellow:
Example: my book; our house; your pen; her purse; their
house; his notebook.
(a) It is my book. (b) She has missed your pen.
Whereas, the pronouns in the second group or class do not
require nouns after them but generally they in the end of the
sentence.
Example: This book is hers. You are mine. These books are
ours.
Note: No apostrophe is needed to mark the possessive pronoun
except the pronoun "one" which bears an apostrophe "one's"
in possessive case.
10) Personal Pronoun: The pronouns stands for persons are
called personal pronouns; they are divided into three kinds:
a) First person pronoun: I; we; us; me; mine; our.
b) Second person pronoun: you; yours; thou; thy.
Third person pronoun: he; him; his; she; they; its, etc.

CASES OF PRONOUN

Person Subjective Objective Possessive Possessive Reflexive

Or Case Cave Adjective Case
Nominative
First I me mine my myself
Person we us ours our ourselves
Pronoun
Second you you yours your yourself
Person yourselves
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 39

Pronoun thou thee thine thy thyself

Third he him his his himself
Person she her hers her herself
Pronoun it it its its itself
they them theirs their themselves
one one one’s one’s oneself

ORDER OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS

a) When singular pronouns of different persons are used in a

sentence, the second person in singular comes first and the
first person pronoun appears in the end:
Example: a) You and I write in same way.
b) You, he and I read same lesson.
c) You and he go to Karachi.
b) Plural pronouns, however, follow another order. The first
person plural comes first, second person plural and third
person plural follow respectively:
Example: a) We, you and they go to Karachi.
b) We and they go to Karachi.
c) You and they play the match.

3. ADJECTIVE
Definition: An adjective is a word, which qualifies only a
noun or pronoun and adds something to their meaning. It
shows the characteristics, qualities, quantity, number,
merits, demerits and attributions of a person or thing. It is a
descriptive word.
Example: happy - big - two - intelligent.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 40

KINDS OF ADJECTIVE

Adjectives can be laid down under the umbrella of eight

headings as under:

1) Adjective of Quality: It shows the kind, quality or state

of a noun or pronoun:
Example: a) Ali is an intelligent boy.
b) I ate a sweet mango.

2) Adjectives of Quantity: It shows the quantity of

something:
Example: enough; some; all; little; much.

3) Adjectives of Numbers: It shows the number of a noun:

Example: one; two; three; first; second third.

4) Demonstrative Adjectives: It points out a noun:

Example: this; that; these; those; such, etc.
a) These books are mine. (Demonstrative adjective)
b) These are my books. (Demonstrative pronoun)

5) Interrogative Adjective: It is used to ask a question:

Example: what; which; whose.
a) Which book do you want to buy? (Interro: adj.)
b) Which is your book? (Interrogative pronoun)

6) Distributive Adjectives: It shows that the persons or

things are taken singly:

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 41

Example: each; every.

a) Each student was given a prize.

7. Proper Adjective: It is formed from the proper noun and

they always begin in a capital letter:
Example:
a) Khalil Jibran wrote his world-famous book:
"The Prophet" in English language.
b) Sindhi people are very simple and sane.

8. Possessive Adjective: It is formed from personal

pronoun:
Example: my; our; your; his; her; their.

THE COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

Degrees of Comparison: There are three degrees of

comparison:
1. Positive Degrees: It is a simple form of an adjective,
which is used when no comparison is required. It simply
qualifies a noun or pronoun.
Example: a) Naeem is a good boy. b) The mango is sweet.

2. Comparative Degree: It is used when one noun or

pronoun is compared with another noun or pronoun of the
same rank or class.
Example: a) Ali is better than Asif.
b) The mango is sweeter than an orange.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 42

3. Superlative Degree: It is used when noun or pronoun is

compared with all other nouns or pronouns of the same rank
or class.
Example: a) Ali is the most industrious student of the class.
b) A mango is the sweetest of all of all fruits.
c) The Indus is the longest river of Pakistan.

FORMATION OF DEGREES

There are certain rules to change the positive degree into

‘comparative’ and ‘superlative’ degrees.
Rule # 01: A positive degree of a monosyllabic adjective is
inflected with “er” and “est.” to constitute comparative and
superlative degrees respectively:
Positive Comparative Superlative
black blacker blackest
high higher highest
low lower lowest
cheap cheaper cheapest
dear dearer dearest
great greater greatest
sweet sweeter sweetest
sour sourer sourest
poor poorer poorest
rich richer richest
cold colder coldest
tall Taller tallest
dwarf dwarfer dwarfest
Rule # 02: A positive degree of a monosyllabic adjective
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 43

ending in “e” is inflected with “r” and “st.” to constitute

comparative and superlative degrees respectively:
Positive Comparative Superlative
able abler ablest
Rule #03: When the positive degree ends in “y” preceded
by is a consonant, in that case change “y” into “i” and add
“er” and “est” for the formation of comparative and
superlative degrees respectively:

Positive Comparative Superlative

happy happier happiest
heavy heavier heaviest
lazy lazier laziest
merry merrier merriest
wealthy wealthier wealthiest
healthy healthier healthiest
stormy stormier stormiest
sunny sunnier sunniest
Note: If there is a vowel before “y”, in that case “y” is not
changed into “i”, it only needs "er" and "est" for
comparative and superlative degree respectively:
Positive Comparative Superlative
gay gayer gayest
gray grayer grayest

Rule # 04: If the positive degree of an adjective ends in a

consonant and there is a vowel before that consonant, in that
case the consonant is doubled and “er” and “est” are added
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 44

to form the comparative and superlative degrees

respectively:
Positive Comparative Superlative
big bigger biggest
fat fatter fattest
fit fitter fittest
hot hotter hottest
red redder reddest
sad sadder saddest
thin thinner thinnest
wet wetter wettest
Rule # 05: When an adjective consists of two or more than
two syllables, we simply add “more” and "most" before the
positive degree to constitute comparative and superlative
degrees respectively.

Positive Comparative Superlative

beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
difficult more difficult most difficult
handsome more handsome most handsome
courageous more courageous most courageous
splendid more splendid most splendid
efficient more efficient most efficient
boyish more boyish most boyish
criminal more criminal most criminal
famous more famous most famous
fortunate more fortunate most fortunate
gloomy more gloomy most gloomy

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 45

ruinous more ruinous most ruinous

selfish more selfish most selfish
troublesome more troublesome most troublesome
valuable more valuable most valuable
watchful more watchful most watchful
womanish more womanish most womanish
womanly more womanly most womanly
vigorous more vigorous most vigorous
generous more generous most generous
necessary more necessary most necessary
popular more popular most popular
coward more coward most coward

Rule # 06: There are some adjectives, which form their

degrees in an irregular way.

Positive Comparative Superlative

bad, ill, evil worse worst
good better best
little less/lesser least
much (quantity) more most
many (number) more most
later latter/later latest/last
old older/elder oldest/eldest
far farther/further farthest/furthest
nigh nigher nighmost/next
fore former foremost/first
in inner inmost/innermost
up upper upmost/uppermost
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 46

out outer utmost/utermost

(latter/later) (a) He is later than I expected. (b) The latter
chapters are lacking in interest.
(last/latest) (a) Ours is the last house in the street. (b) Is
there any latest news about the issue?
(older/elder) (a) Ali is my elder brother. (b) He is older than
his sister. (NB: elder is not used in comparative sentences)
(farther/further) (a) Karachi is farther than Hyderabad. (b)
He made no further remarks.
(nearest/next) (a) Where is the nearest phone box? (b) His
shop is next to the bank.

Rule # 07: “than” is always used after the comparative

degrees of Adjectives.
a) Asif is wiser than Naveed.
b) Azra is more intelligent than Yasmin.
c) His handwriting is worse than my handwriting.
d) Wasim is slimmer than I (am). (Not: Wasim is slimmer
than me.)
Note: Use the subjective case of pronoun rather than the
objective case as mentioned in the aforementioned sentences #
(d).

Rule # 08: If the two qualities of a same noun or pronoun

are being compared, the first degree of adjective is used
preceded by “more”;
Example: Wasim is more good at Biology than Physics.
(Not better)

Rule # 09: Some comparatives have neither positive nor

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 47

superlative degrees. They all end in “or”. They do not carry

“than” as shown in rule # 07 above. They are followed by
preposition “to”.
For instance: “minor; prior; senior; interior; exterior; ulterior;
junior; inferior; superior; major”
Example: a) He is senior to me. b) My brother is
inferior to Rizvi in intelligence.

Rule # 10: The degrees of adjective are also formed by

adding “less” and “least”
(a) Ali is more intelligent than I. = I am less intelligent than
Ali.
(b) He is the most intelligent student of the class. = The
class is less intelligent than he.

Adjective used as Noun: (Plural) “rich; wicked;

Americans; seniors; juniors; sweets; bitters; valuables;
eatables” (a) The rich are cruel. (b) The wicked are devoid
of feelings.
(singular) The future is unpredictable.

Superlative Degree used with indefinite article: It was a

most eloquent speech (means very eloquent)

Verb Participle used as adjective: (boring/bored) The

work was boring. The audience was bored.
(tiring/tired) The work was tiring. The workers were tired.
(interesting/interested) The story was interesting. The
students were interested in movies.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 48

CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES

The adjectives can be classified into two classes; as:

1) Attributive Adjective: The adjective, which stands with

its noun is said to be an attributive adjective or an “epithet”.
It always precedes noun.
Example: a) It is a sweet apple.
b) He is a good boy.
c) It is a true story.
2) Predicative Adjective: The adjective, which is used with
the verb as a complement is called as predicative adjective.
It always follows the noun it qualifies to.
Example: a) The sky is clear.
b) He seems angry.
c) It grew dark.

Order of Adjective:
size- general description-age-shape-colour-material-
origin-purpose
(a) an old red Spanish leather riding boots (b) A funny
brown German beer mug
(c) a long sharp knife (d) an old plastic bucket

4. VERB

Definition: A verb is a word that expresses an action

performed or refused by the subject or a state experienced
by the subject.

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CATEGORIES ON VERB

1. Intensive Verb: The sentences, which have subject

complements, have intensive verb.
Example: a) The girl is now a student at a large university.
b) Wasim grew rich gradually.

2. Extensive Verb: Extensive verbs can be either

intransitive or transitive. When extensive verbs are used as
intransitive they do not permit any of the four object and
complement types (direct object, indirect object, subject
complement, object complement) to be used in the sentence.
Example: a) it rained steadily all day.
When the extensive verbs are transitive they take a direct
object. Further transitive verbs are classified as
"Monotransitive", which take direct object, "Ditransitive",
which take indirect object and "Complex Transitive", which
take an object complement. For instance:
a) I write a letter. (Monotransitive)
b) She had given the girl an apple. (Ditransitive)
c) They make him the chairman every year. (Complex
Transitive)

STATIVE AND DYNAMIC VERBS

a) Dynamic Verbs: The verbs which are used in

progressive form are called dynamic verbs. For example:
a) We waited for him. b) We were waiting for him.

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b) Stative Verb: The verbs which cannot be used in

progressive form are called Stative verbs. For example:
a) Wasim is now lecturer at University of Sindh.
b) He knew the answer.

FINITE AND NON-FINITE VERB

a) Finite Verbs: The finite verb phrases have tense

discrimination and there is always an agreement between the
subject, person number and the finite verb. Besides, finite
verbs have moods.
a) They work / worked in the field. (Tense distinction)
b) Ali comes. They come. (Verb agreement)
c) If they were eating, they would sit. (Subjunctive mood)
d) Shut the window. (Imperative mood)

b) Non-finite Verb: All the verbs which are in infinitive

form (to read), the -ing or present participle form (reading)
and the -ed or past participle form.
a) He drinks wine heavily. (Finite)
b) To drink like that must be lethal to health. (Non-finite)
c) He is laughing. (Finite)
d) I found him laughing. (Non-finite)
VERB: MOOD

Mood, basically, is a particular method or mode to use a

verb to denote, express or mention to a particular action.
There are three kinds of moods in English language.

1) Indicative Mood: If a verb expresses a statement

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showing fact, question or a supposition is in known as

indicative mood.
a) Columbus discovered America in 1492. (Statement)
b) Have you dined? (Question)
c) If they come, I will inform you. (Supposition)
2) Imperative Mood: The verb which is used to express an
order or command, an advice or any entreaty is known as
imperative mood.
a) Fetch me a glass of water. (Command)
b) Be submissive and polite to your fellows. (Advice)
c) May I use your computer please? (Entreaty)

3) Subjunctive Mood: In subjunctive mood a verb

expresses a wish, hope, desire, intention or resolution in
noun clause in the present and improbability in the past
time.
a) May God bless you! (Present wish)
b) The committee recommended that a weekly inspection to
be conducted to assure hygienic condition in the prison.
(A noun clause used for present resolution or intention)
c) I wish I attended the meeting. (Past wish)
d) If I knew driving, I could go to beach. (Present
improbability)

THE INFINITVIE, BARE INFINITIVE, SPLIT

INFINITIVE

1) The Infinitive: The infinitive is a verb noun having

features or characteristics of a noun, it is not limited by a
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person or number or the subject.

a) To err is human.
b) They loved to drive in rain.
c) To learn English is not difficult. (as a subject)
d) I wish to help poor. (object of transitive verb)
e) Her earnest wish is to become a successful doctor.
(complement)
f) We found her open the door. (object complement)
g) I want to submit my will. (qualifying a verb showing
purpose)
h) She is very happy to secure the first position.
(qualifying an adjective)
i) It is time to go. (Qualifying noun)
Verb + infinitive with “to”: These verbs are generally
followed by infinitive form of verb with “to”, for instance
“want, necessary, ought to, agree, dare, decide, expect, fail,
happen, hope, manage, mean, offer, prepare, pretend,
promise, refuse, seem, wish)
(Infinitive of purpose: she sat down to rest. Example: in
order to- so as to)
1. It is nice to sitting here. 2. I am glad to have
seen her.
3. She likes to be liked. 4. Try not to be late.
5. I am sorry not to have phoned.

Verb + Object+ infinitive

1. He wants me to wash his socks. 2. I would prefer you
to pay now.
Other words: advise, allow, ask, can’t bear, cause,
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encourage, expect, forbid, force, get, help, invite, leave,

mean, need, order, persuade, remind, teach, tell, warn
Adjective followed by Infinitive (in case of feelings and
reaction): afraid, anxious, certain, glad, happy, likely,
lucky, ready, right, shocked, surprised, willing wrong.
Pleased, sorry
1. I am sorry to disturb you. 2. She is pleased to see you.
Adjective not followed by infinitive: fine, intelligent, lazy,
unusual, well
2) Bare Infinitive: When the verb does not carry
preposition "to" in its beginning is called to be in bare
infinitive form. These verbs, auxiliary verb, phrases,
preposition are generally followed bare infinitive: "bid, let,
hear, watch, make need, see, help, dare, shall, may, do
should, might, must, will, can must, would, could, had
better, sooner than, had rather, rather than, would rather,
expect, but, than."
a) We bade him go. b) I dared not speak with the
principal.
c) He does nothing except play cards. d) You had better
consult he doctor.

3) Split Infinitive: Sometimes, we use an adverb between to

and the infinitive is called split infinitive. However, it is
considered wrong in Standard English.
a) She always yearned to immediately break the news.

GERUND

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 54

Gerund is a verbal noun, which ends in "ing" and functions

like a noun or a verb.
a) Walking is good for health. (as a subject)
b) He dislikes cheating in the paper. (object of transitive
verb)
c) I am fed up with applying for jobs. (object of
preposition)
d) My aim in life is becoming a real teacher. (complement
of a verb)
e) The designing of clothes is in vogue. (as ordinary noun)
Note: The difference between the use of infinitive, participle
and gerund should meticulously be noted:
a) To preach is easier than to practice. (Infinitive)
b) Preaching is easier than practicing. (Gerund)
c) Wasim is fed up with applying for job. (Gerund)
d) Applying for jobs, Wasim has left no stone unturned to
avail all the possible means and sources. (participle)

PARTICIPLE

The participle is a verbal adjective which has the features or

characteristics of a verb and adjective. There are there types
of participle viz. Present Participle (verb + ing), Past
Participle (verb + ed, d, t, n) and Perfect Participle (having +
3rd form of verb).
a) He has got charming personality. (Adjective)
b) Pakistan is a developed country. (Adjective)
c) She looks worried. (complement)
Note: Besides, the participle are used to determine the time
or tense of the verb or action.
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Verb+ ing form: avoid, cant help, deny, (can't) face, fancy,
feel like, finish, give up, image, keep (on), mind, miss,
postpone, practise, put off, risk, spend time, (cannot) stand,
suggest, look forward to,
1. Let us go climbing. 2.Did you go dancing last
Saturday? (sporting or leisure activities)
2. The car needs washing, 2. My shoes need mending.

Note: we use ing form after preposition

(Noun followed by preposition + ing form: difficulty, hope,
idea, thought)

FORMS OF VERB
The table showing forms of verb:

Imperati Infiniti Past

Past Present Gerund/No
ve ve 2nd
Partici Partici un
(root) 1st ple ple
3rd 4th
eat to eat ate eaten eating eating
write to write wrote written writing writing
apply to apply applie applied applyin application
d g
satisfy to satisfi satisfied satisfyin satisfaction
satisfy ed g

Note: We use “to” before the verb to make infinitive. When

‘to’ is omitted the verb becomes an order.

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THE THREE FORMS OF VERB

1) Regular Verb: All the verbs which take "d" or "ed" to

constitute the past and the past participle forms are called
regular or weak verbs.

Verb Past Past participle

(1st form) nd
(2 form) (3rd form)
answer answered answered
arrest arrested arrested
chase chased chased
hate hated hated

NOTE: In accordance with the above rule the words ending

in “e” only add “d” to make past and past participle form;
whereas, the words ending except “e” add “ed” to make past
and past participle form.

2) Irregular Verb: All the verbs which constitute their past

and past participle forms without adding "ed", but they
rather follow different patterns for making forms are called
irregular verb. Generally, the irregular or strong verbs are
classified as under:
1) Group#1: In the first group 1st, 2nd and 3rd forms are
identical:

1st form 2nd form 3rd form

burst burst burst
cost cost cost
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Thus, below given words come in the ambit of first group:

cut; hit; knit; let; set; shut; spread; read; hurt; broadcast;
telecast.
2) Group#2: The verbs whose 1st and 2nd forms are
identical.
1st form 2nd form 3rd form
beat beat beaten

3) Group# 3: 1st and 3rd forms are identical.

1st form 2nd form 3rd form

become became become
come came come
run ran run

4) Group# 4: 2nd and 3rd forms are identical.

1st form 2nd form 3rd form

bend bent bent
bind bound bound
bleed bled bled
bring brought brought
burn burnt / burned burnt / burned
buy bought bought

Thus below-mentioned words come under the umbrella of

the group-4: catch - caught; dig - dug; dream - dreamt; feed
- fed; feel - felt; fight - fought; find - found; get - got; hang -

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hung; have - had; hear - heard; hold - held; keep - kept; lay -
laid; lead - led; lean - leant; light - lit;

5) Group# 5: These verbs are completely irregular in their

forms.

1st form 2nd form 3rd form

arise arose arisen
awake awoke awoken
be; am; is; are. was; were been
begin began begun
bear bore borne
bite bit bitten
blow blew blown
choose chose chosen
do did done
break broke broken
draw drew drawn
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
fly flew flown
forbid forbade forbidden
forget forgot forgotten
freeze froze frozen
give gave given
hide hid hidden
know knew known

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lie lay lain

ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
saw sawed sawn
see saw seen
sew sewed sewn
TENSE, APECT AND MOOD

Time is a cosmopolitan, non-linguistic concept with three

divisions: past, present and future. Tense shows the
correspondence between the form of the verb and our
concept of time. Aspect shows that how the action is
experienced or regarded. The action can be in progressive or
perfective state. If it is continuous or in progress, it is called
in progressive aspect, if the action is completed it is in
perfective aspect:

a) I am / was writing. (Progressive Aspect)

b) I have / had written. (Perfective Aspect)

Whereas, mood shows the relationship of an action or verb

with these conditions like: "obligation, necessity or
possibility". In fact, tense, aspect and mood are
interdependent, interrelated or interwoven, because any
expression or statement of either present or past cannot be
comprehended or understood without its aspect whether it is
in progressive or perfective aspect. Whereas, all expressions
or statements concerning future are closely bound or related

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with their mood, which helps to understand or comprehend

them properly.

TENSES
It is derived from Latin tensus stretched, from the verb
tendere .A noun in Middle English (in the general sense
time): from Old French tens, from Latin tempus time. It
determines the time of a verb or action carried out by a
subject. Generally the time is divided into three major parts
and they are:
(I) Present Tense
(II) Past Tense
(III) Future Tense
The first says something about an action done in present
time; the second determines the action done in past time;
while, the third determines an action, which will be done in
the upcoming time. Furthermore, every tense can be divided
into diverse parts for the better understanding of an action.

1. PRESENT INDEFINITE TENSE

Definition: It says something about an action done in

present time.
(Helping verbs: do / does) [Verb: Bare-infinitive / 1st form of
verb]
Sentences:
(a) I write a letter (Affirmative)
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(b) She does not play squash (Negative)

(c) Do they play truant regularly? (Interrogative)
(d) Doesn’t Ali go to school? (Interrogative: Negative) or
Does Ali not go to school? (Interrogative: Negative)
Note: This pattern of making interrogative negative can be
applied for all tenses.

Usage:
1. To mention a habit or routine in present:
I wake up early in the morning.
2. To explain universal truth:
The sun rises in the east.
3. While writing the summary or synopsis of poem, novel,
drama, or film:
The poet praises the daffodils in the poem.
4. For an action done in present time:
I write a letter to my brother who lives in Karachi.
5. For the definition of something:
An adjective adds something to the meaning of a noun or
a pronoun.
6. While writing the process of particular action:
The shake in the plates of the earth causes an earthquake.
7. To show the natural expressions of different senses viz.
hearing, smelling, seeing, tasting, sigh etc when they are
not done deliberately:
I see. I like. (Not: I am liking.)
8. In newspaper, the radio, TV etc:
The train derails and kills 75 passengers.

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9. For future:
They leave tomorrow.
If my father comes, I will inform you. (Conditional)

2. PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

Definition: It says that a particular action is happening or is

in progress in present for short span of time.
(Helping Verbs: is / am / are) [Verb: Present Participle / 4th
form]
Sentences:
(a) I am writing a letter. (Affirmative)
(b) You are not playing well. (Negative)
(c) Are they phoning? (Interrogative)
(d) Is she not weeping for her mother? (Int. Negative)
Usage:
1. An action happening now:
I am writing a letter.
2. An action happening now but not necessarily taking place
while spoken of:
I am reading Shakespeare nowadays.
3. An action that is supposed to take place in future time but
its time is finalized:
I am going to Karachi tomorrow.
3. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

Definition: It says that the action has been completed in

present time.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 63

(Helping Verb: has / have) [Verb: Past Participle / 3rd form]

Sentences:
(a) I have written a letter. (Affirmative)
(b) She has not dispatched the letter. (Negative)
(c) Have you appeared in the court? (Interrogative)
(d) Has she not taken the examination? (Int. Negative)
Usage:
1. The action completed in present time:
I have written a letter.
2. The action remained continuous for particular time during
present time:
I have waited for you for two hours.
3. It is the equivalent of past perfect in present time:
We have completed our syllabus a bit earlier than
expected time frame.

4. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

Definition: It says that the action has remained continuous

for long span of time in present.
(Helping Verb: have been / has been) [Verb: Present Participle
/ 4th form]
Sentences:
(a) I have been teaching English Language for ten years at
Paragon English Language Academy. (Affirmative)
(b) She has not been writing as freelancer journalist since
1999. (Negative)
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(c) Has he been playing football for ten years?

(Interrogative)
(d) Have you not been living in Karachi for two years?
(Interrogative: Negative)
Note: "Since" shows the point of time or beginning of an
action; whereas, "for" denotes total amount or period of time
of an action.
a) I have been teaching English since 2003. (Shows
beginning or point of time the action began)
b) I have been teaching English for 7 years. (Shows the
total period or amount of time the action remained
continuous)
Usage:
1. The action that remains continued for long span of time in
present:
I have been living in Karachi since 1990.
2. The action that is done but its influence yet prevails:
I have been watering the plants so my clothes ate wet.

5. PAST INDEFINITE TENSE

Definition: The work done in past time

(Helping Verb: did) [Verb: Past form / 2nd form of verb]
Sentences:
(a) I sang a song. (Affirmative)
(b) I did not sleep (Negative)
(c) Did you shriek? (Interrogative)
(d) Did you not dream? (Interrogative: Negative)
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Usage:
1. The work done in past time:
I went to Karachi yesterday.
2. The work done in past for indefinite time:
Allah created Adam from clay and mud.
3. The work done in past for definite time:
Christopher Columbus discovered America in 1492.
4. To know or mention the past time:
Last year brought the heaps of pleasure for us.
5. For the habits of past:
I worked in a hospital.
6. For future :( Condition)
If my father came, I will inform you.

6. PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE

Definition: The tense denotes an action, which remained

continuous in past for short span of time.
(Helping Verbs: was / were) [Verb: Present Participle / 4th
form]
Sentences:
(a) I was waiting for my father. (Affirmative)
(b) Were they playing cricket? (Interrogative)
(c) The teacher was not delivering lecture on essay.
(Negative)
(d) Was Imran not planning to join Medical College?
(Interrogative: Negative)

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Usage:
1. An action continued in past for short span of time:
I was waiting for my brother.
2. When one action interrupted the other which was in
progress in past time:
When you phoned I was sleeping.
3. The action in progress in past time:
They were constructing a training wing for the teachers.
4. The action taking place in past with no confirmed end:
They were trying to come up with new ideas to meet the
exigency of time and space.
5. In lieu of past indefinite tense:
We were gossiping.

7. PAST PERFECT TENSE

Definition: The action, which had been completed in the

past time.
(Helping Verb: had) [Verb: Past Participle / 3 rd form]
Sentences:
(a) I had adequately completed my professional
qualification. (Affirmative)
(b) She had not adorned her house. (Negative)
(c) Had Danish quenched his thirst? (Interrogative)
(d) Had we not said adieu to the nostalgic beauties of the
university life? (Interrogative: Negative)
Usage:
1. The action completed in past:
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 67

We had had food.

2. When an action completed in past is interrupted by other
action:
When I reached the railway station, the train had left.
3. The action remained continuous for particular time in
past:
I had worked in a firm for two years.
4. It is the equivalent of present perfect in past time:
By morning we had reached the destination aimed at.

8. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

Definition: The action which remained continuous for long

span of time in past.
(Helping Verb: had been) [Verb: Present Participle / 4th form]
Sentences:
(a) I had been writing in newspaper for ten years.
(Affirmative)
(b) Abbas had not been bullying his son since childhood.
(Negative)
(c) Had you been facing the jerks and jolts of life since
childhood? (Interrogative)
(d) Had the train not been coming for two weeks?
(Interrogative: Negative)
Usage:
1. The action, which remained continuous in past for long
span of time:
We had been working in a firm since 1990.
2. For an action done in past (instead of past perfect tense):
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We had been waiting for you.

3. To show the link of an action with present time:
Since they had been watering the plants, so their clothes
are still wet.

9. FUTURE INDEFINITE TENSE

Definition: The action, which will happen in the upcoming

or future time.
(Helping Verbs: shall / will) [Verb: Bare-infinitive / 1st form of
verb]
Sentences:
(a) I shall go to Karachi. (Affirmative)
(b) She will not take a cup of tea. (Negative)
(c) Will Imran write a letter? (Interrogative)
(d) Shall we not play cricket match? (Int. Negative)
Usage:
1. The action, which will happen in upcoming or future time:
I shall go to Karachi tomorrow.
2. The actions, which are beyond our control:
The sun will rise at 5:47 a.m.
3. The habits in future time:
I will take exercise daily.
4. Generally news papers, magazine, news caster use this
tense to mention the events which are supposed to occur
or take place in future time:
The Prime Minister of Pakistan will visit America in the
next month.
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5. The use of “going to” for future:

We are going to organize a farewell party in the honour of
outgoing student.
6. The use of “about to” for future:
It is about to rain.
7. The use of present indefinite for future:
They leave tomorrow.
8. The use of present continuous for future:
We are going to Karachi tomorrow.
9. The show a condition:
If my father comes I will inform you.
If my father came I will inform you.

Note: We generally use “shall” as a helping verb with

subject “I” and “We”, when the action is done without their
active involvement; otherwise we use “will” as helping verb
with the afore-mentioned subjects when they are going to do
an action with their active participation or intention or
consent. Whereas, the rest of the subjects like: "he, she, it
they, Ali" take "will" as helping verb.

10. FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE

Definition: The action which will remain continuous in

future time for short span of time.
(Helping Verbs: shall be / will be) [Verb: Present
Participle / 4th form]
Sentences:
(a) I shall be washing and wringing clothes. (Affirmative)
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(b) She will not be paying tariffs. (Negative)

(c) Will he be waiting or us? (Interrogative)
(d) Will they not be bicycling? (Interrogative: Negative)
Usage:
1. For an action, which remains continuous in future time:
The students will be waiting for their results.
2. For an action, which will take place with out intention:
They will be gossiping and making fuss about in the
corridor.
3. For question:
When will you be watching TV?
4. For an action already planned:
They will be convening a seminar on the standard and
quality education.
5. Be + To.
The Prime Minister is to visit America next month.

11. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

Definition: The action will be completed in future time.

(Helping Verbs: shall have / will have) [Verb: Past Participle /
3 rd Form]
Sentences:
(a) When you will come, Imran will have slept.
(Affirmative)
(b) By the end of the month, they will not have completed
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their assignments. (Negative)

(c) Will the clerks have dispatched the letters?
(Interrogative)
(d) Shall we not have arrived at Lahore by early morning?
(Interrogative: Negative)
Usage:
1. The sentence beginning with “By”:
By the end of this month I will have worked here for five
years.
2. The action which will be completed in infinite or finite
time in future:
When you will pass intermediate I shall have completed
my studies then.

12. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

Definition: It denotes the action, which will remain

continuous for long span of time in future.
(Helping Verb: shall / will have been) [Verb: Present
Participle / 4th form of verb]
Sentences:
(a) I shall have been writing in newspaper for ten years.
(Affirmative)
(b) Abbas will not have been bullying his son for months.
(Negative)
(c) Will she have been facing the jerks and jolts of life
since childhood? (Interrogative)
(d) Will the train not have been coming for two weeks?
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(Interrogative Negative)
Usage:
1. The action, which will remain continuous in future for
long span of time.
I shall have been writing in newspaper for ten years.

13. PRESENT TENSE OF “TO BE”

Definition: It shows the state of somebody or something in
present time. There is no action on the part of the subject.
The verb used in this kind of structure is called "state verb".
(Helping / Verb: am / is / are) [No Action Verb]

Sentences:
(a) Asma is a teacher. (Affirmative)
(b) It is not a fictitious story. (Negative)
(c) Am I a liar? (Interrogative)
(d) Are they not players of chess? (Interrogative Negative)
(e) Aren’t you a doctor? (Interrogative Negative)

14. PAST TENSE OF “TO BE”

Definition: It shows the state of somebody or something in

past time. There is no action on the part of the subject. The
verb used in this kind of structure is called "state verb".
(Helping Verb: was, were) [No Action Verb]

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Sentences:
(a) Asma was a teacher. (Affirmative)
(b) It was not a fictitious story. (Negative)
(c) Was I a liar? (Interrogative)
(d) Were they not players of chess? (Int. Negative)
(e) Weren’t you a doctor? (Interrogative Negative)

15. FUTURE TENSE OF “TO BE”

Definition: It shows the state of somebody or something in
future time. There is no action on the part of the subject. The
verb used in this kind of structure is called "state verb".
(Helping Verb: shall be / will be) [No Action Verb]
Sentences:
(a) Asma will be a teacher. (Affirmative)
(b) It will not be a fabricated story. (Negative)
(c) Shall I be a lawyer? (Interrogative)
(d) Will they not be players of chess? (Int. Negative)
(e) Won’t you be a doctor? (Interrogative Negative)

16. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE OF “TO BE”

Definition: The subject has attained the state of completion

in present time for a considerable amount of time.
(Helping Verb: have been / has been) [No action verb]
Sentences:
(a) I have been a doctor for two years. (Affirmative)
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(b) He has not been a lawyer for two years. (Negative)

(c) Have they been addicted to heroin since 1990?
(Interrogative)
(d) Has he not been a computer operator for ten years?
(Interrogative: Negative)

17. PAST PERFECT TENSE OF “TO BE”

Definition: The subject has attained the state of completion
in past for a considerable amount of time.
(Helping Verbs: had been) (No action verb)
Sentences:
(a) He had been good in moral since childhood.
(Affirmative)
(b) She had not been an early-riser. (Negative)
(c) Had I been habitual of late sleeping? (Interrogative)
(d) Had he not been latecomer in the school? (Interrogative:
Negative)

18. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE OF “TO BE”

Definition: The subject will attain the state of completion in
future for a considerable amount of time.
(Helping Verbs: shall / will have been) [No action verb]
Sentences:
(a) I shall have been a teacher for one year? (Affirmative)
(b) She will not have been good at operating computer.
(Negative)

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(c) Will you have been good at English after completing

the course? (Interrogative)
(d) When Imran will come from London, will he not have
been old in age? (Interrogative: Negative)
19. PRESENT POTENTIAL TENSE
Definition: It shows the capacity or potency of a subject of
doing an action in present time.
(Helping Verb: Can) [Verb: Bare-infinitive / 1st form]
Sentences:
(a) I can write a letter. (Affirmative)
(b) She cannot play dice. (Negative)
(c) Can you drive a car? (Interrogative)
(d) Can Ali not submit his assignment? (Int. Negative)

20. PAST POTENTIAL TENSE

Definition: It shows the capacity or potency or ability of a
subject of doing an action in past time.
(Helping Verb: could) [Verb: Bare-infinitive / 1st form]
Sentences:
(a) It could mitigate the intensity of pain. (Affirmative)
(b) Abbas could not forget me. (Negative)
(c) Could you exhort / urge / request / implore / beseech
him? (Interrogative)
(d) Could Ali not blackmail / deceive / doge us?
(Interrogative: Negative)

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21. FUTURE POTENTIAL TENSE

Definition: It shows the capacity or potency or ability of a
subject of doing an action in future time.
(Helping Verb: shall be able, will be able) [Verb: Bare-infinitive]

Sentences:
(a) I shall be able to submit the assignment in next week.
(Affirmative)
(b) They will not be able to vent their ideas. (Negative)
(c) Will they be able to snare birds? (Interrogative)
(d) Will she not be able to learn computer within two
months? (Interrogative: Negative)

22. PRESENT PERFECT POTENTIAL TENSE

Definition: It shows that the subject can have done an
action if certain conditions have been fulfilled in present
time.
(Helping Verb: can have) [Verb: Past Participle / 3rd form of verb]

Sentences:
(a) If you gave me money I can have bought the car.
(Affirmative)
(b) If you did not give me money I cannot have bought the
car. (Negative)
(c) If you gave me address can I have written letter to you?
(Interrogative)
(d) If you gave me cell number can I not have informed
you? (Interrogative: Negative)

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23. PAST PERFECT POTENTIAL TENSE

Definition: It shows that the subject could have done an
action if certain conditions had been fulfilled in past time.
(Helping Verb: could have) [Verb: Past Participle / 3rd form]

Sentences:
(a) If you gave me money I could have bought the car.
(Affirmative)
(b) If you did not give me money I could not have bought
the car. (Negative)
(c) If you gave me money could I have bought the car?
(Interrogative)
(d) If you gave me money could I not have bought the car?
(Interrogative: Negative)

24. PRESENT POSSESSIVE TENSE

Definition: It shows the possession of the subject in present
time.
(Helping Verbs: have, has) [Verb: No Action Verb]
Sentences:
(a) I have four pens. (Affirmative)
(b) She does not have room to stay at. (or) She has no room
to stay at. (Negative)
(c) Does Ali have a book on history? (Interrogative)
(d) Do I not have a chance to attempt? (Interrogative:
Negative)

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25. PAST POSSESSIVE TENSE

Definition: It shows the possession of the subject in past
time.
(Helping Verb: had) [Verb: No Action Verb]
Sentences:
(a) I had that car as white elephant (as a burden).
(Affirmative)
(b) I did not have time to roam about. (Negative)
(c) Did she have a charm in her voice? (Interrogative)
(d) Did they not have clothes to put on? (Int. Negative)

26. FUTURE POSESSIVE TENSE

Definition: It shows the possession of a subject in future
time.
(Helping Verbs: shall have / will have) [Verb: No Action Verb]
Sentences:
(a) I shall have a pen. (Affirmative)
(b) I shall not have a splendid house in the next year.
(Negative)
(c) Will Wasim have an opportunity to bid her farewell /
adieu? (Interrogative)
(d) Will he not have a job to join? (Interrogative Negative)

27. PRESENT AORIST TENSE

(Helping Verb: may) [Verb: Bare-infinitive / 1st form]
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Definition: This tense can be used for under mentioned

entries:
Sentences:
1. For Permission:
You may sit in the chair. (For giving permission)
May I come in, sir? (For seeking permission)
2. For a Chance / Possibility/ Probability:
It may rain today. (Affirmative)
3. For Pray / Wish / Curse:
May you be successful in your aim! (Optative Sentences)
[Wish]
May God blacken her / his face! (Optative Sentences)
[Curse]
4. For a Purpose:
We work hard that we may succeed. (Affirmative)

28. PAST AORIST TENSE

(Helping Verb: might) [Verb: Bare-infinitive / 1st form]

Definition: This tense can be used for under mentioned
purposes in past time.
Sentences:
1. For Permission:
You might take my cordless phone. (Affirmative)
2. For a Chance / Possibility/ Probability:
I did not come to you because I thought you might stay at
office. . (Affirmative)
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3. For Wish / Pray / Curse:

Might Allah give him long life! (Optative Sentences)
[Wish]
4. For a Purpose:
I went to Karachi that I might get an opportunity to fly
abroad. (Affirmative)

29. PRESNT DUBIOUS TENSE

Definition: It shows that the action taking place in present
time is uncertain or in doubt.
(Helping Verb: may be) [Verb: Present Participle / 4th form]

Sentences:
(a) Katherine may be studying in her room. (Affirmative)
(b) Imran may not be lending money in those days.
(Negative)
(c) May they be waiting for their parents? (Interrogative)
(d) May Ali not be dyeing his hair? (Int. Negative)

30. PAST DUBIOUS TENSE

Definition: The tense shows that the action, which has taken
place in present time, is in doubt.
(Helping Verb: might have) [Verb: Past Participle / 3rd form]
Sentences:
(a) They might have gone home. (Affirmative)
(b) They might not have borrowed money. (Negative)
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(c) Might Imran have wiped out her tears? (Interrogative)

(d) Might I not have called at him? (Int. Negative)

31. PAST DUBIOUS COUNTINOUS TENSE

Definition: It shows that the action might have been taking
place in past time.
(Helping Verb: might have been) [Verb: Present Participle
/ 4th form]
Sentences:
(a) They might have been phoning us since morning.
(Affirmative)
(b) She might not have been playing for two days.
(Negative)
(c) Might they have been waiting for you? (Interrogative)
(d) Might Imran not have been sleeping? (Int. Negative)

32. PRESENT HABITUAL TENSE

Definition: This tense shows the habits in present time.
Present indefinite is also used to show the habits in present
time.
(Helping Verb: do / does) [Verb: Bare-infinitive / 1st
form]
Sentences:
(a) I write in the Daily Dawn.” (Affirmative)
(b) She does not sweep her home. (Negative)
(c) Does Ali play cricket daily? (Interrogative)
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(d) Do we not go to London? (Int. Negative)

Note: The Present Indefinite Tense is generally used as
Present Habitual Tense. But it will be incorrect to write that:
(a) I use to work in a hospital. (Incorrect)
(b) I work in a hospital. (Correct)
33. PAST HABITUAL TENSE
Definition: It shows the habits in past that are no longer in
existence in present time.
(Helping Verb: used to) [Verb: Infinitive / 1st form]
Sentences:
(British English)
(a) I used to play cricket. (Affirmative)
(b) She did not use to smear hina on hands. (Negative)
(c) Did he use to play dice? (Interrogative)
(d) Did you not use to set houses of enemy on fire?
(Interrogative: Negative)
(American English)
(a) I would play cricket. (Affirmative)
(b) They would not go to school. (Negative)
(c) Would she teach English? (Interrogative)
(d) Would Asma not surf sites? (Interrogative: Negative)

34. PRESENT CONJUNCTIVE TENSE

Definition: It shows that the end of one action causes the
start of other in present time.

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(Identification: having) [Verb: Past Participle/3rd form]

Sentences:
(a) Having washed hands, I eat food. (Affirmative)
(b) Having taken rupees, he does not buy book. (Negative)
(c) Having played match, do they go home? (Interrogative)

35. PAST CONJUNCTIVE TENSE

Definition: It shows that the end of one action caused the
start of other in past time.
(Identification: having) [Verb: Past / 2nd form of verb]
Sentences:
(a) Having written a letter she went to her friends.
(Affirmative)
(b) Having had food he did not change his clothes.
(Negative)
(c) Having played match did they go home? (Interrogative)
36. FUTURE CONJUNCTIVE TENSE
Definition: It shows that the end of one action causes the
start of other in future time.
(Identification: having) [Verb: Bare-infinitive / 1st form]
Sentences:
(a) Having sold my abode, I shall fly for London.
(Affirmative)
(b) Having played game, he will not take bath. (Negative)
(c) Having played match, will they go home?
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(Interrogative)

37. PRESENT INFINITIVE TENSE

Definition: It shows that the subject has to do a particular
action in present time. The subject has either to do or is
compelled to do an action.
(Helping Verb: have to / has to) [Verb: Infinitive / 1st form of verb]

Sentences:
(a) I have to write a letter. (Affirmative)
(b) He does not have to withdraw from his plea? (Negative)
(c) Do you have to inform all members? (Interrogative)
(d) Does she not have to pay rent? (Interrogative Negative)

38. PAST INFINITIVE TENSE

Definition: It shows that the subject had to do a particular
action in past time. The subject had either to do or was
compelled to do an action.
(Helping Verb: had to) [Verb: Infinitive / 1st form]
Sentences:
(a) I had to play a match. (Affirmative)
(b) He did not have to work for extra time. (Negative)
(c) Did she have to play dice? (Interrogative)
(d) Did I not have to teach? (Interrogative: Negative)

39. FUTURE INFINITIVE TENSE

Definition: It shows that the subject will have to do a
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particular action in future time. The subject will have either

to do or will be compelled to do an action.

(Helping Verb: shall / will have to) [Verb: Infinitive / 1st form]

Sentences:
(a) If you do not give me the book, I shall have to go to
Karachi. (Affirmative)
(b) He will not have to play cricket match. (Negative)
(c) Will she have to come to London? (Interrogative)
(d) Will I have not to make tea? (Interrogative: Negative)
40. PRESENT CONDITIONAL TENSE
Definition: It is used to show a condition in present time.
(Helping Verbs: would) [Verb: Bare-infinitive/1st form]
Sentences:
(1) I would play cricket. (Affirmative)
(2) Asma would not go to Iran. (Negative)
(3) Would Aslam and Abbas have food? (Interrogative)
(4) Would they not meet her? (Interrogative Negative)

41. PAST CONDITIONAL TENSE

Definition: It shows the unfulfulled condition of past.
(Helping Verbs: would have) [Verb: Past Participle / 3rd form]

Sentences:
(1) He would have informed you. (Affirmative)
(2) You would not have phoned me. (Negative)
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(3) Would she written a letter to her friends? (Interrogative)

(4) Would I not quit the candle? (Interrogative: Negative)

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
Present Conditional Sentence -1:
It shows that an action will take place if certain conditions
are fulfilled in present time.
Sentences:
(a) If you give me address I would write you. (Affirmative)
(b) If you call me I may help you. (Affirmative)
(c) If they come I might / may / would inform you.
(Affirmative)

Past Conditional Sentences-2:

It shows that an action would have taken place if certain
conditions had been fulfilled in past time; as the conditions
had not been fulfilled so the action would not have taken
place.
Sentences:
(a) If you had given me your address I would have
informed you. (Affirmative)
(b) You had not given me your address I would not have
informed you. (Negative)
(c) Had I been there I would / could / might have helped
you. (Affirmative)
(d) If I had been doctor I would have saved her life, since I
had not been doctor so I could / would not have saved her
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life.

Other Conditional Sentences:

These sentences denote the unfulfilled condition, desire,
wish, craving, yearning or earnest longing, which cannot be
materialized in future either.
(a) Had I been a doctor.
(b) If I were a Prime Minister.
(c) Would that I had been a doctor.

SOME IMPORTANT SENTENCES OF COMMON

USE
It is / was essential: It is / was essential to inform her
father.
Know how to: I know how to drive a car. She did not know
how to operate computer.
Feel like: (doing sth) He feels like smelling flowers.
Like: ( sth) I like flowers.
Keep on: She always keeps on writing.
About to: The doctor is about to come.
Almost: I almost broke my leg.
If need be: If need be call me.
Was / were to have: I was to have plucked the flower.
To be used to: He is used to getting up early in the
morning.
Want to: I want to write a letter to the editor of the

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newspaper.
She wanted to play forcefully.
Be to: She is / was/ to write.
Go and get: Go and get salt.
Otherwise: (For threat) Hand it over to me, otherwise…
It seems as if: The way he walks it seems as if he were a
king.
No harm: There is no harm in taking this medicine.
I think that: I think that he is a doctor.
Let: Let me write. Let’s play cricket.
It is no matter: It is no crying matter.
Still: She is still sleeping.
Yet: She has not gone yet.
Already: She has already gone.
Unless: I will not allow you to sit in the class unless you
bring your father.
Until: We won’t be able to go home until it stops raining.
If I were you: If I were you, I would have settled the issue
then and there.
Whether…or: Whether he sings or not, but I sing.
Tag question; He is your friend, isn’t he? You are not a
teacher, are you?
Wonder: I wonder at your company.

KINDS OF VERB
1) Transitive Verb: A transitive verb requires an object to
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complete its meaning. It denotes an action, which passes

over from the subject to the object.
Example: a) The boy learnt this lesson.
b) The parents love their children.
c) Does lion eat grass?
2) Intransitive Verb: These are the verbs, which show that
the action stops with the subject of the sentence. It does not
pass over the object.
Example: a) I sleep. b) We walk every day. c) It is raining.
3) Copular Verb: We use a special kind of verb to join an
object or a noun complement to a subject. These verbs can
be called “Copulas” or “Copular verb”. They also are known
as “Linking verb” or “Verb of in-complete predication”. The
common copular verbs are: be; seem; appear; look; sound;
smell; taste; feel; become; get.
Example: a) Your decision seems/ sounds illogical.
b) The story is horrible.
c) Vinegar tastes sour and bitter.

4) Auxiliary Verb or Helping Verb: These are the verbs,

which help to form tense:
Example: do, does, is, am, are, has, have, has been, have
been, did, was, were, had, had been, will, shall, shall have
been, will have been.

Verb Present tense Past tense Past Present

participle participle
3rd form 4th form
be am; is; are was, were been being
do does; do did done doing
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have had had had having

5) Modal Verb: The common words, which are generally

used as modal verbs, are: can, could, may, might, should,
had better, ought to, and used to; for example:
a) I can drive a car. ("can" for potential, ability, or
capability)
b) May I come in? ("may" for permission)
c) He may phone you. ("may" for possibility)
d) May God bless you! ("may" for wish, curse or desire)
e) He goes to Karachi so that he may attend the meeting.
("may" for purpose)
f) You should consult doctor because you are ill with
malaria. (Advice)
g) You had better consult doctor because you are ill with
malaria. (Advice)
h) You ought to consult doctor because you are ill with
malaria. (Advice)
i) The Arabs used to worship idols before the arrival of the
Holy Prophet. (Past habits)

6) Causative Verb: There are two causative verbs namely

“get” and “make” that cause some one to work for others:
Example:
a) She makes me laugh. (Make is followed by a subject)
b) I get my hair cut. (Get is followed by an object)
Note: There are two voices of verbs:
1) Active voice
2) Passive voice
N.B: Only transitive verbs are used in passive voice.
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ACTIVE VOICE AND PASSIVE VOICE

Active Voice: It is used to represent the subject of the verb.

Passive Voice: It is used to represent the object of the verb.

The verb has two voices viz. active and passive. In passive
voice the object of the sentence becomes the subject of the
sentence followed by the third form of the verb. The subject
becomes the agent of the action preceded by “by”. The
subjective case of the pronoun in active voice is changed
into the objective case in passive voice when it is used as the
agent of the action.
Active voice: subject + verb + object
Example: Wasim writes a letter.

Passive voice:
subject + tense verb +3rd form of action verb + by + agent or
doer of action
Example: A letter is written by Wasim.
Note: It is not necessary to always mention the agent or doer
of the action but is conditional to the requirement.
ACTIVE TENSES AND THER PASSIVE
EQUIVALENTS

Tense / Verb Active Passive Voice

form Voice
Present simple Writes is written
Present is keeping is being written
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continuous
Present perfect has written has been written
Present perfect has been has been (being) written
continuous writing
Past simple Wrote was written
Past continuous was writing was being written
Past perfect had written had been written
Past perfect had been had been (being)
continuous writing written
Future will write will be written
indefinite
Future Perfect will have will have been written
written
Modals can / may / can / may / might /
might / could be written
could write
Conditional would write would be written
Perfect would have would have been
conditional written written
Present to write to be written
infinitive
Perfect to have to have been written
infinitive written
Present Writing being written
Participle /
gerund
Perfect having having bee written
participle written

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1. Present Indefinite Tense:

Active Voice Passive Voice
writes / write is / am /
are written
Example:

Active Voice Passive Voice

Wasim writes a letter. A letter is written by Wasim.
She does not write me. I am not written by her.
Do they play cricket? Is cricket played by them?
Does he not teach English? Is English not taught by him?
Who does teach English? By whom is English taught?
Or
Who is English taught by?

2. Present Continuous Tense:

is / am / are writing is / am / are
being written
Example:

Active Voice Passive Voice

He is writing a letter. A letter is being written by
him.
Wasim is writing a letter. A letter is being written by
Wasim.
She is not writing me. I am not being written by her.
Are they playing cricket? Is cricket being played by
them?
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 94

Is he not teaching English? Is English not being taught

by him?
Who is teaching English? By whom is English being
taught? Or
Who is English being taught
by?

3. Present Perfect Tense:

has / have written has / have
been written
Example:

Active Voice Passive Voice

They have written a letter. A letter has been written by
them.
Wasim has written a letter. A letter has been written by
Wasim.
She has not written me. I have not been written by
her.
Have they played cricket? Has cricket been played by
them?
Has he not taught English? Has English not been taught
by him?
Who has taught English? By whom has English been
taught? Or
Who has English been taught
by?

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4. Present Perfect Continuous Tense:

has / have been writing has / have
been written
Example:

Active Voice Passive Voice

She has been writing the The book has been written by
book for ten years. her for ten years. (OR) The
book has been being written
by her for ten years.
(American English)
Have you been writing the Has the book been written by
book for ten years? you for ten years?
Who has been cooking food By whom has food been
since morning? cooked since morning? (OR)
Who has food been cooked
by since morning?

a) She has been writing the book for ten years. (Active
voice)
The book has been written by her for ten years. (Passive
voice) OR
The book has been being written by her for ten years.
(Passive voice: American English)
NB: This pattern can also be followed for past perfect
continuous tense and future perfect continuous tense.
Note: This kind of voice, though possible, is not usually
used in Standard English. The sort of structure could be

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applied for Past Perfect Continuous Tense but it is strongly

recommended that same structure should be avoided in
Future Perfect Continuous Tense.

5. Past Indefinite Tense:

wrote was/ were written
Example:

Active Voice Passive Voice

Wasim wrote a letter. A letter was written by
Wasim.
They did not drink wine. Wine was not drunk by
them?
Did she deposit the loan? Was the loan deposited by
her?
Did they not rig the election? Was the election not rigged
by them?
Who did sweep the poles? By whom were the poles
swept? OR
Who were the poles swept
by?

6. Past Continuous Tense:

was/ were writing was/were
being written
Example:

Active Voice Passive Voice

They were plucking flowers. Flowers were being plucked
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by them.
She was not writing me. I was not being written by
her.
Were they playing cricket? Was cricket being played by
them?
Was he not teaching English? Was English not being taught
by him?
Who was teaching English? By whom was English being
taught? OR
Who was English being
taught by?

7. Past Perfect Tense:

had written had been written
Example:

Active Voice Passive Voice

They had written a letter. A letter had been written by
them.
Wasim had written a letter. A letter had been written by
Wasim.
She had not written me. I had not been written by her.
Had they robbed money? Had money been robbed by
them?
Had they played cricket? Had cricket been played by
them?
Had he not taught English? Had English not been taught
by him?
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Who had taught English? By whom had English been

taught? Or
Who had English been taught
by?

8. Past Perfect Continuous Tense:

had been writing had been
written
Example:

Active Voice Passive Voice

She had been writing the The book had been written
book for ten years. by her for ten years.
(OR) The book had been
being written by her for
ten years.(American English)
She had not been sewing Clothes had not been sewn
clothes since childhood. by her since childhood.
Had you been writing the Had the book been written by
book for ten years? you for ten years?
Who had been cooking food By whom had food been
since morning? cooked since morning?
(OR) Who had food been
cooked by since
morning?

9. Future Indefinite Tense:

shall/ will write shall/ will be
written
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Example:

Active Voice Passive Voice

Wasim will finish the task. The task will be finished by
Wasim.
She will not accept the The proposal will not be
proposal. accepted by her.
Will they concede the point Will the point be reluctantly
reluctantly? conceded by them?
Who will bell the cat? By whom will cat be belt?
OR
Who will the cat be belt by?

10. Future continuous: No Voice

Example:
a) Wasim will be playing in an annual tournament.(No
voice)

11. Future Perfect:

shall/ will have written shall/ will have
been written
Example:

Active Voice Passive Voice

Asma will have finished the The book will have been
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book by next Monday. finished by Asma by next

Monday.
They will not have submitted The theses or dissertation
their theses or dissertation by will not have been submitted
the end of the month. by them by the end of the
month.
Will she have sought Will admission have been
admission in the forthcoming sought by her in the
semester? forthcoming semester?

12. Modal Verb:

can/ could/ may/ might write can/could/may/
might + be written

Example:

Active Voice Passive Voice

He can drive the car. The car can be driven by
him.
He may write a letter. A letter may be written by
him.
They might amend the The constitutional bill might
constitutional bill. be amended by them.

13. Conditional:
would write would have written
Example:
a) She would keep her promise. (Active voice)
b) Her promise would be kept by her. (Passive voice)
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14. Perfect Conditional:

would have written would have been written
Example:
a) She would have kept her promise. (Active voice)
b) Her promise would have been kept by her. (Passive voice)

15. Present Infinitive:

to write to be written
Example:
a) Oxford Press is to publish her debut novel. (Active voice)
Her debut novel is to be published by Oxford Press.
(Passive voice)

16. Perfect Infinitive:

to have written to have been written
Example:
a) They are to have published the book. (Active voice)
The books are to have been published by them. (Passive
voice)

17. Present Participle / Gerund:

writing to be written
Example:
a) She preferred writing books. (Active voice)
Books were preferred to be written by her. (Passive voice)

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18. Perfect Participle

having written having been written
Example:
a) Having tied one end of the rope to his bed, he threw the
other end out of the window. (Active voice)
The one end of the rope having been tied to his bed, the
other end was thrown out of the window. (Passive voice)

THE PLACE OF ADVERB IN PASSIVE VOICE

An adverb in passive voice is preferably kept before the 3rd

form of the verb and after the helping verb(s).
Example:
a) He writes weekly a letter to his father. (Active voice)
A letter is weekly written by her to his father. (Passive
voice)

IMPERATIVE SENTENCES
Example:

a) Shut the door. (Active voice)

b) Let the door be shut. (Passive voice) (OR)
It is ordered to shut the door.

INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES
Example:
a) Who does play the match? (Active voice)
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By whom is the match played? (Passive voice) (OR)

Who is the match played by? (Passive voice)
b) When / Where / Why / did he pay money? (Active voice)
When / Where / Why was money paid? (Passive voice)

Miscellaneous Sentences:
a) Sentences having two objects – direct and indirect objects –
can have two possible passive formats:

a) Someone has written her a letter. ( Active voice)

She has been written a letter. (Passive voice) Or
A letter has been written to her. (Passive voice)

Note: Preposition “by” is not used in these kind of

sentences:
Example:

a) The snow covers the hills. (Active voice)

The hills are covered with snow. (Not by snow) (Passive
voice)
b) The sheet covers the table. (Active voice)
The table is covered with sheet. (Not by sheet) (Passive
voice)

5. ADVERB

Definition: An adverb is a word, which adds to the meaning

of a verb, adjective or another adverb. Example:
a) Wasim worked fast. b) Asma writes slowly.

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c) He is exceptionally good. d) He plays very fast.

But: Sometimes, an adverb also modifies a preposition or
conjunction; as:
a) The stone fell exactly onto the head of boy.
b) He is heated simply because he is cruel.
In the first sentence the adverb “exactly” modifies the
preposition “onto”. While in the second sentence the adverb
“simply” modifies the conjunction “because”. Therefore, an
adverb can comprehensively be defined as under:

A Comprehensive Definition Of Adverb: An adverb is a

word that adds something to the meaning of any part of
speech or word class or lexical unit, except a noun or
pronoun.

KINDS OF ADVERB

1) Adverbs of Time: Words, which indicate when the

action took place, are called adverbs of time. For instance:
“yesterday; daily; few minutes ago; afterwards; eventually;
lately; now; recently; soon; then”
Exp: a) We met him yesterday. b) Do you see him daily?
c) He came here few minutes ago.

2) Adverbs of Place: Words, which indicate the place of

action, are called adverbs of place. For instance: “here;
there; outside; away; everywhere; somewhere; nowhere”
Exp: a) Please, come here. b) He stood there long time.
c) Why are you standing outside?

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3) Adverbs of Frequency (Numbers): Words, which

indicate that how many times an action takes place. For
instance: “twice; again; continually; frequently;
occasionally; often; once; periodically; repeatedly;
sometimes; ever; hardly ever; never; rarely; scarcely ever;
seldom”
Exp: a) I seldom go there.
b) I have given you the money twice.
c) The Policeman called him again.

4) Adverbs of Manner: Words, which show that how an

action takes place are called adverb of manner.
Exp: a) They came late. b) She is working hard.
c) He writes slowly.

5) Adverbs of Negation and Affirmation: Words, which

show affirmation and negation of an action.
Exp: a) I do not know the man.
b) You will certainly achieve your goal.
c) Surely, you are mistaken.

6) Adverbs of Degree: Adverbs of degree indicate degree

or quantity. For instance: “quite; fully; too; absolutely;
almost; barely; completely; enough; entirely; fairly; far;
hardly; just; much; nearly; only; rather; really; scarcely”
Exp: a) I am quite happy. b) I am fully satisfied.
c) He is too careless to pass the examination.

DEGREES OF ADVERBS

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Rule#1: As an adverb has a comparative and superlative

degrees; therefore, the rules for the formation of degrees of
adjective are applicable in case of an adverb. The most of
adverbs add “er” and “est.” to make comparative and
superlative degrees respectively:

Positive Comparative Superlative

late later latest / last
near nearer nearest
soon sooner -
angrily more angrily most angrily
bravely more bravely most bravely
cunningly more cunningly most cunningly

Rule#2: Certain adverbs make their comparative and

superlative degrees irregularly:

Positive Degree Comparative Superlative

far farther farthest
little less least
much more most
forth further furthest
late later last
near nearer nearest
well better best
7) Interrogative Adverbs: When adverbs are used for
asking questions, they are called Interrogative adverbs:
Example: a) Where do you live? b) When did you come?
c) Why are you crying?
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8) Relative Adverbs: When an adverb relates or refers back

to its antecedent is called relative adverbs.
Example: a) This is the house where Iqbal lives.
b) This is the reason why I am against.
c) I know the time when he arrives.
Note: In above sentences the adverbs “where”; “why” and
“when” refer “house”, “reason” and “time” respectively.

9) Adverbs of Cause: Words and phrases, which answer the

question “why” are adverbs of cause.
Example: a) He went there to attend meeting.
b) He went in to attend the guest.
c) He rang bell to call the peon.

Formation of Adverb
Generally, for the formation of an adverb “ly” is added to an
adjective; for instance: final-finally; happy-happily;
extreme-extremely;

Words used as both Adjective and Adverb: “daily;

meekly; monthly; kindly”
Words used as Adjective only: “friendly; likely; lonely”
Adverb having different meaning and context than
adjective: “coldly; coolly; warmly (these refer to feelings
and manner thing treated”

ORDER OF ADVERBS

a) If there are adverbs of more than one kind in a sentence,

the usual arrangement is:
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a) Adverbs of manner
b) Adverbs of place.
c) Adverbs of time.
Example: He did well at school in the annual sport this year.

b) When a sentence has a verb, which indicates movement

like: "reach, walk, arrive" the adverb of place acts as a kind
of object to the verb and comes immediately after it.
Example: a) The train arrived at the station late by half an
hour.

c) Sometimes, the adverbs of time are placed in the

beginning of the sentence for the purpose of emphasis or
clarity:
Example: Last Saturday, we have a jolly good time
picnicking on the riverbank on the other side of the forest.

d) If there are two or more adverbs of a category in the

sentence, the more exact expression usually precedes the
general ones:
Example: He came here at 5 o’clock in the evening of
Friday last.

e) Sometimes, the adverb of place is used in the beginning

of a sentence for the sake of emphasis:
Example: Outside the hotel, the car stopped suddenly.

6) PREPOSITION

Definition: Prepositions are words that connect a noun or a

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pronoun with a verb, adjective, pronoun or another noun to

indicate position and relation in time and space. Prepositions
are also used to form adjectives and adverb equivalent. Here
are some frequently used prepositions:
at; on; in; to; for; which; after; by; into; out; of; regarding.

PLACE OF PREPOSITION
a) Generally, the preposition comes before its object.
Example: a) He boasted of his achievement.
b) Sometimes, it follows its object.
Example: a) Where are you coming from?
b) What have you aimed at?
c) When a preposition is followed by pronoun as its object,
the latter is always in the objective case:
Example: a) He talked to me about his future plan.
b) You will not crowd around him.
c) They all laughed at him.

THE USE OF COMMON PREPOSITIONS

to: When somebody or something move to a particular
place or direction.
a) I go to school. She goes to Karachi.
b) I go home. (Not: I go to home. Because home
has no direction)
in: When somebody or something is present in a
particular area or circumference.
a) She lives in Karachi. Wasim is in class.
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at: When something or somebody is present very near

to a particular place or thing.
a) I live in Karachi at Malir.
b) She is in the class at the board.
on: When something or somebody is present on a place
or thing, which is in stationary or static state.
a) The book is on the table.
"0n, at, in" for time:
on is used for date or day:
a) Wasim came on Monday.
b) He was born on 6th September.
at is used for specific time:
a) The train will reach at 7 p.m.
b) I will depart at midnight / dawn.
in is used for time comprising long span:
a) The doctor will come in the next week / month.
over: When somebody or something goes moving high
over something, which is in stationary state.
a) The cat jumps over the wall.
b) The plane flies over the mountain.
under / beneath: When something or somebody is
present under the surface of something.
a) They sat under / beneath the trees to rest a while.
upon: When something or somebody falls upon another
thing or person, which is in the state of movement.
a) The tiger runs after a deer and jumps upon it.
into: It is compound preposition made of in + to. It is
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used when something or some-body goes moving into

something, area or circumference.
a) The ship sinks into water.
b) Ali goes into his house then he goes in his room.

onto: It is also a compound preposition made of on + to.

It is used when somebody or something falls on a thing
that is in stationary state.
a) Please keep the book onto the topmost shelf of the
cupboard.
b) I want to throw the stone onto the roof.
above: To go upwards.
a) They are present above in the room.
b) The temperature went above the normal routine.
below: To go down in vertical position or graph.
a) The price went below the expectation.
b) The temperature went below the freezing point.
around: Moving in a circle.
a) The earth moves around the sun.
about: When something or somebody is in continuous
movement and changing its place thereof.
a) The girl dances about the room.
b) The sun shines about the sky.
between / among: "Between" is used when something is
present between two things; whereas, "among"
for more than two.
a) There is a quarrel between Ali and Aslam.
b) There is fight among the students of class x.
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against: It is used when two things are opposite in

direction.
a) Keep the ladder against the wall.
beside: When something or somebody is present on the
either side.
a) Wasim sits beside me.
b) He lives in the room beside.
behind: When something or somebody is present exactly
behind.
a) They live behind our house. She sits behind me.
before: Something or somebody present in front of
somebody or something.
a) A lion suddenly appeared before me.
in Front Of: When somebody or something is present in
the front having no medium in between.
a) The bus stop is in front of my house. (There in no
medium or thing in between of the house and the bus
stop, the both are at the same side.)
opposite: It is used when something is present in the
opposite side.
a) The bus stop is opposite the house. (The bus stop is on
the other side of the road from the house.)
facing: When somebody is present facing to you.
a) Wasim sat facing to me in dining room.
through: Through, unlike across, is used for a movement
in a three-dimensional space, with things on all
sides.
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a) The dog ran through the wood.

b) The water flows through the pipe.
across: Across, unlike through, is used for the movement
which is not in three-dimensional space.
a) The dog ran across the desert.
b) They went across the border.
along: When something or somebody moves side by side
to the other.
a) I walked along my father.
b) She went along the wall.
by / with: “By” is used for primary source while “with”
for secondary source.
a) I write by hand with a pen.
b) Wasim draws a picture by hand with a brush.
from…to: It shows the span of time something
remains continuous in between of that period or
time.
a) I will teach you from 7 a.m. to 12 p.m.
till / up to: It shows the point of time something
remains continue up to.
a) The match remained interesting till / up to the loss of 7th
wicket.

SOME WORDS FOLLOWED BY APPROPRIATE

PREPOSITION
abstain /refrain from: The patient should abstain / refrain
from the rice and fish.
accuse sb of sth: They accuse Ali of theft.
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afraid of: He is afraid of dogs.

agree with: (a person, opinion, policy) I agree with you and
also with your policy.
agree about: (a subject of discussion) We agree about most
things.
agree on: (a matter of decision) We must agree on a date.
angry with: (a person for doing something) I am angry with
you for coming late.
angry about: (something) What are you so angry about?
anxious about: (worried about) She is very much anxious
about deteriorating health of her father.
anxious for: (Eager to know or have sth) All the students
are anxious for their results.
apologize to: (Sb for sth) I apologize to you for my
misbehaviour.
arrive at/ in: We shall have arrived at Karachi by next
morning.
The ship arrived in the harbour safely.
bad at: a) She is bad at handwriting.
believe: no preposition (Sb or sth that is said) You should
not believe her.
believe in:(God, Father, Christmas or sth that exist: trust)
She believes in Allah and in the Day of Judgment.
belong in/ on/ etc: (go, fit, have its place in / on / etc) Those
glasses belong on the top shelf.
belong to: (= be a member of) She belongs to local political
body.
blue with: (Cold) Her hands were blue with cold.
red with: (anger) My father was red with anger.
clever at: She is very clever at cooking.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 115

congratulate on sth or for doing sth: I congratulate you on

your success and I also congratulate your brother for
completing his dissertation or thesis.
crash into: The rough and unscrupulous driving caused a
crash into the bus in front.
despite (no preposition / in spite of: Her voice was shaking
despite all her efforts to control it
In spite of applying for hundreds of jobs, he is still out of
work.
died of/ in/ from: He died of malaria. His father died in
accident. She died from injuries.
difficulty with / in doing sth: If you feel any difficulty (in
completing) with your research paper you
should consult your tutor. If you feel any difficulty in
completing your research paper you had better
consult your tutor.
disappointed with sb with / at / about sth: I am altogether
disappointed with you at your
passiveness.
discussion about: They had a thorough discussion about the
uplift of education.
discuss (no preposition) I want to discuss some problems
with you.
divide into: The book is divided into seven chapters.
dream of: (=think of, imagine) I often dreamed of being
famous when I was younger.
dream about /of: (while asleep) What does it mean if you
dream about / of mountains?
dressed in: She was dressed in green.
drive into: Imran drove into a tree again yesterday.
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enter into (= an agreement, a discussion etc) We have

already entered into a contract with another
party on the same objectives.
enter: (a place: no preposition) When a teacher enters the
classroom everybody stands up.
example of: There is no example of such heroism in the
annals of history.
explain sth to sb: Will you please explain this rule to me?
fight or struggle with: They fought with guns.
They struggle with much spirit and enthusiasm to retain
their social status.
good at: Wasim is very much good at Math.
ill with: She is ill with cancer.
impressed with / by: She is very much impressed with the
performance of her seniors
increase in: There is an increase in the price of the
household articles, which will cause inflation.
independent of: She got a job so that she could be
independent of her parents.
independence from: The Muslims of sub-continent got
independence from the British.
insist on: Why do you insist on going to Karachi now?
interest / interested in: When did your interest in social
work begin?
She is interested in Mathematics.
kind to: My father is very much kind to me.
lack of: (noun) There is lack of confidence in her.
lack: (verb)She lacks confidence.
lacking in: She is lacking in confidence.
laugh/ smile at: (a) They always laugh at me.
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listen to: (a) They listen to music.

look at: (point one’s eyes at) All students should look at the
board.
look after: (take care of) Her grandfather looked after her
after the death of her father.
look for: (search for) It is the book I have been looking for
since morning.
make, made of / from: The chain is made of gold.
marriage to; get / be married to: (not with) Her marriage
to David did not last very long.
How long have you been married to Rabia?
marry: (no preposition) She wants to marry a doctor she
works with.
near to: He lives very near to me.
nice to: My mother was very nice to me for the whole
course of her life.
operate on: ( a patient) The doctor will operate on the
patient tomorrow.
pay for: I have nothing to pay for the bill because I have run
out my whole money.
persist in:Why does she persist in buying this shabby toy?
pleased with sb / at / about sth: My father is pleased with
me at my getting first position.
polite to: (not: with) A good teacher is always polite to
students.
prevent from: The medicine prevents germs from
spreading.
proof of: The judge wants the proofs of murder.
reason for: What is the reason for coming late?
remind of: I will remind you of the payment of the bill in
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the next week.

responsible / responsibility for: You are responsible for
your action.
rude to: She is pretty rude yet beautiful.
run into: (=meet) I ran into Wasim at Murree last year.
search for: ( = look for) The customs were searching for
drugs at the airport.
search: (no preposition) (look through; look everywhere in /
on)
a) The police searched everybody’s luggage.
sick of: (a) I am sick of your holier than thou attitude.
shocked at / by: I am very much shocked at your
misconduct.
shout at: (aggressive) If you don’t stop shouting at me I’ll
come and hit you.
shout to:(= call to) When I passed by, they shouted to me to
go there.
sorry about: (something that has happened) I am really
sorry about the Lal mosque tragedy.
sorry for / about: (something that one has done) I am sorry
for my misconduct.
sorry for: (a person) She is very sorry for her father.
speak to/ with: She speaks to / with her father.
suffer from: She suffers from diabetes.
surprised at / by: My father was quite surprised at / by my
result.
take part in: I am going to take part in the Annual Science
Fair.
think of / about: What do you think of / about my result?
throw at:(aggressive) The mad rabble threw stones at the
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police.
throw to: (in a game etc) If you get the ball, throw it to me.
translate into: Translate the passage into English.
trip over: If the short-circuiting occurs, the auto breaker
trips over and goes off.
typical of: (a) The wine is typical of the region.
wait for: (a) I cannot wait for you anymore.
wrong with: (a) What is wrong with you?

SOME NOUNS FOLLOED BY APPROPRIATE

PREPOSITION
(Reference: Saadat Hussain: Exploring the World of English)
Abhorrence of: An honest man has abhorrence of deceit.
Abstinence from: Abstinence from alcoholic drinks is
conducive to health.
Abundance of: There is an abundance of food supply in our
country.
Access to: He has no access to the President.
Accession to: Queen Elizabeth II’s accession to the throne
was celebrated with great splendour.
Accomplice with/of: Apte was an accomplice with/of
Godse in the assassination of Gandhi.
Affection for: Asma has great affection for her father.
Affinity with: Iqbal has great affinity with Maulana Rum.
Antidote to: Do you know what is the antidote to opium
poisoning?
In accordance with: I went and met Mr. Kalim in
accordance with the instructions of my chief.
According to: According to his statement he was in
England for six years.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 120

Accusation of : An accusation of theft has been brought

against the old servant.
Acquaintance with sb/sth: I have no acquaintance with the
new officer.
Advantage of: The students took advantage of the teacher’s
absence and made much noise.
Advantage over sb: He has an advantage over me.
Allegiance to sb/sth: All the disciples showed allegiance to
the great saint.
Admittance into: Admittance into this room is strictly
prohibited.
Alternative to: There is no alternative to this plan.
Amazement in/at: She looked at him in amazement. I was
struck with amazement at this daring.
Amateur in: He is amateur in photography.
Answer for: I have no answer for my misconduct.
Anxiety about: His anxiety about my mother’s health has
been relieved.
Anxiety for: Great is my anxiety for my son’s safety.
Aptitude for: She has no aptitude for Physics.
Appetite for: Saeed has no appetite for food since he had
fever.
Assault on: He made a murderous assault on his enemy.
Aversion to: He has great aversion to smoking.
Apology for: you must offer an apology for your
misconduct.
Approach to: The approach to this house is very attractive.
Assent to: He have his assent to my proposal.
Bias against: Even a judge sometimes feels a bias against
habitual offenders.
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Capacity for: He has great capacity for organizing big

meetings.
Care of: I shall give you some hints on the care of eyes and
teeth.
Confidence in: He has complete confidence in his servant.
Contemporary of: Keats was a contemporary of Shelley.
Contempt for: I have nothing but contempt for him.
Control over: He has no control over his children.
Carving for: He has no craving for wealth.
Compact with: Clive entered into a compact with Mir Jafar.
Complicity in: He was charged with complicity in the riots.
Connivance (at/in sth) (with sb): Constant connivance at the
faults of children leads to grave consequences.
Descent from: Some Rajput families claim descent from the
sun.
Desire (for sth/sb): The desire for wealth is almost
universal.
Disgrace (to sb/sth): He is a disgrace to his parents.
Distaste (for sb/sth): Some students have a distaste for
mathematics.
Drawback (of/to sth): Poor health is always a drawback to
success in life.
Esteem for: He has great esteem for his teachers.
Eminence in: Dr. Salam has achieved great eminence in
Physics.
Encroachment (on/upon sth): A busy man does not like
encroachment on his time.
Exception to: This is an exception to the rule.
Evasion of: Deliberate evasion of a law is to be condemned.
Exposure to: Exposure to chills and colds may prove
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harmful to health.
Familiarity with: Excessive familiarity with a person often
leads to contempt.
Freedom from: True peace of mind means freedom from
care.
Gratitude to and for: The boy showed gratitude to the lady
for the present she gave him.
Glance at: He cast a glance at me.
Hatred of/for (sb/sth): All civilized human beings have a
hatred of cruelty to animals.
Hatred for: Iago’s hatred for Othello led to Desdemona’s
death.
Hindrance to: The cast system has been a great hindrance
to social progress in India.
Heir to: Shamim is heir to his grandfather’s property.
Incentive to: Poverty is often a great incentive to work and
success.
Inclination (to do sth) (towards/for sth): I have no
inclination for riding.
Indulgence in: Indulgence in drink is one of the roads to
ruin.
Influence over/with: Have you any influence over/with
manager?
Inquiry into: The police made an inquiry into the case.
Insight into: Shakespeare has a marvelous insight into
human nature.
Key to: Try is key to success.
Liking (for sb/sth): An upright man has no liking for
flattery.
Limit (to sth): There is a limit to every man’s patience.
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Lust (for sb/sth): Lust for gold prompted him to commit

this murder.
Malice against: To cherish malice against a person is a sign
of spiteful nature.
Menace (to sb/sth): The increase of mosquitoes is a menace
to public health.
Match for: You are no match for him.
Nerve for: Many learned men have no nerve for public
speaking.
Passion (for sb/th): His sister has a passion for music.
Pity (for sb/sth): Who does not feel pity for suffering
children?
Pretext for: Some persons always find a pretext for
interfering in the affairs of others.
Proof of: What proof of guilt is there?
Quarrel (with sb) (between A and B) (about/over sth):
Nobody likes a quarrel with his neighbor. There
was a quarrel between Ali and Aslam.
Regard for: I have great regard for him.
Regret for: I have great regret for what I have done.
Reason for: I can see no reason for your coming late to the
office.
Resemblance to sb/sth (between A and B): He bears a
resemblance to his brother.
Reliance on: I have very little reliance on his words.
Revolt against: Revolt against duly constituted authority
leads to trouble.
Resistance to: Resistance to injustice is a mark of moral
courage.
Slur (on sb/sth): Such a charge is a great slur on his
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character.
Sympathy with: They all showed sympathy with me in my
troubles.
Taste for: He has no taste for Mathematics.
Taste in: She has no taste (judgment) in pictures.
Taste of: Now we shall have a taste of (experience of) hard
work.
Tenacity of: He shows great tenacity (determination) of
purpose in bringing the work to completion.
Trust (in sb/sth): Trust in God and do the right.
Use for: I have no use for him.
Use of : What is the use of examining him?
Victory over: He achieved a victory over his passions.
Victim to: He fell a victim to this disease.
Witness of/to/for: I was a witness of/to that transaction. (to
appear as a witness for defence).
Zeal for/in sth: His zeal for social reform is unbounded.
Zest for sth: In his old age he has lost all the zest of his
youth for enjoyment.

IMPORTANT ADJECTIVE FOLLOWED BY

SUITABLE PREPOSITIONS

Accountable to: Man is accountable to God for his actions

here.
Amenable to: All men are not amenable to reason.
Acceptable to: Your terms are not acceptable to me.
Accessible to: Our Principal is accessible to all the students.
Alive to: We want our leaders to be fully alive to public
needs.
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Anxious about: We are all very anxious about our mother’s

health.
Anxious for: During the riots I felt anxious for my safety.
Aware of: I was not aware of your intentions.
Angry with sb/ at/for sth: I am angry with you at/for your
misconduct.
Apart from: Apart from his inherited wealth, he has earned
a good deal of money.
Appropriate to: The speech was not appropriate to the
occasion.
Averse to: I am not averse to living in the country.
Blind to: Most men are blind to their own defects.
Careful of/about/with sth: He is very careful of his money.
Careless about/with: He is very careless about his health.
Certain of: She is certain of her success in the examination.
Compatible with: Your conduct is not compatible with the
principles you uphold.
Characteristic of sb/sth: That speech was quite
characteristic of the man.
Conducive to: Rich food is not conducive to health.
Confident of: We were confident of victory.
Conversant with sth: He is conversant with the art of
pleasing people.
Congenial to: I am sorry if my suggestions are not
congenial to you.
Consistent with: This action is not consistent with his
teachings.
Contrary to: What he did was contrary to my orders.
Deaf to: The landlord is deaf to the protests of his tenants.
Deficient in: He is deficient in social etiquette.
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Devoid of: A reader devoid of all sense of humour cannot

enjoy some of the novels of Dickens.
Desirous of: He is desirous of winning this prize.
Destined for: He was destined for the profession of a
doctor.
Detrimental to sb/sth: Smoking is detrimental to health.
Different from/than/to sb/sth: His outlook on life is
different from mine.
Disappointed (at/by sth) (in/with sb/sth): (bitterly
disappointed at result)(I am disappointed in you)
Disgusted (at/by sb/sth) (with sb/sth): I was disgusted with
his behaviour.
Distinct from sth: The business of the judge is distinct from
that of the jury.
Eligible for sth: You are not eligible for the post.
Endowed with: He is endowed with all the qualities of a
great leader.
Envious of: I am not envious of anybody.
Equal to sb/sth: He is not equal to the task he has
undertaken.
Favourable to/for sb/sth: This weather is favourable to a
good harvest.
Familiar to sb with sth: The smell is familiar to all living
near to the bakery. (familiar with computer)
Fit for: He is quite fit for this post.
Foreign to: This argument is foreign to the subject I am
discussing.
Grateful (to sb) (for sth): I shall feel grateful to you for
this act of kindness.
Good (at sth) (for nothing): He is good at English. Ali is
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good for nothing.

Hostile to/towards sb/sth: He showed himself hostile to my
proposal.
Ignorant of/about sth: You should not be ignorant of the
elementary rules of health.
Incumbent on/upon sb: It is incumbent on everybody to
serve his country.
Indebted (to sb) (for sth): I am greatly indebted to him for
this timely help.
Intimate with sb: Is he intimate with the Governor?
Indicative of sth: His pale face is indicative of his poor
health.
Indifferent to sb/sth: He is indifferent to both praise and
blame.
Indignant at/about sth: She was very indignant at the way
she had been treated.
Innocent of sth: He has been proved innocent of the charge.
Insensible to/of sth: (Insensible to pain; insensible of risks)
He is insensible to the beauties of nature.
Jealous of sb/sth: He is jealous of all his friends.
Liable to/for sth: We are all liable to make mistakes. He is
liable for the loss.
Loyal to sb/sth: He is loyal to the Government.
Mad at/with sb, about sth: I was almost mad with rage
when I found him behaving so rudely.
Mindful of sb/sth: Be mindful of your promise to me.
Notorious for: He is notorious for his violent crimes.
Obedient to sb/sth: He is obedient to his father.
Obligatory (for sb) (to do sth): It is obligatory for all
employees to wear protective wearing.
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Oblivious/forgetful of/to sth: He is not oblivious of his past

sins and sincerely repentant.
Obnoxious to: His very presence is obnoxious to me.
Overwhelmed with: He was overwhelmed with sorrow at
the loss of his friend.
Partial to (sb/sth) (towards sb/sth): This man is partial to
his friends.
Popular with sb: He is popular with his companions for his
sportsmanship.
Prompt in: This officer is very prompt in his decisions.
Proficient in/at sth/doing sth: He is quite proficient in
Mathematics.
Proof of sth: Keep the receipt as a proof of purchase.
Proud of sb/sth: He is proud of his friends.
Relevant to sb/sth: This argument is quite relevant to the
subject.
Responsible (to sb/sth in authority) (for sb/sth): I do not
hold myself responsible to you for his behaviour.
(responsible for designing project; responsible for
children)
Requisite for/of sth: The university degree has become
essential requisite for the entry into jobs.
Successful in/at sth/doing sth: I hope you will be
successful in your examination.
Sacred to: The Bible is sacred to the Christians.
Sanguine about: They are less sanguine about the
company’s long-term prospects.
Sensitive to sth: Do not criticize him; he is very sensitive to
criticism.
Short of sth: As I was short of money, I requested him to
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lend me some.
Sick of: He is a regular bore; I am sick of him.
Solicitous for: I am solicitous for the safety of my brother.
Synonymous with sth: No two English words are
absolutely synonymous with each other.
Temperate in: Be temperate in eating and drinking.
Thankful (to do sth) (for sth): I am thankful to see them all
safe; thankful for darkness that saved)
True to sb/sth: He was true to his creed.
Well-versed in: He is well-versed in astronomy.
Tired of sb/sth: We are tired of waiting.
Uneasy about sth: I am feeling uneasy about his sudden
disappearance.
Useful (to sb)(for sth): He might be useful to us. The plants
are useful for environment.
Wanting in sth: He is not wanting in noble qualities.
Weary of sth/of doing sth: He was weary of listening to his
adventures.
Worthy of: He is worthy of respect because of his selfless
spirit.

7) CONJUNCTION

Definition: A conjunction is a word, which connects words,

phrases and clauses.

a) Conjunction Co-ordinate: A conjunction of co-ordinate

kind connects words, phrases and clauses of equal rank.

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Some co-ordinate conjunctions viz. and; also; then;

moreover; likewise – add ideas while certain other co-
ordinate conjunctions as but; still; yet; nevertheless;
nonetheless; however – contrast ideas. Co–ordinate
conjunctions like “hence; therefore; consequently” indicate
result.

b) Conjunction Subordinate: Subordinate conjunction

connects clauses of unequal rank i.e. independent and
subordinate clause. Some of the sub – ordinate conjunctions
are: "when; because; for; since; so; that; if; unless; until;
though; although.
Note: Some words are used both as conjunction and
preposition; as: before; but, etc.
Example:
a) Before the sun arose, they prepared their breakfast
(Conjunction).
b) A lion appeared before me (Preposition).
c) I called on him but he refused to recognize me
(Conjunction).
d) He cares for none but you (Preposition)

SOME CONNECTIVES THAT ADD IDEAS

And: It was a happy day of my life and all my relatives

were present in my birthday party.
Also: All the teachers in my school are diligent and
hardworking; they also take much interest in the uplift
of our both mind and heart.
Then: The judge scrutinized all the documents and evidence
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pertaining to the case; then, he announced final

judgment.
Moreover: A talented artist, he was, moreover, a writer of
some note.
Likewise: He voted for the change and he expected his
colleagues to do likewise.
In order to: She arrived early in order to get a good seat.

SOME CONNECITVES THAT SHOW CONTRAST

But: I came to see you but you were sleeping.

Still: Although he promised faithfully to come, I still did not
think he would.
Yet: It is a small car, yet it is surprisingly spacious.
Nevertheless / Nonetheless: There is little chance that we
will succeed in changing the law. Nevertheless/Nonetheless
it is important that we try.
However: He was feeling bad. He went to work, however,
and tried to concentrate.
On the contrary: I anticipated that the test would be the
toughest one; on the contrary, it was quite
an easy.
Whereas: Some of the studies show positive results,
whereas others do not.

SOME CONNECTIVES THAT SHOW RESULT

Hence: We suspect they are trying to hide something;

hence the need for an independent inquiry is indispensable.
Therefore: He is only 17 and therefore not eligible to vote.
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Consequently:
This poses a threat to agriculture and the food chain, and
consequently to human health.
Subsequently: (afterwards; later; after)
The original interview notes were subsequently lost.

SOME SUB-ORDINATE CONNECTIVES

When: I loved history when I was at school.

Because: I work hard because I intend to be a doctor.
Since: Wasim has not phoned since he went to Karachi.
For: I believed her – for surely she would not lie to me.
That: She said that the story was true.
If: If you see him, give him this note.
Unless: You won’t get paid for time off unless you have a
doctor’s note.
Until: Let’s wait until the rain stops.
Although: Although the sun was shining it was not very
warm.
Though: Though she gave no sign, I was sure she had seen
me. (Although is more formal than
though)
SOME CONNECTIVES THAT ARE ALWAYS USED
IN PAIR

Although…yet: Although she is poor yet she is honest.

Not only…but also: He is not only my teacher but he is
also my good friend.
As…so: As you are ill, so you had better not go to school
So…that: She is so weak that she cannot walk.
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As soon as: As soon as the teacher comes, all the students

stand up.
No sooner…than: No sooner does the teacher come than all
the students stand up.
On the one hand / side…on the other hand / side:
On the one hand / side, you help me; on the other hand /
side, you abet them to tease me.

SOME OTHER CONNECTIVES

Thus: The universities have expanded, thus allowing many
more people the chance of higher education.
Besides: Besides computer, I give you all of my books.
In addition to: In addition to the certificates, all the
students were given shields.
According to: According to Wasim, it is a great movie.
In accordance with: We acted in accordance with my
parents’ wishes.
While: Her parents died while she was still at school.
Notwithstanding: Notwithstanding some major financial
problems, the school has had a successful year.
Even if / though: I’ll get there, even if I have to walk. I like
her, even though she can be annoying at times.
Even now /then: I have shown him the photographs but
even now he won’t believe me. Even then she would not
admit her mistake.
Instead of: You should give me your car, and I would give
you my old house instead of it.
In lieu of: You should give me your car, and I would give
you my old house in lieu of it.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 134

8) INTERJECTION

Definition: An interjection is a word thrown among other

words in a sentence to express an emotion. It is followed by
an exclamation mark (!). It has no grammatical relation to
the other part of the sentence because it is an involuntary
expression of some sudden felling or sentiment. Some of the
interjections are: Ah!; Oh!; Hurrah!; Lo!; Well done!;
Bravo!; Tut!; Pshaw!; Good Heaven!.
I) Hurrah! We have won the match. (II) Oh! He is dead.
Note: The words following the exclamation mark should start
in a capital letter.

THE USE OF SOME IMPROTANT NTERJECTIONS

Surprise: Oh, what a lovely present!
Satisfaction: Ah, that is a much neat essay!
Great satisfaction: Aha, those are the books I have been
looking for.
Great surprise: Wow, did you see that goal?
Excitement / delight: (a) Yippee, grandfather is coming to visit
us! (b) Hurrah! We have won the match.
Pain: (a) Ouch, you are treading on my foot! (b) Ow, I have
hurt myself!
Disgust: (a) Ugh, what a filthy kitchen. (b) Pooh, what a
stinking smell!
Pleasure / pain: (a) Ooh, the water is lovely and cool! (b)
Ooh, my back aches terribly!
Exhaustion: Phew, I am hot!
Regret: Alas! He is killed brutally.
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Appreciation: Bravo! You have played well.

Well done! You have written an extremely marvelous essay.
Address: Lo! We have given good tiding unto you.

9) ARTICLES
There are two articles in English language viz. “Definite
Article” and “Indefinite Articles”.

1) Definite Article: The word “the” is used as definite

article to make a singular, common countable noun specific
or particular.

WHERE THE DEFINITE ARTICLE IS USED

Rule # 01: When we want to particularize one thing from its

class.
Example:
a) I want to eat the red apple. (a specific apple)
b) I have sold the car. (a particular car)

Rule# 02: It is used before a common singular, countable

noun that has been mentioned before.
Example:
I went in a jungle, I saw a lion in the jungle; the lion
was lame. A lioness accompanied the lion, the lioness
had two cubs and the cubs were following their mother.

Rule # 03: We use “the” before a common, singular,

countable noun when that noun is used to indicate a
class.
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Example:
a) The dog is a faithful animal.
b) The cat is a domestic pet.
c) The peacock is a beautiful bird.

Rule # 04: Use “the” before the names of rivers.

Example: The Ganges; the Indus; the Thames.

Rule # 05: Use “the” before the names of groups of islands.

Example: The Andaman island; the East Indies.

Rule # 06: Use “the” before the names of ranges of

mountains.
Example: The Alps; the Himalayas.

Rule # 07: “The” is placed before the names of oceans, seas,

bays, gulfs and straits:
Example: The Indian Ocean; the Mediterranean Sea; the Bay
of Bengal; the straits of Dover.
Rule # 08: “The” is used before the proper name of the
books:
Example: The Quran; the Bible; the Ramayana; the
Mahabharata.

Rule # 09: “The” is placed before certain objects, which are

unique in nature.
Example: The moon; the sun; the star; the sky.

Rule # 10: “The” is placed before the superlative degree of

an adjective:
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Example: (a) Asif is the best boy of the class.

(b) It is the most wonderful invention of our time.

Rule # 11: “The” is placed before the names of certain

newspapers and magazine:
Example: The Pakistan Times; the Tribunes; the States Man.
N.B: But this rule has certain exceptions.

Rule # 12: “The” is placed before the word "Punjab"

because it is a meaningful name.
Example: (a) Wasim lives in the Punjab.

Rule # 13: “The” is placed before the adjectives used as

noun in the plural sense.
Example: a) The poor are generally God-fearing.
b) The rich do not generally care for the poor.

Rule # 14: “The” is used in such sentence.

Example: (a) The more the merrier. (b) The faster the better.

Rule # 15: Use “the” when you idiomatically like a proper

noun or name to another.
Example: (a) Latif is the Shakespeare of the Sindh
(b) Kashmir is the Switzerland of Pakistan.

Rule # 16: “The” is used before ordinal numbers:

Example: a) The second edition will be published next year.

Rule# 17: We use “the” with these words:

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The cinema, the radio, the police, the environment, the

government and the newspapers etc
Rule# 18: "The" is used before the names of theatre or
cinema.
Example: (a) Shakespeare’s plays were staged in the Globe
theatre.

Rule# 19: “The” is used before the names of the family:

Example: (a) He belongs to the Simths.
Rule# 20: “The” is used before direction.
Example: (a) Wasim lives in the North America.

Rule# 21: “The” is used before the names of musical

instruments.
Example: (a) She can play the piano.

Rule# 22: “The” is used before special titles.

Example: The Quid-i-Azam; the Bi Aman; the Madir-i-milat

Rule# 23: “The” is used before the names of special days.

Example: The Christmas; the Easter; the Holly; the Eid-ul-
fitar.

b) WHERE THE DEFINTIE ARTICLE IS NOT USED

Rule # 1: When a common, countable noun is used in plural

number, the definite article should not be placed before it,
unless it is meant to be particularized.
a) Cows are grazing (Not: The cows are grazing)
b) Dogs bark (Not: The dogs bark)
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NB: But “the” can be used with plural in order to specify them:
Example: a) The books, what you gave me, are interesting.
(Specific books)

Rule # 2: The” is not placed before the names of: "towns;

caps; countries; continents; single island; single mountain.

Rule # 3: “The” is not used before a proper noun except the

idiomatic sentence as mentioned in “rule # 15” above.

Rule # 4: “The” is not placed before the abstract noun.

Rule # 5: “The” is not used before the material noun.

Rule # 6: “The” is not used before a common noun used in a

general sense.

Rule # 7: “The” is generally not used before combination of

an adjective and an abstract noun.
Example: The Quaid was opposite to British imperialism
(Not: the British imperialism)

Rule # 8: “The” is not used before names of titles or

professions when they precede a proper noun.
Example: a) Queen Elizabeth (not: the Queen Elizabeth)
b) King Faisal (not: the King Faisal)

Rule # 9: “The” is not used in certain well-established

phrases:
Example: a) The boys leave school at two o’clock. (Not: the
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school)

Rule # 10: “The” is not used before the names of disease.

Rule # 11: “The” is not placed before an adjective used as

nouns and signifying languages, but it is used to
particularize a native.
Example: (a) I know French. (French language)

Note: When “the” is kept before these adjectives they give

the sense of a particular native.
Example: (a) I know English. (English language)
(b) I went to London to understand the English. (It
means the English native)

Rule # 12: “The” is not placed before Roman numerical and

cardinal numbers.
Example: (a) George V, Alamgir II.
(b) She has one book. (Not: the one book)

Rule# 13: “The” is not used before the names of sports.

Example: (a) I want to play cricket or tennis.
(Not: the cricket or the tennis).

INDEFINITE ARTICLES “A” AND “AN”

Rule # 1: If we wish to generalize the noun, we use the

indefinite articles.
Example: (a)I want to eat a mango. (Any mango)

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 141

Rule # 2: As a general rule common noun in the same

singular number should have an indefinite article (“a” or
“an”) placed before it.
Example: (a) Rafique saw a tiger.

Rule # 3: We use the indefinite article before a combination of an

adjective and a common noun in the singular number.
Example: (a) He is a rich man.
(b) He is a bad boy.

Rule # 4: We may use the indefinite article with the

superlative degree of adjective “much” (“most” when we
use the superlative degree in the sense of “very”)
Example: (a) This is a most amazing story.

Rule # 5: The indefinite article is not used before an abstract

and material noun.
Rule # 6: The use of “an” or “a” depends upon the noun
following it; if it begins in the sound of /ë/ then use “an”, if
otherwise use “a”.
Example: An apple; an orange; an honest; an IMF; an M.A;
an hour; a book; a dog a copy; a pen; a bag.

Rule # 7: “An” is not used before “U” when U is

pronounced as “you”.
Example: I went to a University (not to an university).

Rule # 8: “An” is not used before “o” when pronounced as

“wa”:
Example: A one-eyed man (not an one-eyed man).

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Rule# 9: The indefinite article “a” is used before “very,

fairly and really”.
Example: (a) My school is at a fairly long distance.
(b) It is a really true story.
Rule# 10: The indefinite article “a” or “an” is used after
“quite”.
Example:(a) It is quite an old house.
(b) He is quite a good student.
Rule# 11: The indefinite article “a” is used before “rather”
and both “a” and “an” can be used after rather.
Example: (a) It is a rather true story.
(b) It is rather an untrue story.
(c) He is rather a good person.
Rule# 12: The indefinite article “a” or “an” is used after
“what” and before a countable noun.
Example: (a) What a wonderful goal!
(b) What fun we made.
(Not: a fun because fun is an uncountable noun.)
Rule# 13: The indefinite article “a” or “an” is used after
“such”.
Example: It is such an interesting book that one cannot help
reading.
Note: Sometimes, we use “some” as an article before plural,
countable noun or uncountable noun.
Example: (a) I need some books.
(b) She needs some water.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 143

*******************************

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 144

NARRATION: DIRECT AND INDIRECT

Direct Speech: The original words of speaker.

He said to me, “I am coming in a jiffy.”
(Reporting speech) (Reported speech)

Note: The reporting speech informs us about the speaker

and to whom is spoken. Whereas, the reported speech
informs that what is being said. Besides, the verb used in the
reporting speech is called “reporting verb” and the verb in
the reported speech is called “reported verb.”

Indirect Speech: When the original words of the speaker

are changed according to the person speaking.
For Example:
He says to me, "I write a letter" (Direct speech)
He says to me that he writes a letter. (Indirect speech)

RULES REGARDING DIRCET AND INDIRECT

SPEECH

1. RULES FOR PRONOUN

Rule # 1: All the first person pronouns in the reported

speech will be changed according to the subject of reporting
speech.
Example:
You say to me, "I am writing a letter to my brother."
(Direct)

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 145

You say to me that you are writing a letter to your

brother. (Indirect)

Rule # 2: All the second person pronouns in the reported

speech will be changed in accordance with the object of the
reporting speech.
Example:
He says to me, "You are not working well"
He says to me that I am not working well.

Rule # 3: All the third person pronouns in reported speech

will remain unchanged.
Example:
He says to me, "They are okay"
He says to me that they are okay.

2. RULES FOR TENSES

Rule # 1: When the reporting verb is either in present or

future tense; thereafter, there will be no change in the tense
of the reported verb.
Example:
She says to me, "You are a painstaking student".
She says to me that I am a painstaking student.

Rule # 2: When the reporting verb is in past form, thereafter

the reported verb will be changed in accordance with its
corresponding past.

a) Present Indefinite Tense would be changed into Past

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Indefinite Tense:
Example:
She said to me, "I take exercise daily"
She told me that she took exercise daily.

b)Present Continuous Tense would be changed into Past

Continuous Tense:
Example:
She said, "I am reading a book".
She told that she was reading a book.

c) Present Perfect Tense would be changed into Past Perfect

Tense:
Example:
He said to me, "We have met ago"
He told me that they had met before.

d) Present Perfect Continuous Tense would be changed into

Past Perfect Continuous Tense:
Example:
They said to me, "We have been searching you since
morning"
They told me that they had been searching me since
morning.

e) Past Indefinite Tense would be changed into Past Perfect

Tense:
Example:
He said me, "You ate an apple"
He told me that I had eaten an apple.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 147

f) Past Continuous Tense would be changed into Past

Perfect Continuous Tense:
Example:
She said to him, "I was waiting for you"
She told him that she had been waiting for him.
g) Past Perfect Tense would remain Unchanged:
Example:
He said to me, "Razi had gone before I reached"
He told me that Razi had gone before he reached.

h) Past Perfect Continuous Tense would remain unchanged:

Example:
She said to me, "He had been serving for one year."
She told me that he had been serving for one year.

i) Will, Shall, Can, May” would be changed into “Would,

Should, Could, Might” respectively:
Example:
He said to me, “I shall go."
He told me that he would go.
She said to me, "She will write an application"
She told me that she would write an application.
He said to her, “I can seek first position"
He told her that he could seek first position.
They said, "We may join you"
They told that they might join us.

3. OTHER CHANGES

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 148

“This” would be changed into “that”

“These” would be changed into “those”
“Now” would be changed into “then”
“Ago” would be changed into “before”
“Come” would be changed into “go”
“Here” would be changed into “there”
“Hence” would be changed into “thence”
“Hither” would be changed into “thither”
“Thus” would be changed into “so, same away”
“Today” would be changed into “that day, the same day”
“Tonight” would be changed into “that night, the same
night.”
“Yesterday” would be changed into “the previous day, the
last day”
“Tomorrow” would be changed into “next day”
“Day before yesterday” would be changed into “day before
previous day”
“Day after tomorrow” would be changed into “the day after
the next day.”

4. IMPERATIVE SENTENCES

Rules:

1. Words of command are: “command, order, forbid, tell,

desire, reprimand, admonish, threat and warn.”
2. Words for request are: “request, implore, urge, beseech,
solicit, apologize.”
3. Words for advice are: “advise, suggest, counsel, forbid.”
4. Change reported verb into infinitive having preposition
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 149

"to" before of it.

5. No conjunction should be applied.
Example:
He said to me, "shut the door"
He commanded or ordered me to shut the door.
He said his children, "Don't go out"
He forbade his children to go out.
They said to me, "Shut the door and don't switch on the
fan."
They ordered me to shut the door. They further forbade
me to switch on the fan.

He said to me, “Fetch me a glass of water please.”

He requested me to fetch him a glass of water.

5. INERROGATIVE SENTENCES
Rules:

1. Words for question are: "ask, enquire, demand, desire.”

2. Change interrogative statement into assertive one.
3. Replace question mark (?) with full stop (.).
4. Remove coma (,) and inverted coma (" ") without
inserting any conjunction.
5. Interrogative pronoun like: “which, who, what, whose,
whom” or interrogative adverb like: “why, how, where
and when” would remain same.
6. Interrogative statements commencing from finite verb
like: ”do, does, did, has, have, had, can and may etc”
should be changed with the words either "if" or "whether"
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 150

as does it suit.
Examples:

He said to me, "Where do you live?"

He enquired of me where I lived.
He said to me, "What is your name?"
He asked me what my name was. (OR)
He asked my name.
He said, "How did you play this match?"
He asked me how I had played that match.
He said me "Do you play cricket?"
He asked me if I played cricket.
He said to me, "Who is the letter written by? Who do you
go with? Do you take food timely?”
He asked me who the letter was written by. He further
enquired of who I went with. He also further asked if I
took food timely.

6. EXCLAIMATORY SENTENCES

Rules:

1. Words for exclamation: “To exclaim with sorrow, pain,

grief, joy, happiness, pleasure, hatred or applaud, pray,
desire, wish.”
2. Insert conjunction "that".
3. Follow all the rules pertaining to changing tenses and
pronoun.
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Examples:

He said: "Alas! He is dead now".

He exclaimed with grief that he was dead then.

The beggar said: "May you live long!"

The beggar wished me to live long.

She said to me, "Well done!"

She applauded me.

She said to me, "Hurrah! We have won the match".

She exclaimed with joy that they had won the match.

***************

REMOVE “TOO”, “ENOUGH” AND “NO

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SOONER………THAN”

A) “Too” is used in the sentences having negative sense or

connotation; it should not be used in the sentences having
positive sense.

Sentences:

1) He is too weak to walk.

He is so weak that he cannot walk. OR
He is very weak. He cannot walk.
2) She was too poor to buy a car.
She was so poor that she could not buy a car.
3) He is too weak.
He is very weak.
4) He too is invited.
He also is invited.

B) “Enough” is used in the sentences having positive

sense; it should be avoided in the sentences having
negative sense or connotation:

Sentences:
1) He is intelligent enough to pass the examination.
He is so intelligent that he can pass the examination. (OR)
He is intelligent. He can pass the examination.
2) He was rich enough to buy a car.
He was so rich that he could buy a car.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 153

3) She is generous enough.

She is very generous.

B) The sentences having “as soon as” are changed into

“no sooner….than” according to the pattern mentioned
below:
1) As soon as I arrived at the railway station, the train had
left.
No sooner did I arrive at the railway station than the train
had left.
2) As soon as the teacher enters the class, all the students
stand up.
No sooner does the teacher enter the class than all
students stand up.

***************

IDIOMS
1. Apple of one’s eye: (Very dear) Hardworking makes a
student apple of his teacher’s eye.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 154

2. A rainy day: (A difficult time) One should save

something for a rainy day.
3. A man of letters: (An educated person) Friendship with
a man of letter is far better and worthwhile than the
company of an ill-educated scholar.
4. A bone of contention: (A cause of dispute) Kashmir is a
bone of contention between Pakistan and India.
5. A narrow escape: (Being saved unexpectedly) Usama-
Ben-Laden had narrow escape from the indiscriminate
bombardment of American planes.
6. At eleventh hour: (At the last moment) He participated
in the ceremony though he was invited at eleventh hour.
7. At large: (At liberty, or free) The people were afraid
because the murderer was at large.
8. A jack-of-all-trades: (Knowing something about
everything but not in details) It is futile and useless trend
in our new generation of being jack of all but master of
none.
9. An old hand: (Expert or adept in something) Wasim is
an old hand in teaching English.
10. A white elephant: (An unaffordable undertaking)
11. For Aslam a stupendously huge bungalow is a white
elephant.
12. A red letter day: (An important day) Christmas is a red-
letter day for Christians.
13. A white lie: (A lie without harm) Fiction is full of
white lies.
14. A dead letter: (An old affair) The Monica-Clinton
affair is a dead letter nowadays.
15. At arm’s length: (At some distance) A good teacher
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 155

always keeps his student at arm’s length notwithstanding

his intimacy and close attachment.
16. At home: (An expert, adept) Aslam is at home in
English.
17. At Sixes and Sevens: (In disorder, confusion, disarray)
When I shouldered the responsibility of the office, its
record was at sixes and sevens.
18. At dagger’s drawn: (At enmity, discord, ill-will) India
and Pakistan are turning to be at dagger’s drawn over the
dispute of Kashmir.
19. Again and again: (Repeatedly) He telephoned me again
and again for the result of examination.
20. At large: (Widely) The American attack on Iraq was
condemned by the people at large.
21. A bird’s eye view: (A general look / over view) A bird’s
eye view is at least indispensable to resolve any problem.
22. A wild goose chase: (An effort without result)
Preparing for the competitive examination without
knowing English is a wild goose chase.
23. A fair weather friend: (An insincere person; a selfish
person, an opportunist person) A fair weather friend is a
blemish on the transparent face of friendship.
24. A hen packed husband: (A man under the influence of
one’s wife.) A hen packed husband is too frail to meet
the expectation of his parents.
25. A cat and dog life: (A life full of disputes and quarrels.)
An unhappy couple always lives a cat and dog life.
26. An Eye-wash: (Deception) All his sympathy and
concern for me was merely an eye-wash.
27. Apple of discord: (Reason of dispute) An Infallible
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 156

quantity of oil is apple of discord of the American-led

war against Iraq.
28. All and sundry: (Every body) In democratic state all
and sundry has the right to vote.
29. At a loss: (Puzzled, not knowing what to do) When the
journalist asked the minister for the misappropriation in
the national funds he was at a loss for words.
30. Bad blood: (Angry and vindictive feelings) The
America’s attack on Iraq has helped to create bad blood
between the two races.
31. Bed of roses: (Very comfortable) Life is not bed of roses
but too of thorns.
32. Bed of thorns: (Full of miseries; hardships) The
unending paucity and deprivation make the life of poor a
bed of thorns.
33. By hook or by crook: (By fair or foul means) America
wants to occupy Iraq by hook or by crook.
34. By leaps an bounds: (Very rapidly, quickly) Viral
diseases, like aids or hepatitis, spread by leaps and
bounds.
35. Black sheep: (A mischievous, miscreant) Every
department does have few black sheep that cause its
disgrace and devaluation.
36. By dint of: (By virtue of, because of) Man can make
every thing possible by dint of his brilliance and
potentialities he is bestowed with.
37. Beat about bush: (To talk irrelevantly) One should not
beat about bush, while one does not know the actual
answer.
38. Breathe one’s last: (To die) David’s father-in-law, due
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 157

to heart attack, breathed his last in Jinnah Hospital.

39. By and by: (Bit by bit; soon) By and by one can achieve
one’s destination.
40. Break the Ice: (To break silence) Having entered the
room, I broke the ice.
41. Blow one’s own trumpet: (To praise oneself) Those,
who blow their own trumpet, are fickle minded.
42. Bring to light: (To make known to all) The Muslim
leaders have brought the Kashmir cause to light.
43. Birds of same feather: (Persons of same habits) The
birds of same feather flock together.
44. Bosom friend: (An intimate, boon or close friend) A
bosom friend does not say adieu in the critical situation.
45. Bolt from the blue: (An unexpected event) Her
dismissal came as a bolt from the blue.
46. Bag and baggage: (With all belongings) He was
banished from his country with bag and baggage.
47. By fits and starts: (Discontinuously, stopping)
He often speaks by fits and starts.
48. Casting vote: (Decisive vote) Since the both contesting
parties have secured equal votes, now the vote of the
presidents will be the casting vote.
49. Crocodile tears: (Pretending to weep, false tears.)
Most of the people shed crocodile tears at the death of
their nearest and dearest.
50. To carry the day: (To win; to emerge victorious) The
world cup 2003 is at its full swing, let us see who carries
the day.
51. Cold blood murder: (To kill some one deliberately)
Bhutto`s execution was a cold blood murder.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 158

52. Cock and bull Story: (A fabricated account) Some

analysts believe that the involvement of Al-Qiada in 11
September attack on America is a cock and bull story.
53. Cry in wilderness: (An undertaking brining no result)
All projects of NGO's pertaining to poverty alleviation
proved a cry in wilderness.
54. Close fisted man: (A miserly person) A close-fisted man
sooner loses the soft feelings of others.
55. Day in and day out: (Daily, day after day) We have to
work day in and day out to achieve the aimed target.
56. Far and Wide: (Over a large area) The police searched
far and wide, consequently they arrested the burglar.
57. For good: (Forever) Moin Khan left cricket for good.
58. Feather one’s own nest: Pursue one’s own interests) In
the National Assembly every party intends to feather its
own nest.
59. Fall flat: (To prove failure) An advice to a stupid falls
flat.
60. A fish out of water: (Behave uneasily) He behaved like
a fish out of water at the departure of his beloved.
61. French Leave: (Leave without permission) The names
of those students would be struck off, who often
celebrate French leave.
62. Fair and square: (Honest; straight forward) A true
human being must be fair and square in his attitude and
dealings.
63. Few and far between: (Rare; seldom) The job
opportunities are few and far between in these days.
64. Get through: (To pass; succeed) It is too difficult to get
through entrance test of Medical.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 159

65. Harp on the same string: (To talk repeatedly about

same matter) The speaker of the National Assembly
harps on the same string in the meeting.
66. Hit the nail on the head: (To avail an opportunity) The
market rate of chilies is every low, so it is the high time
for those who believe in speculation to hit the nail on the
head.
67. Heart and soul: (Completely, out and out) A devoted
teacher must feel interested heart and soul in his
profession.
68. Hale and hearty: (Healthy, fit physically and mentally)
Rural people live in the lap of nature so they are often
remain hale and hearty.
69. Hue and cry: (Reaction; protest) There is much hue and
cry against the anti-Muslim policies of the United States
of America.
70. Hand in glove: (Very close, intimate, or working closely
with somebody, especially in a secret and / or illegal
way) Blair and Bush were hand in glove with each other
in projecting the policies against Muslims.
71. In addition to: (Besides) In addition to prizes, the
certificates were also distributed among the winner
students.
72. In lieu of: (Instead of) Pakistan has accumulated the
stupendous amount in lieu of hers assistance in the
America-led war against Afghanistan.
73. In a nut shell: (Briefly) Aslam narrated the soul-
touching story of his ruination in a nut shell.
74. In to to: (Completely; altogether) One should not
believe the stranger in to to.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 160

75. Ins and outs: (Full information; complete details) The

General Assembly has given ins and outs of its three-
years planning.
76. In a fix: (In a difficulty; in anxiety) His termination from
job has thrown him in a fix.
77. In good books: (In positive view; in favour of) Every
employee wants to be in good books of his boss.
78. In black and white: (In written) The teacher has
provided all material in black and white.
79. In hot water: (In a fix, in a difficult situation.) The
criminal must be thrown in hot water.
80. It is a high time: (The moment has already come) It is
high time to bring the matter to light when all the stake
holders are present in the meeting.
81. Kith and kin: (Relatives) I will be with you by kith and
kin through all your thick and thin.
82. Lion’s Share: (A bigger part) Ahmed, being the
principal partner, claims for lion’s share in the business.
83. Leave no stone unturned: (To try by every way) He
left no stone unturned to pass the examination.
84. Look down upon: (To show hate) The rich people
generally look down upon the poor.
85. Look forward to: (To wait keenly) Nasir is looking
forward to seeing his friend.
86. Lend a hand: (Help) One should lend a hand to those
who are in dire need of it.
87. Maiden speech: (First time speech) Aslam did well,
though it was his maiden speech.
88. Nip in the bud: (Stop at the beginning) All social evils
and abuses should be nipped into bud.
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89. Null and void: (Rejected; invalid) A contract without

free consent is null and void.
90. Odds and ends: (A collection of objects not belonging
to any group or order; left over and discarded) The
library does not have complete collection of the books of
law but just in odds and ends.
91. On the whole: (Over all) On the whole, the Pakistan
government has taken positive steps maintain law and
order situation.
92. Once in a blue moon: (Rarely, seldom) The fall of
hailstone in hot areas is once in a blue moon.
93. Out and out:(Completely; wholly solely) One cannot
believe the statement of a politician out and out.
94. Over and above: (Besides, in addition to) Over and
above his teaching skills, he was appreciated for his good
humane nature.
95. Off and on: (Not regularly) The students who attend
their class off and on would sustain an irreparable loss.
96. Pocket an insult:(to face dishonour) A conscientious
person cannot pocket an insult.
97. Part and parcel: (An essential part) The character
building is the part and parcel of true education.
98. Pros and Cons: (Advantages and disadvantages)
Information Technology has many pros and cons.
99. Smell a rat: (To sense a danger; to see an unhappy
result) The dubious performance of Ali makes his boss
smell a rat in his motives.
100. A snake in the grass: (An insincere man) He was
disappointed by her love out and out; she seemed to be a
snake in the grass.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 162

101. To die in harness: (To die prior to the completion of a

work or in the state of slavery) Maulana Muhammad Ali
Jauhar died in harness for the sake of the Muslims’
independence.
102. To leave in lurch: (To abandon; to leave in difficulty)
Imran was a fair weather friend; no sooner did the misery
approach than he left me in the lurch.
103. To throw stone at: (To find fault with) To throw stone
at other is likely to forget one’s own shortcoming.
104. To get wind: (To come to know or be known) The
story of their secret affair soon got wind.
105. To be on the horns of dilemma: (To be in a fix of
dilemma) The marriage ceremony of my cousin and a
tour to Karachi have thrown me on the horns of
dilemma.
106. Safe and Sound: (Unwounded, unhurt) Aslam has
arrived at his village safe and sound.
107. To turn a deaf ear: (Be careless of something) The
government has turned a deaf ear to the people protesting
against increasing unemployment.
108. To turn over a new leaf: (To do a significant job)
Pakistan has turned over a new leaf by calling to third
party for the supervision of control line.
109. To be caught red handed: (To be found busy in a
misdeed) The police caught the thief red handed.
110. To find fault with: (To criticize) We should not find
fault with others.
111. To cut a poor / sorry figure: (Unsuccessful attempt)
Hitherto, we have been cutting sorry figures, but the now
we should endeavour for a profound and substantial
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 163

attempt this time.

112. To while away: (Pass) The great many people were
wandering at the beach just to while away their time.
113. To take after: (To look or behave elders with respect)
He is sent to an asylum and his children do not take after
him.
114. To make the most of: (To take the fullest advantage of
the circumstances) He has been nominated for higher
studies on scholarship basis; it is golden opportunity for
him to make the most of it.
115. To make both ends meet: (To be able to live within
one’s income) Their income is meager, so they feel much
difficulty with to make both ends meet.
116. To be at one: (To agree with somebody altogether)
Bush and Blair seem to be one at Iraq’s invasion.
117. To back out of something: (To withdraw from an
agreement) One must not try to back out of the contract
one has made.
118. To have a bone to pick with someone: (To have a
grievance about something) Her husband has been
beating her since marriage, so she has a bone to pick
with him.
119. To keep the wolf away from the door: (To meet
expenses without any problem) It is the last week of our
tour, yet we have enough amount to keep the wolf away
from the door.
120. To make for something: (To move towards
something) Constant bickering does not make for long-
lasting negotiation or decision.
121. To put up with: (To accept something unwillingly)
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 164

The attitude of the husband is immensely arrogant and

impolite, I do not know how she puts with him.
122. To be at one’s fingertips: (To be expert in
something)Wasim is adept in Mathematics; moreover, all
the equations and formulae are at his fingertips.
123. To bury the hatchet:(To befriend and forget enmity)
Israel and Palestine have signed a sweet accord, yet they
have not buried the hatchet in to to.
124. To poke one’s nose into: (To meddle or interfere) A
decent and motivated person never tries to poke his nose
into the problems he has no concern so for.
125. To kick up a row: (To make a noise, or disturbance)
When the students were not allowed to play cricket they
started the kick up the row.
126. To wind up: (To bring to an end) He wound up his
speech with a quotation form the Holy Quran.
127. To see eye to eye with someone: (To have the same
opinion, or to agree with) The Quaid-i-Azam did not see
eye to eye with the Hindu leaders when they said the
Sub-continent must not be split into two parts.
128. To take to a task: (To call to account, to blame, to
rebuke) The teacher took me to task for not completing
the home work.
129. Turn turtle: (To go upside down) The accident left
their car turn turtle.
130. To cry over spilt milk: (To grieve over something
uselessly) Since they have married in the court, so there
is no use of crying over the split milk.
131. To put in practice: (To carry out in deeds) His all ideas
are very much pragmatic and practical ones, it would be
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 165

the wisest strategy to put them in practice.

132. To end in smoke: (To have no result; to come to
nothing) He left no stone unturned to succeed in the CSS
examination, but all his toil ended in smoke.
133. Tall talk: (Boasting) The self-fearing person uses tall
talk as a tool to divert the attention of their boss.
134. Under one’s nose: (Immediately within reach) I have
been looking for the spectacles about the room but they
were lying under my nose.
135. Ups and down: (Success and failure) Life is a
fantastical blend of ups and down.
136. Uphill task: (Very difficult / arduous job) To secure
first position in the Board examination is an uphill task.
137. With open arms: (Whole heartily, warmly) The people
of Medina welcomed the Holy prophet with open arms.
138. Ways and means: (Resources, method, technique)
Every country should find ways and means to stabilize
her economy.
139. With a high hand: (Disregarding the feelings of
others) As the judge had already been bribed so he
passed the judgment with a high hand.
140. With flying colours: (To emerge successfully from
some difficult task) Wasim has passed all exams with
flying colours through the whole course of his academic
career.

****************

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 166

PARAGRAPH-WRITING

The article shows the essential ingredients of a model

paragraph, and also discusses the necessary requisites and
strategies adopted in writing a good, composite and well-
knit paragraph.

MODES OF WRITING

a. Descriptive Writing: The paragraph showing the external

outlook of a place, or the description of natural objects.
The explanation of usual facts related to a thing, or object
does fall into the ambit of descriptive writing; for instance
the common features of a car, bungalow, place, object,
things etc.

b. Expository Writing: The expository writing

encompasses the unusual or inner look of things. For
instance, the quarrel or opposition for the sake of chair, it
is a thorough and deep exploration or insight for that
writer has to probe deep into the subject, its reason,
involving factors which differs from the common
statements showing mere characteristics of the chair, such
kind of analytical writing is called expository writing.

c. Narrative Writing: The narration or contemplation of

any historical or common event, incident, occurrence or

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 167

happening or story telling is included in the form of

narration.

d. Reflexive Writing: Reflexive writing consists of personal

observation, experiments, and ideas, showing the point of
view of the writer about particular subject.

e. Imaginative Writing: The piece of writing grasping or

consisting of imaginative explanation is called
imaginative form of writing. It can reveal the image of a
real or fictitious thing. Novel, Drama, Fiction and Poetry
are best example of imaginative writing.

f. Argumentative Writing: The piece of writing which

consists of the statements regarding the ideas which may
be controversial; therefore, the writer explains it in an
argumentative way to convince and persuade the reader.
Note: The descriptive, expository, narrative and
argumentative are objective form of writing; whereas,
reflexive and imaginative are subjective form of writing.

DEVELOPMENT OF PARAGRAPH

Generally, there are various ways one can adopt to develop a

composite paragraph, it depends on the topic of the
paragraph and the nature of the contents included therein.

1. Facts: Whenever the writer develops a paragraph by

using simple facts and figures of something to describe it.

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 168

2. Comparison and Contrast: When the comparison or

contrast is made between usual and the things of same
species or characteristics; as one model of camera with
another model of it.

3. Analogy: It is also a kind of comparison, in which

comparison or contrast is made on eccentric, idiosyncratic
or unusual grounds. For instance, to compare eye with
camera is a best example of analogy.

4. Process: Whenever the process of anything is described

in a proper and orderly manner. For instance, to explain
the process of earthquake or eruption of volcano.

5. Classification: A paragraph can be developed by

classifying the things or material into different classes
according to their characteristics.

6. Definition: A paragraph can be developed by writing the

definition of various things mentioned therein.

7. Cause and Effect: A paragraph can be developed by

showing certain causes or effects of something or any
problems and their consequences.

8. Illustration / Exemplification: A paragraph can be

developed by using some illustration or exemplification.

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 169

9. Analysis: A paragraph can be developed by analyzing,

elaborating, interpreting the things or different aspects of
it logically.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD PARAGRAPH

1. Unity: The proper development of ideas, thought, facts

and figures is called unity. It means the orderly expression
an explanation of one controlling idea. There must not be
shift from one idea to another in a paragraph. If a
paragraph comprises the poetry if Iqbal, it must not switch
over from poetry to his role in politics.

2. Coherence: The cohesive devices which link the

sentences and bring a sense of proper development in a
paragraph. The common cohesive devices are: "but, so,
therefore, thereafter, consequently, thence, hence,
moreover, however, in fact, on the whole etc."

3. Variety and Balance: If a paragraph consists of one point

which further comprises of variety or varieties, it must
have a proper and reasonable balance and harmony in
those varieties.

4. Order: The proper lay out of things, pertaining to the

order as they exist. For instance, the order in the
arrangement of material or object or circumstance and
situation described in the paragraph.

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 170

5. Linguistic Qualities: The diction or language is the part

and parcel of any piece of writing. The proper use of
appropriate words at the appropriate place and context is
of paramount importance. The grand diction elevates the
essence and appeal of piece of writing which transports
the reader irresistibly.

TECHNIQUES OF ORDER IN PARAGRAPH

There are different techniques which are generally used to

maintain an order in a paragraph:

1. Climax: When the things or situations are developed from

less important to more important. If the arrangement is
vice versa is known anticlimax. For instance: On the same
day she lost her purse, dog and husband.

2. Space: The paragraph describing the place and space

included in the narration. Order of place means the things
should be presented in their natural or physical order.

3. Time: When order of time is observed generally from past

to present.

4. General to Specific: When inductive order is applied in

which the writer starts from the general things and ends
with the specific thing. But, if the opposite order is
applied then it is called specific to general order.

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 171

1) Find out various modes of writing applied in the

following paragraphs:

1. It was springtime, and by daylight I could see the blue

combers rolling in, screened occasionally as I drove past
clumps of rhododendron with outrageously beautiful bursts
of pink and purple blossoms. By moonlight the waves
moved in majesty out of the mottled sea, flaunting long pale
crests as they broke onto the sand. Sometimes I saw the faint
lights of coastwise ships, and from time to time we rumbled
over wooden bridges where wild rivers like the Rogue came
roaring out of the mountains.
(- Adapted from Richard L. Williams. "The Northwest
Coast")

2. There is probably no element of society that has been

engineered or tinkered with more often in the seventy-eight
years of its existence that the juvenile justice system.
Accepted methods for reforming "wayward" juveniles have
at different times included approaches as diverse as physical
punishment, isolation, individual psychotherapy, and
mountain survival schools. Programs have been instituted in
many different settings, from detention in locked facilities to
living situations within the community (including foster
homes and group homes of various sorts). The latest
approach (or fad, depending on your point of view) to
reforming juvenile offenders is called "Juvenile Diversion."
In theory this approach attempts to identify mild or potential
offenders before their entry into the formal justice system
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 172

and to "divert" them into a community treatment program

that is far cheaper and perhaps more effective than a youth
training school or probation camp.
(- Michael M. McAleenaan, "Taking a Closer Look at
Juvenile Diversion," Occidental College Magazine, May
1978.)

3. The baying of the hounds drew nearer, then still nearer,

nearer, ever nearer. On a ridge Rainsford climbed a tree.
Down a watercourse, not a quarter of a mile away, he could
see the bush moving. Straining his eyes, he saw the lean
figure of General Zaroff; just ahead of him Rainsford made
out another figure whose wide shoulders surged through the
tall jungle weeds; it was the giant Ivan, and he seemed
pulled forward by some unseen force; Rainsford knew that
Ivan must be holding the pack in leash. They would be on
him any minute now. His mind worked frantically. He
thought of a native trick he had learned in Uganda. He slid
down the tree. He caught hold of a springy young sapling
and to it he fastened his hunting knife, with the blade
pointing down the trail; with a bit of wild grapevine he tied
back the sapling. Then he ran for life. The hounds raised
their voices as they hit the fresh scent. Rainsford knew now
how an animal at bay feels.
(- Richard Connell, "The Most Dangerous Game")

4. There is currently an intense debate being waged over the

nature of the heating system employed by a group of
creatures extinct now for 70 million years. This debate has
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 173

to do with dinosaurs. Recently it was suggested, rather

revolutionarily, that these reptiles were, unlike others,
warm-blooded rather that cold-blooded. Only warm-blooded
animals walk erect with their legs vertical and that's what
dinosaurs did, it is said, their anatomy and footprints being
evidence; cold-blooded things like lizards have a sprawling
stance with a good part of their legs horizontal. Warm-
bloodedness requires high blood pressure; so does a creature
with its head carried above its heart. (Brachiosaurus' neck
was eighteen feet long, calling for enough blood pressure on
sheer hydraulic grounds to permit the notion of warm-
bloodedness.) Dinosaurs have vascularized bones like
mammals and birds. Dinosaur tracks have been found as far
north as Spits Bergen in the Arctic and you need to be
warm-blooded to live up there.
(- James K. Page, Jr." Phenomena, Comment and Notes,"
Smithsonian, June 1978)

5. I had the island to myself on its western reaches. The

mainland, far behind, was lost in haze. As I climbed over,
the shoulder near the sheer west end, the wind came fresh in
my face, and with it the shrill cries of the sea birds. On the
way back, I suddenly encountered a small flock of wild
sheep. A fierce-looking ram stared at me, and then, to my
relief, led his flock plunging down the steep side of the
island to shelter under a rocky ledge far below. Their wool
had never been shorn; it hung to the ground.
(- Robert S. Ryf, "Faces out of Stone, "Occidental College
Magazine, May 1978)
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 174

Key to Test 1:

No Mode of Writing Unity Order

1. D Descriptive Unified Space, Fact
2. E Expository Unified Facts, Climax
3. N Narrative Unified Process
4. A Argumentative Unified Comparison
5. D Descriptive Unified Space

2) Find out various methods of developing a paragraph

in the following examples:

1. There is tropical plant that blooms white one day and

turns purple the next, heats up at night and imprisons its
insects pollinators, but is most often remarked on for quite a
different quality: size. The plant is the legendary giant water
lily of the Amazon. Named for Queen Victoria very early in
her reign, Victoria Amazonica has been known to science
for more than a century and a half. For the greater part of
that time it has been kept in green houses but, like so much
in the Amazon, most of its natural history has been
unknown. While one might have thought that water lily with
pads five feet are more in diameter would have been studied
in the field, the complexity of its reproductive biology was
revealed only in 1975.

2. Volcanic eruptions and earthquaks often occur together.

Both results from the movements of the giant plates that
make up the rigid outer shell or the earth. The continents lie
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 175

embedded in these plats which make up the earth's crust and

below, part of its mantle. The plates move about slowly in
relation to each other, at a rate of only about 1.3 to 10
centimeters per year. Most earthquaks and volcanic
eruptions occur at the edges of these giants plates where
they push against each other or are pulled apart. Geologists
describe the motion of the plates and the consequences of
such motion as plate tectonics.

3. Imaginative literature can be classified in several ways,

but one the common ways to understand its divisions is
according to the different forms it takes. The three major
forms of literature are prose, poetry, and drama. Each of
these can be further subdivided. Prose can be categorized
into the novel a book-length work of fiction; the short story,
usually centering around a single incident and with less
complicated development than that of novel; and the
novelette, somewhere between the novel and the short story
in length and complexity. Poetry can be classified as
narrative, dramatic and lyric. Drama can be divided into
tragedy, comedy and tragicomedy. Each of these forms can
be further divided into more precise units, of course; but
these at least provide an overview of the forms of
imaginative literature.

4. When a beam of white light passes through a glass prism,

it is broken up into a rainbow like band of colours called a
spectrum. The shortest rays of light bend the most and or
found in the violet end of the spectrum. The longest rays
bent the least and are found in the red end of the spectrum.
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 176

All the other colours are found in between violet and red,
and they tend to blend into each other. All the colours found
in the spectrum, when mixed together, give white light.

5. Even though they will rarely admit it, little boys do like
little girls and vice versa. A teacher recently observed this
courting ritual between second graders during recess break.
A little boy, the acknowledged tough guy in the class, found
a dead snake on play ground. To the accompaniment of
cheers and jeers from the other boys, he picked it up and
slung it carelessly around his neck. Then he marched
purposefully across the playground to where the girls were
huddled, shrieking and squealing. Unerringly he sought her
out, the loudest squealer of them all, and stopped in front of
her. In the silence that followed, the young lover cast his
trophy at the feet of his beloved. Secure in the knowledge
that he had bestowed a gift of inestimable value, he turned
and strode away, while behind him shrieks and squeals of
outraged faminity broke out anew.

6. Most of the poverty in the USA today results from lack of

education. And in this day of almost free universities, it
would be easy to assume that the children of today's poor
could go out and get an education so as not to be poor
themselves. But the fact of the matter is that children in
these impoverished environments are not motivated in the
least to get an education, because there is nothing in the
value systems of their families or friends that would suggest
that they should. With this being the case, available

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 177

education is not the solution to poverty. A better solution is

governmental aid to the poverty-stricken.

7. Clay is a kind of earth made up of extremely fine

particles which is important for agriculture. It absorbs
ammonia and other gases necessary for the growth of plants,
it also holds in the soil the fertilizing substances supplied by
manures. Without a certain amount of clay, soil will not
keep its fertility from season to season.

8. There are not nearly enough words in any language to

express all the feelings we are capable of experiencing. It's
as if there were a stream flowing by, and you put a big
wooden board across it, big enough so that it stopped the
water flow flowing. Suppose now that you cut holes in the
board so that the water could get through the holes, but only
through the holes. Those holes stand for the feeling words
we have, like anger, sadness, love, hate. But the water
stands for the feeling themselves. We have only a fixed
number of holes, words with which we can express feelings.
But the water, the range of feelings we are capable of
experiencing, is limitless.

Key to Test 2:
No Development of Paragraph Mode of Writing
1. Facts Expository
2. Process Expository
3. Classification Expository
4. Analysis Expository
5. Exemplification/ illustration Narrative
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 178

6. Cause and effect Expository

7. Definition Expository
8 Analysis Expository
3) Find out "Unity" in the following paragraphs:

1. Novel is also called pocket theater, for it renders, in a

pocket size book, things, which can be staged. The history
of stage is almost as old as the history of man. Man,
according to the scientists, has been living on earth for about
one millions years. During this long period man has suffered
so many upheavals. Plagues, famines and world wars are
examples of these shocks. Plagues and famines are natural
deserters where as wars are political, economic and of our
own choice. We can, to a large extent, control wars but we
can pray to God to keep us from the evils of plagues,
famines etc. All these evils can be presented in dramas and
novels.

2. Renaissance plays are model plays in English Literature

for the time to come. Besides, Shakespeare and Ben
Johnson, the seven university wits are the famous figures for
the sixteenth century action literature. The poetry of this
period also talks of the peculiar characteristics of
Renaissance. The poets wrote about their enthusiasm for
love, power, beauty and wealth. Shakespeare sonnets are
replete with the description of love and beauty along with
human miseries and misfortunes. The same elements are
found in his plays also, which are called, undoubtedly, the
best plays of all times.

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 179

3. The tragic heroes of Shakespeare also are "men of high

state" and noble stature. Romeo is an aristocrat; Titus
Andronicus a general; Richard II a king, as is Richard III;
Timon as an exceptionally rich aristocrat, Coriolanus a
general; Brutus is highly placed; Antony, more than a king,
is an emperor. The heroes of the major tragedies are also
men of high degree or of public importance. Macbeth is first
a general and then a king; Othello is a general, Hamlet is a
prince, wrongly deprived of his throne; King Lear is every
inch a king. They are not all embodiments of virtue or
goodness. They are much above the average level of
humanity. But they "made of the stuff we find within
ourselves and within the persons who surround them."

Key to Test 3:

No Unity
1. It does not have unity.
2. It does not have unity.
3. It has got proper unity.

4) Fill in the blanks with befitting "Cohesive Device or

Linking Words" given in the choice list.

HAZARDS FROM NUCLEAR POWER

There are three separate sources of hazard in the

process of supplying energy by nuclear power.
(1) First, the radioactive material must travel from its
place of manufacture to the power station. (2) Although the
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 180

power stations themselves are solidly built, the containers

used for the transport of the materials are not. There are
normally only two methods of transport available, (3)
namely road or rail. Unfortunately, both of these involve
close contact with the general public, (4) since the routes are
sure to pass near or even through, heavily populated areas.

(5) …….. , there is the problem of waste. All nuclear

power stations produce wastes that in most case will remain
radioactive for thousands of years. It is impossible to make
these wastes nonradioactive, and (6) …… they must be
stored in one of the inconvenient ways that scientists have
invented. (7) …….. they may be buried under the ground, or
dropped into abandoned mines, or sunk in the sea. (8)
………, these methods do not solve the problem, (9) …….
An earthquake could easily crack the containers open.
(10) ……, there is the problem of accidental exposure
due to a leak or an explosion at the power station. As with
the other two hazards, this is not very likely, (11) …… it
does not provide a serious objection to the nuclear program.
(12) ……… it can happen.
Separately, these three types of risks are not a great
cause for concern. Taken together, (13) …….. , the
probability of disaster is extremely high.

Choices:
5. a) second b) third (c) in that case
6. a) because b) so (c) after
7. a) besides b) for example (c) after all
8. a) by the way b) lastly (c) however
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 181

9. a) though b) since (c) after

10. a) third b) for instance (c) in conclusion
11. a) so b) instead (c) namely
12. a) although b) nevertheless (c) therefore
13. a) although b) though (c) even though

Key to Test 4:
5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (a) 11. (a) 12. b) 13. c)

5) Rewrite the following sentences in you own words:

a) At the very least, our concept of God's domain would

expand.
b) It is possible that our image of ourselves could change
drastically as a result of such contact with extraterrestrial
life.
c) The social and philosophical implications of contact with
another civilization on another planet in another galaxy
require the most careful consideration.
d) As a result we might come to depend too heavily upon a
superior form of intelligence, thus destroying our own
initiative.
e) So, although it is hard to ascertain just what the
consequences of interstellar communication with other
intelligent beings would be, it is clear that such
communication would have profound reverberations
among the inhabitants of earth.
f) But we might develop such different ideas about religion
that the basic beliefs we have held for centuries would
face a severe challenge.
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 182

g) We might find that we are really more advanced and more

civilized than we now think we are.
h) Man's idea of God would undoubtedly undergo a change
if we were to discover other intelligent beings in the
universe.
i) On the other hand, we might find that we are far less
advanced and far less civilized than other social
organizations of intelligent beings which would certainly
be a blow to the self-image of human beings.

Key to Test 5: Series code: c-b-g-i-d-h-a-f-e

The social and philosophical implications of contact with

another civilization on another planet in another galaxy
require the most careful consideration. It is possible that our
image of ourselves could change drastically as a result of
such contact with extraterrestrial life. We might find that we
are really more advanced and more civilized than we now
think we are. On the other hand, we might find that we are
far less advanced and far less civilized than other social
organizations of intelligent beings which would certainly be
a blow to the self-image of human beings. As a result we
might come to depend too heavily upon a superior form of
intelligence, thus destroying our own initiative. Man's idea
of God would undoubtedly undergo a change if we were to
discover other intelligent beings in the universe. At the very
least, our concept of God's domain would expand. But we
might develop such different ideas about religion that the
basic beliefs we have held for centuries would face a severe
challenge. So, although it is hard to ascertain just what the
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 183

consequences of interstellar communication with other

intelligent beings would be, it is clear that such
communication would have profound reverberations among
the inhabitants of earth.

6) Find out techniques in "Order" in the following

paragraphs.

1. Cooking an entire meal over an outdoor fire was easy,

according to a scout I know well. The first thing he did, of
course, was to start fire. Then, without waiting for the
flames to settle into glowing embers, he thrust in the foil-
wrapped potatoes. Next, he assembled some chocolate
pudding that became a badly scorched dessert through a
combination of high flames and lack of stirring. The final
and crowning touch to the feast was the biscuit – one large
one, baked in a kettle. It had a beautiful brown crust, it
smelled wonderful, and it tasted delicious, even though he
had mixed a whole egg, shell and all, into the batter. Now
this scout with whom I am well acquainted asserts that he
would never mind cooking every meal over a campfire.

2. She passed down the wide hall and through a door at the
end. Then she was in the farm premises. The scent dairy,
and of farm-kitchen, and of farm-yard and of leather almost
overcame her; but particularly the scent of dairy. They had
been scalding out the pans. The flagged passage in front of
her was dark, puddle, and wet. Light came out from the
open kitchen door. She went forward and stood in the door
way. The farm-people were at tea, seated at a little distance
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 184

from her, round a long, narrow table, in the center of which

stood a white lamb. Ruddy faces, ruddy hands holding
foods, red mouths working, heads bent over the tea cups: it
was tea time, feeding time.

3. I received a wickedly irreverent letter yesterday, from a

woman who considers herself deeply religious. She wrote,
in part: "a God-fearing man does not need to know the facts;
his love of God will make him sense the truth." What a
dreadful impiety this is, masquerading as religion. For if you
believe in God and love Him, you believe that He gave man
his reason to use for discovering the facts-and the faculty of
reason is what makes us in God's image.

4. Throughout the ages, man has taken seriously the biblical

injunction to multiply and to take dominion over land, sea
and air, to subdue the beast the fish and the fowl. He has
been very good at subduing. He used his marvelous brain to
invent ways to subdue and exploit his environment. He dug
its coal, he cut its forests, he dammed and dirtied its streams,
he befouled the very air about him and he prospered. So he
continued his wasteful ways. As he added to his numbers, he
multiplied his demands on the earth at an ever increasing
rate. He depleted resources at a frantic pace. And now he
may prosper no more. Now that gift of earth is almost used
up. Its waters stinking with oil and algae, its skies darkened
by the filth of factory and machines, its hillsides denuded
and its flat places paved, the earth can no longer sustain
rapacious man. The plundered planet decays beneath his

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 185

feet. Mankind today stands on the brink of final disaster.

Can we step away from the abyss in time?

5. If an international commission which has reported to

UNESCO is right, education throughout the world is likely
to change out of recognition in the next generation. To begin
with, education will start much earlier as the importance of
per school education is more widely recognized then it will
never end, for the signs are that the concept of lifelong
education, already an ideal, is about to become a practical
reality. Examination, the bane of every students existence
may wither away. Fixed subjects and curricula are likely to
go into the melting pot and schools themselves, if not as
physical locations then at least as places exclusively for
children, are threatened with extinction. Above all, sprits
aims will change; the emphasis will be on learning, not
teaching, and educations product will not be measured in
terms of so much knowledge dispensed but of completely
developed human beings.

Key to Test 6:
a. Order of "Time" is followed.
b. Order of "Space" is followed.
c. Order of " Specific to General " is followed.
d. Order of "Climax" is followed.
e. Order of "General to Specific" is followed.

7) Write down the "Topic Sentence" for the following

paragraph:
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 186

1.……………………………………………………………
……………………………. No matter how hard they try,
they cannot lower their anxiety. Some of them enjoy talking
their fears while others resent being asked to discuss their
personal feelings. Some people try to hide their nervousness.
They try to disguise their anxiety by telling jokes. They
believe that those flying with them cannot see through their
disguise, but that is more often than not an illusion.

2.……………………………………………………………
……………………………….. As late as the eighteenth
century, physicians admitted that watching animals
discovered many medicines. The American, Indians and the
early settlers learnt the rudiments of medicine in the same
way by watching a bare digging for the roots of fern and
eating them. They observed how a wild deer would dig up
and eat the roots of the sweet fig. they also saw a wolf,
bitten by a rattlesnake, confidently chew snakeroots. As
such a number of medicines were innovated by watching
animals conduct.

3.……………………………………………………………
……………………………………. First typing is much less
fatiguing than writing, especially when one uses an electric
typewriter. One can type for hours without fatigue, while
steady writing for a time will soon tire one's hand. Second,
no matter how tired a person becomes, the characters of
typed letters never changes. On the other hand, script will
tend to become sloppy after long periods of writing. Next,
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 187

typing is always legible with a minimum of effort. At times

personal script is so poor that it is difficult, if not
impossible, to read. Legibility can contribute to an improved
grade, since a teacher is more likely to give a low grade to a
sloppy written paper than to a neat typewritten one. An other
advantage is speed. A good typist can type from forty to
seventy words per minute, while the same person can write
only about twenty to thirty words per minute by hand.
Hence, people rightly prefer the use of typewriters to using
hand writing.

Key to Test 7:

1. People while flying pretend to look confident, but it is

not generally so.
2. The conduct of ailing and injured animals helped a lot in
discovering the means of cure and medicines.
3. A typewriter has got much advantages and merits to
become preferable to hand writing.

8) Find out the "Topic Sentences" for the following

paragraphs from the given choices below:

1.……………………………………………………………
………………….. There are reason. First, the number of
automobiles has doubled in the past five years, with the
result that there are more cars than the streets can
accommodate. Second, the streets are old and narrow.
Because there are few garages or parking lots, these narrow
streets are made narrower by the cars that are parked along
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 188

the side. Third, many drivers do not obey the regulations, so

that many traffic jams result from cars going the wrong way
on a one-way street. These factors, indeed, cease the smooth
flow of traffic in the city.

2.……………………………………………………………
…………………… The court and the King's government
used the London dialect and, since London was the largest
city and port in Britain, it was the most useful and generally
acceptable kind of English for commerce. Its prestige as a
literary dialect was established by the popularity to two
writers, Chaucer and Gower, who spoke and wrote the
English of London. Up to their time, English literature was
written in a variety of dialects. Since their time very little
non-dramatic literature has been written in any of the
provincial dialects. Thus, the London dialect got to be the
Standard English of the day.

3.……………………………………………………………
…………………… A dog will follow his master anywhere
but a cat keeps to the house it is used to; and even when the
house changes hand, the cat will remain there, so long as it
is kindly treated by the new owners. A cat does seem to be
capable of the personal devotion often shown by a dog. It
thinks most of its own comfort, and its love is only cupboard
love.

Choices:
b) The provincial dialect became the Standard English
Language of London.
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 189

c) For a number of reasons, accidents and traffic jams are

natural to occur on the roads.
d) There is some truth in the common saying that while
dogs became attached to persons, cats are generally
attached to places.
e) It was natural that the English of London should become
the standard model for the whole country.
f) Traffic has recently becomes a serious problem in the
cities.
g) Dogs are said to be more faithful than cats to their
masters.
h) English is no doubt an international language.

Key to Test 8)
1. Traffic has recently become a serious problem in the
cities.
2. It was natural that the English of London should become
the standard model for the whole country.
3. There is some truth in the common saying that while
dogs become attached to person, cats are generally
attached to places.

9) Write "conclusive sentence" for these paragraphs:

1. Biography should be distinguished from history with

which it is sometimes confused. History deals with the life
of nations while biography deals with the life of an
individual. History studies the movements affecting a nation
or an age, whereas biography studies the personality of a
man. Biography seeks to isolate the individual from the age,
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 190

and unfolds the charm of his distinctive personality.

Biography is a study sharply defined by tow definite events,
birth and death. It fills its canvas with one figure, and other
characters, however great in themselves, must always be
subsidiary to the central figure. Again biography deals with
a man both from within and without. It exhibits the external
life of the subjects, gives a vivid picture of his character, and
unfolds the growth of his mind
………………………………………………………………
……………………………….

2. A man of polite imagination is let into a great many

pleasure that the vulgar are not capable or receiving. He can
converse with a picture and find an agreeable companion in
a statue. He meets with a secret refreshment in a description,
and often feels a greater satisfaction in the prospect of fields
and meadows than another does in their possession. It gives
him, indeed, a kind of property in everything he sees, and
makes the most rude, uncultivated parts of nature administer
to his pleasures, so that he looks upon the whole world, as it
were, in another light, and discovers in it a multitude of
charms.
………………………………………………………………
………………………….

3. Rainy days are welcome in a hot country like Pakistan.

The scorching heat of plains makes life intolerable in the
months of June and July. As majority of people are poor and
cannot afford to go to hills, they anxiously look forward to
the breaking of monsoon. Rainy days provide the much-
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 191

needed relief to people tormented by excessive heat.

Everybody enjoys a brisk shower, especially the children.
They run about in the streets shouting happy slogans and
obviously in high sprits. The joy of the peasants knows no
bounds, as rain helps them in growing their crops, the
women folk indulge in all sorts of frivolities – they sing
songs, dance and enjoy swing in the garden.
………………………………………………………………
……………………………

Key to Test 9:
a. Therefore, biography is the study of a man in particular;
whereas, the history is of a nation in general.
b. Thus, a man of celestial gleam or imaginative power can
visualizes and feel pleasure in every object present in his
surrounding no matter natural or artificial by the dint of
his imagination, whereas, a wanderer can only roam
about.
c. Hence, the soothing shower of rain becomes boon and
source of much pleasure for the people of all ages in the
hot country like Pakistan.

************************

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 192

ESSAY WRITING

An academic essay, basically, is an attempt to respond any

topic systematically. An essay consists of there parts viz.
introduction, body and conclusion.
1. Introduction: The introduction of an essay consists of
one paragraph, which is called introductory paragraph. Its
prime purpose is to introduce the topic of the essay. A good
introductory paragraph encompasses the slant of the topic
which is supposed to be developed in the body of the essay.
The introductory paragraph generally is written in deductive

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 193

logic, in which general to particular approach is rather

preferred.
2. Body: The body of essay consists of "Paragraph of
Development"; the number of paragraphs depends upon the
number of controlling ideas. One paragraph of development
consists of one controlling ideas. A Paragraph of
Development consists of three parts. First, "Topic or
Introductory sentence" which introduces the controlling
idea; second, "Body or development" which develops the
controlling idea of the paragraph; third, "Conclusive
Sentence" which logically concludes and winds up the
controlling idea of the paragraph. It is essential to
encompass only one idea in a paragraph. For instance, if one
is writing about the poetry if Iqbal, there must not be any
sentence about role of Iqbal in politics, if any irrelevant idea
is added it will break the unity of the paragraph. Hence, it is
tantamount to break the whole unity of the essay as well.
Besides, if the writer intends to write a paragraph showing
the advantages and disadvantages of something in a one
paragraph; therefore, it is obligatory to put the less
important point first, and the more important in the end; if
the advantages are more than disadvantages, thereafter, the
paragraph must end with the advantages leaving a positive
impact upon the mind of reader. As the topic sentences
introduces the controlling idea in a paragraph; likewise, the
conclusive idea winds the controlling idea up logically and
substantially. The conclusive sentence must encompass all
the essence, aspect, and spirit followed in the body of the
paragraph.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 194

Conclusion: The conclusion of an essay consists of one

paragraph, which is called: "Conclusive Paragraph".
Basically, it concludes the whole essay in a logical manner,
by summarizing all the controlling ideas in brief which are
being developed in the body of the paragraph. The good
conclusive paragraph does not include anything which is not
mentioned in the body of the essay. It will be true to
mention that the conclusion of essay consists of its body but
in abridged form. The series of controlling ideas should be
followed in the conclusion. The basic approach to a
conclusive paragraph is inductive logic, in which ideas are
supposed to be laid down in particular to general order. The
conclusive paragraph should not be put to end abruptly but it
is likely to part way from the reader without letting him
notice it!

SAMPLE ESSAYS
THE ROLE OF MEDIA
Outline:
a. Introduction
a. As a source of communication
b. As a befitting source of information
c. For the preservation and promotion of cultural
heritage
d. An advocate of truth
e. Its impact on life
f. Conclusion

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 195

By gone are the days when the unbridgeable gap of

communication made the life of a savage quite aloof and
isolated on the face of earth, having no fast and fittest tool to
engulf the gap between the man and his surrounding. But,
now the media, no matter whether electronic or print, has
filled the big gulf and it has revolutionized the life of the
modern man.
Media is the best source of communication at the
disposal of the present man ever rejoiced by the man of the
past. It is media, which has turned the vast chest of the earth
into a small global village. Nowadays, the media brings
forth the knowledge of whatsoever kind taking place in the
any nook and corner of the world just within an eyewink
time. We, by sitting in the one corner, can easily have an
access to the very far corner of the world. The entire credit,
in this respect, goes in the account of media. It has reduced
the distance, time and labour. Now our impatience or thirst
is quenched to the brim within a short span of time, for what
our forefathers needed months even years to acquire.
Media, at the same time, is an exact and accurate source
of information. Now the inventions, discoveries and
accomplishments are no longer national, but they have
become international and cosmopolitan in their outlook.
Media shares prejudice-free and impartial information
having no streak or iota of doubt or misinformation. The
authentic and reliable facts pertaining to science,
technology, diseases, cures, corruption, and terrorism have
become public only because of media. The role of media in
natural disasters remains praiseworthy. For instance, the role

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 196

played by the media in Tsunami, Qatrina and the earthquake

in Pakistan is worth mentioning.
Media is considered the greatest promoter of culture of
any nation. It assimilates and dispenses the culture of a
nation. As the culture is the soul of the skeleton of the
society, which strengthens a nation, so it is the true
representative of cultural heritages and it also longs for its
perpetuity or prevalence. It reveals the disposition,
behaviour, attitude and understanding of a nation, which
enables one to go for psychoanalysis of that nation. In
addition to it, media promotes the best and fruitful aspects of
culture and later on it publicizes it in order to make it all-
pervading and all-prevailing. Thus, mutual configuration
and harmony between the different cultures of the nations
takes place. It endeavours to know and propagate truth,
which is known and thought in the world.
Media is a fast advocate of truth. It digs deep and brings
forth the bitter facts, mind-boggling realities, unfathomed
fabrication, complicated issues, and bilateral problems on
the screen for open discussion. It has become easy only
because of media that at least the viewpoint of the weaker
party also comes on the screen. It allots an opportunity for
the logical and plausible resolution and solution of the issue
of what so nature. It also shatters the monopoly of one party.
Thus, media, by doing this, jerks and jolts the conscience of
a man to lean towards mercy and justice. So many frail,
weak and sourceless souls have received the good deal of
justice only because of media.
Media influences and moulds up the life of a person
tremendously. It has got both good and bad impacts. As it is
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 197

the onus of every generation in general and man in

particular to condemn vice and condone virtue. Thus, media
had got vital role to play. It can strengthen the code and
conduct of a man and can uplift him to the pinnacle or apex
of success. In the meanwhile, it can also mar, corrupt and
deteriorate the sublime course of human life. Especially the
transmission of pornographic and obscene elements leaves a
negative impact upon the life of the new generation.
It would be just to conclude that media shoulders the
integral part of the responsibility of uplifting man to the
pinnacle or apex of success. It does the advocacy of truth,
facts and justice. It provides exact information very fast;
besides, media is the greatest source of communication.
Thus, media is befitting tool at the disposal of the present
man either to exploit or to uplift society to the state where
upon life, if not in to to yet will be free from many
devouring evil forces to great extent. Media is a weapon,
which benefits and favours only to whom, who does possess
it.

COMPARISON ESSAY

ARE PRIVATE SCHOOLS BETTER THAN STATE

SCHOOLS?
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 198

Outline:
1. Introduction
2. Similarities in aims, teaching and assessment
3. Difference of the Curriculum
4. Difference in the Quality of Teachers
5. Differences of Class size, discipline and academic
standards
6. Conclusion

For parents, few things are more important than their child’s
education. In many countries, parents of school-age children
can chose to send their child to a private school rather than
to a state school. In this essay, state schools are defined as
those that do not charge tuition fees because they are funded
and run by local or central government; private schools, on
the other hand, are funded almost entirely by the fees that
they charge. Before deciding where to educate their child,
parents need to examine the difference between the two
types of school, particularly as regards the curriculum, the
quality of tuition and student achievement.

Private and state schools are comparable in some respects.

Like state schools, private schools aim to develop the
knowledge, skills an character of students, in order to
prepare them for their future lives. Both types of school are
also very similar in the way they organize their teaching and
assessment, using terms or semesters with assessments at the
end of the academic year.

Despite these similarities, there are number of marked

Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 199

differences in the way that state and private schools operate.

The range of subjects taught at state schools is largely
limited by the demands of the national curriculum. In
contrast, private schools can offer a greater choice of
subjects, because they generally have more money to spend
on equipment, technology and staff than state schools do.

Teachers working within the state system must have

recognized teaching qualifications and are paid according to
a national scale. Private schools, however, are in a position
to offer higher salaries and may therefore be able to attract
subject specialists who have considerable expertise in their
fields.

In general, it is true to say that while state schools have a

high student-teacher ratio, private schools tend to offer
smaller classes. This may lead to better discipline in private
schools with the result that students may achieve somewhat
higher academic standards.

It is clear, therefore, that there are significant differences

between private and state schools, and that private schools
may offer advantage. The benefits of private schooling
must, however, be balanced against the cost involved and
each family’s budget priorities.

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 200

AN ARGUMENT ESSAY

“Manned space mission should now be replaced with

unmanned missions”

It is clear that the study of space and the planets is by nature

expensive. Scientists and politicians must constantly attempt
to balance costs with potential research benefits. A major
question to be considered is whether the benefits of manned
space flight are worth the costs.

For Nobel Prize-winning physicist Steven Weinberg the

answer is clear. As he noted in 2007 in a lecture at the Space
Telescope Science Institure in Baltmore. “Human beings
don’t serve any useful function in space. They radiate heat,
they’re very expensive to keep alive, and unlike robotic
missions, they have a natural desire to come back, so that
anything involving human beings is enormously expensive.”

Unmanned missions are much less expensive than manned,

having no requirement for airtight compartments, food or
life support systems. They are also lighter and therefore
require less fuel and launch equipment. According to
NASA, the 1992 manned Space Shuttle Endeavor cost $1.7
billion to build and requires approximately $450 million for
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 201

each launch. In contrast, the entire unmanned Voyager

mission from 1972 until 1989, when it observed Neptune,
cost only $ 865 million.

In addition to their relative cost effectiveness, unmanned

projects generally yield a much greater volume of data.
While manned flights have yet to extend beyond the orbit of
Earth’s moon, unmanned missions have explored almost our
entire solar system, and have recently observed an Earth-like
planet in a nearby solar system. Manned missions would
neither be able to travel so far, be away so long, nor collect
so much data while at the same time guaranteeing the
astronauts’ safe return.

Some may argue that only manned space flight possesses the
ability to inspire and engage the general population,
providing much-needed momentum for continued
governmental funding and educational interest in
mathematics and the sciences. However, media coverage of
recent projects such as the Mars Rover, the Titan moon
lander, and the Hubble telescope’s photographs of extrasolar
planets demonstrates that unmanned missions clearly have
the ability to attract and hold public interest.

Thus, taking into account the lower cost, the greater quantity
of data and widespread popular support, I would argue that
for now, at least, unmanned space missions undoubtedly
yield the most value in terms of public spending.

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 202

PRÉCIS-WRITING

The term “Précis” is derived from a French word, which

means “precise” or “accurately expressed.” Roughly
speaking, it means a “gist” of a longer passage or document.
Thus, to make a précis of a given passage amounts to
extracting its main points and expressing them as clearly and
in as few words as possible.

RULES FOR PRECIS-WRITING

The important rules for précis-writing are enlisted

below. A composite précis needs the proper observance of
all these rules altogether.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 203

1. First read or peruse the given passage carefully and with

deep concentration. If need be reread it several times to
grasp its theme, contents and general purport.
2. Examine the passage in detail and make sure of the
meaning of each sentence, phrase and word.
3. Supply a short title, which sums up or indicates the main
theme.
4. Note down all the important points essential to the
expression of the main theme.
5. Do not extend the limit of words prescribed i.e. the one-
third of the original passage. Suppose the original passage
contains 90 words thereafter the précis should be summed
up to 30 words.
6. Do not borrow the phrases and sentences from the original
passage.
7. The précis should be in your own words, condensed by
remodeling rather than by mere omission.
8. It should contain all the essentials points of the original
without any superfluous, unnecessary and irrelevant
material.
9. It should be self-contained and connected whole. It must
not bear the aura of fragmentation.
10. Do not add anything on your part.
11. Do not remove any important point.
12. Do not add any comment on your part.
13. Do not correct any statement.
14. First write the rough draft and count the words and then
go for the second and eventually for the final draft.
15. Possibly avoid the error in spelling, tense, grammar,
composition and idioms.
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 204

16. The précis should be properly punctuated and

paragraphed.
17. Its language should be simple, plain, and apt; besides,
all the ideas should be laid down in a coherent manner.
18. The sentences comprising “Direct Speech” in the
original passage should be converted into “Indirect
Speech.”
19. Use one-word substitute for long phrase or sentences
like “Portable” for the thing, which can easily be moved
from one place to another. As the word “Monotheist”
means the person who believes in one and only God.

SAMPLE PRECIS
1. Make the précis of the passage given below and give it
a suitable title.
Now, to get great ideas we require great teachers. The
teachers may be great persons with whom we come in daily
contact, or they may be dead and yet reach us through great
books, which they have given to the world. In which every
way it comes, the teaching required is that which guides to
large outlook and to none but a large outlook. Yet after all it
is only to a limited extent that the teacher, be he living or
one who though dead yet speaks, can mould his students.
There is no royal road to learning. The higher it is, the
harder is the toil, of the spirit that is required for its
attainment. But this toil brings with it happiness. As we
advance along the path, we see more and more new territory
to transverse, now highest, which are accessible only by
patient lobour, but the scaling of which promises us a new
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 205

sense possession. In all this there is much of the sweet in sad

and the sad in sweet. Yet the mere endeavour, even apart
from the result, brings its reward.

Title: Teacher vis-à-vis Learning

Teacher, being the fountain of sublime notion, teaches
us practically when alive and through books when dead. A
teacher broadens the vision and perspective of students and
transforms them altogether. The course of learning is
arduous; hence, highly-fruitful ends require more
endeavours; thus, exertion coupled with enthusiasm
determine the new horizons of knowledge, which lead to the
result-oriented and pragmatic actions.

Words: 61
188
**********
2. Make the précis of the passage given below and give it
a suitable title.
Citizen are made, not born, though men may be social
animals, they are very apt to regard society as made for
them, and as for as possible to use it for their own ends. It is
an individual, not a member of a community that issues
from womb, though these individual have to live in the state
and must learn how to do it. All human beings have the
capacity to be citizen, but mere capacity is not enough, it
needs developing and training. The vocational and personal
sides of education will help little here. Men must learn how
to earn the living; they must have the chance of developing
body, mind and character to their full capacity. But earning
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 206

a living and developing a personality are private matters, a

concern of the individual, they will make a man a more
useful member of the state but not necessarily a better
citizen. They are no guarantee that he will serve it, study its
interests, and carry out his duties to it. Indeed, if over
emphasized they may – and obliviously often do – make
him selfish and indifferent to the common good. Vocational
and personal training are dangerously incomplete without
the discipline, which teach men how to play their part in the
state and make them wish to do it. Education is a trinity and
one of its members is training in citizenship.

Title: Citizenship
Man, having gregarious nature, constitutes society, but
for compulsory living in a state as citizen he needs
professional training, character-building and individual
uplift. Hence, he becomes a useful member of state but not a
practical citizen. It is indispensable for him to observe strict
discipline, selfless conduct and responsibility-oriented
inclination for discharging his duties for general betterment.
Professional learning without altruism and discipline is fatal.
To dispense true citizenship is one of the three aims of
education.

Words: 77
214
************

3. Make the précis of the passage given below and give it

a suitable title.
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 207

Even so it is well to remember that history is not a bare

record of facts, as a diary quite often is. History puts facts
into a system and tries to discover their meaning in inter-
relationship. Moreover, history is not personal in outlook
and is rarely concerned with day-to-day happenings. History
tries to understand how and why country-wide (and world-
wide) changes take shape in the affairs of men. A diary may
provide the new material for history, it is not itself history.

Title: History Versus Diary

History, unlike chronically-arranged diary, is a
systematic, objective, inter-dependant and causally-
connected collection of national and international events and
their impact on life; whereas, diary is not history but can
contribute for it.

Words: 32
88
**********

4. Make the précis of the passage given below and give it

a suitable title.
The scholar should remember that a book ought not to
be read for mere amusement. Only persons of undeveloped
mind read for pure amusement. A truly educated person
seeks intellectual food from his reading. He is not satisfied
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 208

with a book that does not exercise his intellect. On the

contrary, the habit of reading for pure amusement merely
helps one to pass the time. This, habit gradually leads to a
dulling and blunting of intellectual faculties.

Title: The Use Of Reading

A sage reads sophisticated books to nourish his mind;
whereas, an undiscerning person reads for passing time and
pleasure; subsequently, he mars his cognitive and rational
development.

Words: 27
75
*********

5. Make the précis of the passage given below and give it

a suitable title.
Whosoever has been to bear baiting is justified in
saying that out of all mammals exploited by humans, the
bear is abused in the worst manner. The tribes of gypsies
known as Kalandars are considered enemies of bears. While
many fakirs have made bear dancing and bear-dog fight into
their profession.
Bear baiting was alien sport to the region and was
introduced by British, when they ruled India. Our feudal
Lords patronized this cruel sport. The way the cubs are
caught by hardhearted hunter is a sad tale. They search for a
bear den and after locating it; they wait for the cubs to
appear. When these innocent cubs come out of the den along
with mother, these hunters fire shots in the air merely to
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 209

frighten the mother. After the mother and its cubs become
separated, the cub is chased and caught by the hunter.
Occasionally, these hunters face problems from the police
and wildlife authorities but this is taken care of by a little
palm greasing.

Title: Bear-baiting
The bear is the most victimized mammal by man, which
is induced into many fatal games by vagabonds, lords and
beggars. Bear-baiting, augmented by British in India, was
inherited by the feudal. The hunters brutally catch the cubs
having scattered them and terrified their mother by air-
firing. Agencies curb the heinous crime yet it prevails owing
to bribery.

Words: 58
166
**********

6. Make the précis of the passage given below and give it

a suitable title.
It is that wonderful aroma which like a soothing whiff
from heaven enters the nostrils and takes control of minds.
Whether at home or in the office, our heads turn and our
mouths water when we smell the tiny granules, which brew
with our foods to give it lip-smacking taste.
From simple snacks to delicate cuisines, we use spices
to season our foods. They provide us with that tinge on our
taste buds, which makes us want them even more. Spices do
not just reveal our voracious appetite; they also show the
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 210

great taste that we Pakistanis have developed as a nation.

Spices add a special tang to almost every dish cooked in
Pakistan. The most commonly used ones are ginger, garlic,
chilies, cumin and coriander. These can be found lying in
cabinets and drawers in almost every kitchen and in every
household. Spices are the heart and soul of our curry dishes.
If some one were to describe us, we could easily be labeled
“the spicy nation.”

Title: The Spices And Food

The mouth-watering fragrance, what the crumbs of food
carry, allure our gluttonous appetite everywhere. The spices
likes ginger, garlic, chilies, cumin and coriander used in
every hotel, restaurant and home add tempting flavuour to
curry; subsequently, the excessive use of spices has made
Pakistanis spices-addicted nation.

Words: 46
167
**********

7. Make the précis of the passage given below and give it

a suitable title.
Young men get plenty of leisure because at this stage in
life, they do not have to face many worries and anxieties.
Their hopes are yet young, their nature fresh, they have
strength in their limbs, and are full of eager and zeal for
work. Young people ought, therefore, to keep trying at this
stage to improve themselves not only physically but also
intellectually. Moments of leisure are most precious, but
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 211

undiscerning people go on wasting them in idle gossip of, in

playing cards, chess etc. They do not know their spare hours
are even more playing than time they spend in making
money. The proper use of leisure hours provides real
happiness. The people, who have made a name for
themselves in the world, never wasted their leisure.

Title: The Use And Abuse Of Free Time

The energetic, tension-free and enthusiastic young have
good deal of free time to nourish their minds and bodies by
investing it not wasting in fruitless activities like an ignorant
person. Free time, like working hours, is also productive if
utilized positively what sages always did.

Words: 45
129
**********

8. Make the précis of the passage given below and give it

a suitable title.
The daily reading newspapers rightly occupies a good
deal of our leisure. Through the newspapers we are
presented with cinematography like pictures of mankind at
work and play throughout the world. Now, most newspapers
have a bias that is these are more particularly concerned
with the views of one section of the people and distinctly
opposed to those of another section. As the proprietors and
editors are anxious to sell their papers, they not infrequently
present their readers with one-sided views. This practice
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 212

may be all very well from the selling point of view but it is
very bad for a reader who always reads the same paper. One
cannot exercise one’s judgment and took on both sides of
the question if only one side is read about and considered. In
every public library will be found a variety of newspapers,
and in our leisure it is an excellent plan to read both sides of
a burning topic of the day as represented by different
accounts. By so doing we shall better be able to form a fair
judgment of the matter.

Title: The Newspaper Reading

Newspaper, besides pastime, is picture-gallery of
human life in action of whatsoever sort. But the partial and
one-sided presentation of any matter either for ulterior or
mercenary motives baffles the one-paper reader to infer the
reality. For better understanding of any problem, one had
better to peruse the diverse newspapers easily accessible in
any neighbouring library.

Words: 56
186
********

9. Make the précis of the passage given below and give it

a suitable title.
Mumbai is the financial and trading center of the
Republic of India. It is the chief seaport on the western coast
with an excellent harbour sheltered from the Arabian Sea.

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 213

Mumbia’s history takes it back to the 9th century when

it was ruled by Hindu rajas. That ended in 1348 when it
became part of the Sultanate of Gujrat. In 1534, the ruler of
Gujrat handed over the city to the Portuguese who in turn
gave it to the British in 1661 as part of the dowry of
Catherine Bragauza, when she married Charles-II of
England. The British government leased it to the British
East India Company and they moved their headquarter there
in 1672. Since, Mumbia, which is named after the goddess
“Mumba Devi”, has held its place in the world.

Title: Mumbai At a Glance

Mumbai, named after Mumba Devi, is internationally-
commercial city and seaport of India on Arabia Sea. It was
ruled by Hindu Rajas upto 1348, Gujrat Sultante upto 1534,
Portuguese upto 1661; then British king Charles-II received
it as matrimonial gift for Catherine his wife, and leased to
East India Company to headquarter there in 1672.

Words: 54
133
**********

10. Make the précis of the passage given below and give
it a suitable title.
There is striking and unhappy contrast between man’s
brilliant success at solving scientific problems and his
miserable failure to solve so many of his political and social
problems. It is natural, indeed wise, to ask whether science
cannot be applied more effectively to the cure of the social
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 214

and political ills of the world. There is, of course, much that
science can do and is doing. Science adds enormously to the
comfort and interest of the modern living. It is doing much
to diminish the social evils of poverty and diseases. Beyond
doubt, many social, political and economic problems would
be more wisely handled if they were treated with the
unprejudiced objectivity and strict regard for truth, which
characterize the work of the physical scientist.

Title: Science Vis-à-vis Socio-political Problems

Man has solved scientific problems marvelously but has
fallen flat in resolving socio-political problems. Besides,
easiness and luxury, science has alleviated impoverishment
and maladies; moreover, science can redress socio-political
and economic problems if used with impartially-objective
approach to ascertain truth as scientists often do.

Words: 44
127

**************************

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 215

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 216

LETTER-WRITING

A letter is a source through which a person shares his

ideas, opinions, feelings and messages with somebody else
living at distant place.

KINDS OF LETTER

1. Formal Letters:
A formal letter is written to a Bank Manager, Editor, Sales
Manager, Managing Director, and Govt. Public Officer or to
a person of higher rank and status.

2. Informal Letters:
An informal letter is written to a friend, son, daughter,
father, mother, brother, sister, uncle, intimate friend,
colleague, companion and fellows.

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF LETTERS

a) Social Letters: Including friendly letters and Notes of

Invitation.

b) Business Letter: Including Letters of Application,

Letters to government officers and Letters to Newspapers.
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 217

PARTS OF LETTER

1. Heading: It includes writer’s address and date.

2. Salutation: It addresses the person whom the letter is

written either by name or by title.

3. Body: It comprises the contents of the letter.

4. Subscription/ Closing: It closes the letter; besides, it

consists of writer’s name.

5. Signature: The writer should put his initial signature on

the informal letter but the formal letter must be endorsed
with complete signature.

SALUTATION VIS-A-VIS SUBSCRIPTION /

CLOSING

Salutation Subscription

1. My dear father/mother Yours affectionately

Your affectionate son

2. My dear friend Yours most sincerely

My dear Faraz Your sincere friend

3. Dear Sir/Madam Yours faithfully

Dear Ms Walker Yours sincerely
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 218

Respected/Editor/Manager Yours truly

4.Respected Teacher
My dear sir Yours respectfully
My dear professor

SPECIMEN FOR AN INFORMAL LETTER

Address of the
writer

Heading

Date

Salutation

Body

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 219

Subscription

Signature Closing

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 220

PAPER PREVIEW OF AN INFORMAL LETTER

1. Address of the writer

2. Date
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 221

3. Salutation
4. Body
5. Subscription
Closing
6. Name/Initial signature

A LETTER TO A FRIEND (INFORMAL)

A letter to a friend inviting him to join you in a trip to

Moen-jo-Daro: a historical place

House # 15 Block C
Ward # 4 Defence
Karachi
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 222

16 February 2012

Dear friend Nasir

I hope this letter will find you in the best of your health; I
am hale and healthy here with all my family members. Since
you know that the summer vacation is approaching soon;
we, therefore, have scheduled a tour of Moen-jo-Daro. As
you also have shown your interest in a quite many letters of
yours; so keeping it in view I cordially invite you to join us
in a trip to Moen-jo-Daro. It is, of course, one of the oldest
cities and worth-visiting place. I hope you will really enjoy
this trip.

We are supposed to depart on Monday 5th March, 2012 at

9:00 am sharp. It is discretionary for you to join us on the
same day or a day before. I would avidly be waiting for you.

Convey my regards and feelings to all the family members;

the especial love for little cute Asama.

Yours sincerely

Wasim Raza
Wasim Raza

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 223

SPECIMEN FOR A FORMAL LETTER

Address of the
writer

Heading

Date
Address to whom the
letter is written.
Inside Address

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 224

Salutation

Body

Closing

Signature Closing

Note: The formal letter bears the address of the person to

whom it is written on the left side of the paper. Besides, the
writer will endorse the complete signature; the initial is not
conformed in this respect.

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 225

PAPER PREVIEW OF A FORMAL LETTER

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 226

1. Address of the writer

2. Date
3. Inside Address
4. Salutation
5. Body
6. Closing/ subscription
7. Signature

A FORMAL LETTER
(A Letter of Complaint)

6 Fore Street
Kensington
London W8 9NW
Customer Services Manager
FlyHigh Airways
PO Box 574
London W3 5NJ
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 227

1 August 2009

Dear Sir/Madam
Booking reference: Porter POR 1359AZ

My wife and I and our two children, aged 2 and 4, were

passengers on flight LZ238 from London to Orlando, USA
on July 23rd 2009. I am writing to complain about a number
of aspects of the service we received.

Firstly, when the flight was delayed, the staff at the airline’s
information desk were very unhelpful. We were not even
given a voucher for a drink or meal, when it was clear the
delay would be at least seven hours. This meant that we had
to spend a considerable amount of money in the restaurant.

Then, when we were finally able to board, families were not

allowed to board first, although we had paid for this. As a
result we were not able to sit together, making our children,
already very tired, extremely distressed.

It is a legal requirement for airline operators to provide

suitable refreshments in the event of a long delay. I would
therefore expect some compensation for your failure both to
comply with this regulation and to provide with the priority
boarding for which we had paid.

I enclose our boarding passes and look forward to hearing

from you shortly.
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 228

Yours faithfully

S R Porter (Dr)

A FORMAL LETTER

A letter to the Controller of Examination requesting him for

correct endorsement of your mis-spelt name

Examination Hall
Center A.B.C.

4 June 2005

The Controller
Board of Intermediate & Secondary Education
Hyderabad
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 229

Dear Sir/Madam
Correction in a mis-spelt name on marksheet

I reverently submit following lines for your favourable

consideration and kind action as well. My name has wrongly
been endorsed on the Marks Certificate as Adeel instead of
Adil. This clerical mistake will cause me unimaginable loss
in future.

I, therefore, earnestly request your greatness for the proper

and actual endorsement of my name. I have enclosed the
copy of School G.R to support my plea. I am hopeful for
your optimistic response and will be earnestly grateful to
you for this act of kindness.

Thanking in anticipation.

Yours faithfully

Adil.

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 230

APPLICATION
To

His Excellency
Chief Justice
Supreme Court of Pakistan

Subject: REQUEST TO STRAGHTEN OUT ALL THE

GRIEVENCES AND PRBOBLES
OF GRIEF-STRICKEN TRAINEES OF BBSYD
EDUCATION AND LITERACY
DEPARTMENT HYDERABAD OWING TO STRICT
ATTENDANCE'S RULE

Venerated Sir

Most reverently and respectfully, we all the trainees of

BBSYDP Education and Literacy Department Hyderabad
solemnly submit here that the rule of 90 % attendance has
severely victimized and deprived us of stipend. Because, the
great number of trainees belongs to poverty-stricken class,
who can hardly bear the regular expenses. In addition to it, a
large number of trainees have not been paid even a single
penny for the last four months. Besides, most of students
come from the remote and far corner of the district catching
one and dropping the other means of transport, which indeed
is highly expensive and cumbersome too. As the result, if a
Trainee is led by fever, or has no fare to travel, or misses
bus and remains absent for two or three days in a month
then his attendance does not meet to the strictly prescribed
rate of attendance i.e. 90 % - the highest and hardest
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 231

obligation whose infallible observance is tantamount to

deprive and oppress rather alleviate the agonies of already
inflation-ridden people. Failing to that highest rate of
attendance, a candidate cannot get the prescribed stipend.
Consequently, all eighty or seventy per cent investment of
time and money, on the part of the candidate, is not only
wasted but it also fuels their agony and anxiety. He,
however, instead of being benefited is severely victimized.
Therefore this 90 % attendance rule has oppressed and
affected all the trainees and has also deprived them of the
stipend what they had been promised to receive. This is
what, we beseech to thy majesty to look into our humble
request of re-considering the strict condition of attendance.
We in all humanity approach and solemn humility render
few poor suggestions for your kind consideration to resort a
unique solution for addressing the problem which will
mitigate our sufferance and grievances.

1. That, the rule of 90 % attendance should either be

nullified altogether or should be dragged down up to
50%.
2. That, if the rule cannot be nullified altogether then the
stipend should completely be paid to those students
whose attendance ranges in between 50 to 85%.
3. That, if the rule cannot be nullified or dragged down to
50% then stipend should be paid on daily wages basis.
Thus, the stipend should be compatible to the number of
days one student has been present in the class.

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 232

Therefore, with all sanguine expectation and ardent

optimism coupled with hope we look forward to listening
your sympathetic order of lifting this strict obligation of
attendance. We will remain ever grateful to you for this act
of kindness.

Thanking in anticipation,

Yours truly

All Trainee of
BBSYDP Hyderabad
An application to the Principal requesting him to issue you
the School Leaving certificate

To
The Principal
Oxford Public School
Badin

Subject: Request for School Leaving Certificate

Venerated Sir

I reverently submit following few lines for your favourable

consideration. As my father has been transferred to Karachi;
my family, therefore, have to be shifted over there. So, I
cannot proceed my studies here. I earnestly implore your
honour to issue me the School Leaving Certificate, so that I
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 233

could continue my studies in Karachi.

I hope that your high self will look into my humble request
sympathetically and my plea would attain the best of your
consideration. I will remain ever grateful to you for this act
of kindness.

Thanking you sir.

Yours obediently

(Signature)

Charles David
Class: x. y. z
Roll No A-24

4th March 2005

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 234

APPLICATION

An application to the Principal requesting him to grant you

one week’s leave on account of marriage ceremony of your
elder brother

To
The Principal
Oxford Public School
Badin

Subject: Request for one week’s leave because of the

marriage ceremony of elder
brother

Esteemed sir

I reverently submit following few lines for your favourable

consideration. The marriage ceremony of my elder brother is
taking place in the upcoming week. So, I will not be able to
attend my classes. I request your excellence to grant me
leave for one week.

I apologetically implore that your higher self will look into

Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 235

my humble request sympathetically, and will concede my

earnest request. I would remain thankful to you for this act
of kindness.

Thanking your sir.

Yours obediently

(Signature)

George Henry
Class: x. y. z
Roll No: 16

5th April 2005

***************

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 236

DIALOGUE-WRITING
When two or more than two persons fall into conversation
over an issue or issues is called dialogue. Such format is
also used for writing the script of dram/play, movies and
short interludes. To write dialogue, the general approach
applied therein is that in which the name of the speaker is
mentioned in the margin and the spoken words are
mentioned against the name of the speaker. As the whole
statement belongs to the mentioned speaker; therefore, it is
not necessary to write the spoken statement/dialogue in the
quotation marks or inverted comma. As the dialogue contain
spoken words therefore the contraction is allowed, while
writing them, generally we use expansion and avoid
contraction in formal writing.

Common Contraction followed by Expansion

don’t - do not - can’t – cannot, isn’t – is not, aren’t – are
not, hasn’t – has not, haven’t – have not, won’t – will/would
not, ain’t – is/am/has/have not

Dialogue Reading:

Work in pairs. Read the dialogue below, in which two

students, Sami and Shan, are talking about what schools will
be like in the future.

Sami: Will robots ever replace teachers in tomorrow’s

school?
Shan: No, I don’t think they will, but I think computers
are going to take over a lot of the teachers’ work. I
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 237

think we’ll learn most of our subjects from computers.

We’ll be able to learn things more easily and at our own
pace.
Sami: Then what will the teachers do?
Shan: They’ll be there to help us when we need them. We
won’t have to sit in classes as we do now. We’ll sit in
comfortable rooms with our computers and when we
get into difficulties we’ll call a teacher to help us. That
way, we’ll be able to get personal attention.
Sami: What subjects will students study?
Shan: Any subjects they want to. That’s the advantages of
a computer. It can be programmed to teach dozens of
different subjects. We’ll be able to choose the ones that
interest us. We’ll be able to make our own choice of
subjects.
Sami: But will learning from a machine be better than
learning from a teacher?
Shan: The computers won’t seem like a machine. It’ll be
more like a robot. We’ll be able to talk to it and it’ll too
be able to talk to us. Everything it teaches us will be
prepared by experts, so that when we ask questions on
any subject we’ll be getting answers from the world’s
leading experts. That way, I think we’ll be able to learn
more.

********************
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 238

INTERVIEW-WRITING
To conduct an interview is an art, in which the interviewer
asks some questions or intends to collect the views/opinion
of the interviewee on certain issues or particular subjects.

An interview between a reporter (Tony) and Elizabeth

Blackwell, who is the first girls to seek admission into a
medical college, she lives in the society where woman is
not considered capable of seeking education.

Tony: I understand that Geneva college considered

your application for admission in the college
immediately.
Elizabeth: No, in fact, there was a great deal of delay
before the authorities accepted it.
Tony: Did the dean tell you about the confirmation of
your admission in the college?
Elizabeth Yes. Finally, I received a letter from him to
inform me that my application for admission
had been conceded or granted. I was very
surprised because such a long time had passed
since I had applied.
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 239

Tony: Why do you think that they took much time to

decide?
Elizabeth When the authorities at Geneva received my
application, they didn’t know what to do with it.
So, they decided to let the students make the
decision.
Tony: Some of the students thought that it would be
amusing to be the only medical college in the
country which could boast that it was training
some sort of Amazon as a woman doctor. Is that
right?
Elizabeth Yes, some did find the idea amusing.
Tony: But others believed that women should be
treated equally.
Elizabeth Yes, others believed in women’s rights. It was
very encouraging.
Tony: So the vote in your favour was unanimous and
the authorities found with dismay that they
would now have to admit you.
Elizabeth That’s right and the dean finally sent me his
letter.
Tony: In his letter, did he tell you that your admission
was considered after the unanimous vote given
by the students?
Elizabeth No, he never mentioned the vote at all.
Tony: How did you feel your first appearance in the
college?
Elizabeth Well, it was both sweet and sour experience. I
was much diffident and retiring but I had firm
determination.
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 240

Tony: What was the response of the male students?

Elizabeth It was quite eccentric, but later on they became
very sober, serious and decent because of my
presence.
Tony: What was the point of view of the local people?
Elizabeth Well, they were very much reserved, reluctant
and fed up with the irresponsible and
mischievous behaviour of the male students, for
what they already have recorded several
complaints to the college authorities.
Tony: Do you think that your presence became boon
for the college?
Elizabeth I, of course, became a beacon for the rest of
female students in addition to the refinement of
the conductance and behaviour of male students.
Tony: How do you feel now? Are your comfortable
here?
Elizabeth I feel much pleasure and proud being here as a
first female student and I am quite comfortable
and satisfied altogether.
Tony: What are your priorities in the field of medical?
Elizabeth I yearn and crave to emancipate women from
the undue dominance and male chauvinism and
intend to pave way for them so that female can
play participative role in the uplift of an
individual in particular and humanity in general.
Tony: What are main hurdles or hitches in your way at
the present time?
Elizabeth I personally believe that common misgiving,
illusion and misconception harboured by men
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 241

are that women can’t discharge such kind of

serious professional duties smoothly and
swiftly. I have a strong conviction that such
kind of beliefs ought to be shattered and
eliminated or eradicated.
Tony: Well, thank you for talking to me, Miss
Blackwell. I would like to say that I felt much
proud and pleasure while talking to you.
Elizabeth Thank you very much. Please take care.

**************************

EMAIL-WRITING

Electronic mail has different level of formality depending on

the intimacy of the reader and the level or position of the
writer. Email should be polite, subject line should be
descriptive rather than consisting of single word-subject.
Mention the attachments if added and formal email should
contain the complete address of the sender in the end;
whereas, the semi formal and informal emails comprise only
name of the sender. Business and official emails are shorter,
formal and brief; whereas, the informal, personal or
academic emails are comparatively less polite, yet it
depends the level of intimacy and personal position or status
of the writer.

Writing Business Email

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 242

Formal – An enquiry to a company (formal, polite)

To: [email protected]
Cc: [email protected]
Subject: Query about
training DVDs

Dear Mr. Baxter

I am the HR assistant at Feel Good Training

plc. I am contacting you to say that we have
received the promo material about your sales
training DVDs and are interested in
purchasing some.

Could you please send us some more

information regarding their content as we are
not sure which would be the most useful for
our staff.
We would also require a price list and
payment terms.

Looking forward to your reply

Regards

RenataKlein

Renata Klein, HR assistant

Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 243

Feel Good Training plc

484 London Road, Uxbridge, UX3 6HO
www.fgt.com

A reply – less formal (semi formal), polite

To: [email protected]
Cc:
Subject: Re: Query about
training DVDs

Dear Renata

Thank you for your interest in our training

material. We’re happy to provide you with
more detailed information regarding the
contents of the DVDs. Attached you’ll find a
PDF containing a brochure plus purchasing
agreement where you’ll find terms and
conditions are clearly explained.

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 244

Should you need help choosing a product to

suit your company’s needs, please feel free to
contact us again. Either email me or
alternatively you can speak to one of our
customer service team by calling 05 471 375
31.

Best regards

Jim

Jim Baxter, Marketing Manager

Trainers – R – US
[email protected]

Writing Academic Emails

Formal – A request from a student to an academic from
a different department
Tone: personal, very formal, very polite

Subject: Request for statistical help

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 245

Dear Dr Barr

I am a first year PhD student in the

department of linguistics and my research
topic is a quantitative study of verb forms in
academic writing.
As I need to use advanced statistical tools for
processing the data, my supervisor, Dr John
Pugh, suggested I contact you to ask for
advice.
Would it e possible for me to come and see to
discuss what I need? I attach a copy of my
draft research proposal to give you an idea of
the scope of my study.
I would be bery grateful indeed for your help.
Best wishes
David Samuels

Writing Academic Emails

Less Formal – request from a student to their own
supervisor
Tone: personal, less formal, polite

Subject: Meeting this week?

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 246

Dear Ruth

I was wondering if you’ve had a chance to

look at my paper yet. If so, could we have a
meeting some time this week? The best day
for me would be Tues. I start my fieldwork at
the end of the week and it would be very
useful to have some feedback before then.

Many thanks

Nicole

****************************

RESEMUE/CURRICULUM VITAE-WRITING
SKILL (CV)

When an individual is looking for a job, then it is essential

to learn the art and skill of how to best offer yourself to an
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 247

employer. For that reason, one has to develop a

comprehensive CV. Curriculum Vitae, generally called CV,
which is derived from Latin meaning "Life Story" which in
some countries is called "Résumé" also.
Art and pattern of writing CV varies from country to
country; therefore, it is indispensable that CV must be
compatible with and suitable to the tradition prevailing the
area and era one is applying for a job.

What is the objective of CV or Résumé?

The prime purpose of CV is to sell yourself or advertise

your skill, expertise, ability, capacity and potential to
provide a profound opportunity to an employer to short list
you for the interview from a huge bulk or pile of the CVs
dispatched there.

WHAT A CV MUST CONSIST OF?

a) Personal Details:
Personal information consists of name, home address,
college address, phone number, email address, date of birth,
gender if the name cannot determine it, NIC card number,
district of domicile if the job is district of region specified. If
you have your own web homepage, include it if it can serve
as a plus point to your expertise or skill.

b) Education or Academics:

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 248

Mention the details of the places you have studied, include

the degrees you have received – the most recent education
first. It means use deductive logic from the most important
to the least important like MSc/ MA, BSC/BA, FSc/FA and
Matric etc. Enlist the major and minor subjects of studies.
Include any special project, thesis or dissertation work.
Then include the pre-college courses. Mention all the
awards, medals and prizes, grades, classes against the
respective degrees to make it much comprehensive.

c) Work experience:
If you have worked in a particular field, it is essential to
mention your experience starting from the most recent one.
Give the name of your employer, job title, and very
important what you actually did and achieved in that job. If
you have work in various fields, then include that
experience which is relevant to the field of job you are
applying for. Adding all experience relating to various fields
sometimes makes the CV ineffective and less attractive; it
needs proper consideration depending on the situation. Part-
time work should also be included.

d) Interests:
Under the heading of interests you should include the
particular activities you were interested in. If you have ever
shouldered the responsibilities of a group leader, captain,
include it in your CV. Individual hobbies do not appeal to
the employer, but if they have any connection with the job,
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they need a mention. Give only enough detail to explain. If

you were captain of a sports team, they do not want to know
the exact date you started, how many games you played, and
how many wins you had! They will ask at the interview, if
they are interested. If you have published any articles,
jointly or by yourself, give details. If you have been
involved in any type of volunteer work, do give details.

e) Skills:
One should include ability in other languages, computing
experience, or possession of a driving licence or any other
mechanical, technical, short-handwriting skills which have
got relevance with the job one is applying for.

f) References:
As the general practice, two names are selected as a
reference one from the place of study, and one from any
work situation one has had. Or if this does not apply, then an
older family friend who has known you for some time.
Make sure that referees are willing to give you a reference.
Give their day and evening phone numbers if possible.

g) Mailing Address:
Include your mailing address like postal address, e-mail
address and phone numbers so that the employer can send
you the letter or call for interview or any screening test.

h) Length:

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 250

Usually we use one A-4 sheet for CV, but if one sheet does
not suffice then another sheet can be used. Don't overcrowd
the contents of the CV; but don’t exceed beyond two pages.
Put page numbers at the bottom of the pages - a little detail
that may impress.

TYPES OF CURRICULUM VITAE OR RÉSUMÉ

There are various types of CVs targeted to the description,

nature and scope of the job one is applying for. The major
types of CVs are as under:
1) Chronological CV
2) Functional CV
3) Targeted CV
4) Combination CV
5) Inventory CV
6) One page summary CV

1) Chronological CV:
As it is obvious out of the name, a chronological CV
consists of entire history of one's career; as the common
practice, it is written in reverse chronological order, with the
most recent employment details are mentioned first then to
the past – from the recent past to the remote past. It includes
a complete record of career history along with a complete
education record. This type of CV is the most frequently
used CV; in length, usually it consists of 2 sides of A4
paper.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 251

Job Titles and company names are emphasized with skills,

duties and achievements detailed under each job title. A
chronological CV is most useful if you are staying within
the same industry and wish to show career progression.
Additionally, if your employer was a familiar household
name, it may be wise to highlight that as often they set a
precedent for the type of people they employ so the mere
mention of their company name may be enough to
demonstrate that you are a high caliber candidate.
Most employers prefer the chronological CV format, as it is
easy to see who you have worked for and what you did in
each particular job. If you do not have many achievements,
you can take the emphasis off this fact when using a
Chronological CV.
Reasons why a chronological CV may not be the best
format to include:
 If you are changing direction and the most recent
employer is not relevant to your new chosen career.
 If your career history shows gaps in your employment
due to poor health, unemployment, having children, etc.
or that you have changed jobs frequently.

2) Functional CV:
The prime purpose of the functional CV is to emphasize
your skills, abilities and expertise. It is different from the
most common chronological CV, which focuses on your
career history. As you achieve skills from different working
places, industries, firms so you need to mention all these
places of experience. So for the length is concerned, a
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functional CV usually consists of two pages. You should

only include the experience which is relevant to the position
you are applying for. If you are applying for a position in the
field of marketing, hence, mentioning the experience in the
fields of accounting carries no weight. You had better focus
the experience you have relating to the field of marketing,
its deep understanding and ability to deal with diverse aspect
of marketing.

The Advantages of Using Functional CV:

Functional CV becomes highly useful when:
 If you lack experience or have gaps in your work history.
These de-meritorious aspects of your career get covered
up, whereas, the emphasis lies on highlighting skills and
potential.
 You have changed jobs frequently and have had a variety

of unrelated work experiences.

 You want to promote skills and experience obtained

through college or volunteer experience.

 You are changing careers or re-entering the job market,

perhaps after taking a career break to be a full time parent.

 Your most recent work experience is not relevant to the

job, but past experience is.

 You have been working freelance or in temporary
employment.
 You do not want to advertise your age.

A functional CV format is less useful if:

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 253

 You have little work experience and thus not much to

highlight, then prefer a chronological CV.
 You have a progressive career history, which reflects
promotions, and growth and you want to emphasize that
then use chronological format.

The layout of Functional CV:

In order to write a functional CV, it is essential to begin with
a profile highlighting specific skills, achievements and
relevant personal qualities. For better presentation group
them under subheading. Then write down the range of skills
and abilities beginning with the most important. Present the
functions as bullet points. Rather than focusing on
experience in a particular job, detail your abilities as
demonstrated in that job in such a way as to show that they
are transferable to the job applied for. As previous
employers are not mentioned by name you can include
voluntary and unpaid work. Following this section is a list of
employers and employment dates. Qualifications are
covered next including professional and academic
qualifications. The Functional CV may conclude with a brief
outline of your personal details, hobbies and interests.

3) Targeted CV:
The Targeted CV as obvious from its name primarily
focuses your career towards a particular objective, within a
specific industry or a specific company.
The targeted CV begins with skills, qualifications and
experience that is compatible with or plays vital role to
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advert you better for the position you are applying for. Some
useful points need to be undertaken before writing a targeted
CV are as under:
First, find out the basic, key and essential requirements and
requisites for the particular position you are applying for.
Second, it is indispensable to assure, ascertain and finalize
the name of the company you will be sending your CV to
Third, keep it in mind that the targeted CV is always sent in
reply to a specific job advertisement.
Fourth, use different CVs for different positions focusing
and highlighting career objectives befitting to the advertised
position.

4) Combination CV:
The format of combination CV is much popular especially
among job hunters, who have a solid background associated
with their career objectives . There will be different sections
in the combination CV that highlight education and
experience, followed by the job history of the individual.
Use the combination CV when you have a definite career
path and a targeted job area that is related to your job history
and experience. This type of CV combines the best of the
functional and the chronological CV styles. You can also
use it when each position or job had unique responsibilities
and when a shorter type of CV would not suffice. List
responsibilities, and or accomplishments and skills
developed after each job experience or training listing. Stay
focused; use less rather than more words. Begin each

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 255

sentence or idea with a verb, for instance, Awarded,

Assisted etc.
Advantages of the combination CV:
 It combines the best of the chronological and functional
CV writing styles.
 It emphasizes your achievements and strengths, as well
as experience.
 It starts with a profile and followed by job history,
which is ideal for getting the attention of the employer.
 It focuses on important skills which are supported by
the job history.
 In a combination CV all the accomplishments are
noticed.

Disadvantage of combination CV:

 It is lengthy.
 If you fail to get attention through the profile, the
recruiter may not even read the job history section.
 Don't use the combination CV when:
 Your work experience is limited.
 You have several or unexplained employment gaps.
 You changed jobs frequently.
5) Inventory CV:
It is preferred to use the Inventory CV when you intend to
send your CV to:
 Various recruiters

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 256

 When you do not have a specific job objective.

This kind of CV is a more general overview of your skills,
achievements and qualifications. A general objective or
career strategy behind an inventory CV helps in being
slightly more specific towards your career goals.
General career goals can be:
 "a secretary working with a local company"
 "a computer programmer"

 "a sales person"

Having a general career objective in mind, it can help you in

focusing on those particular skills, abilities and experience
required for the job. Your CV should show that you are
competent by demonstrating your relevant previous
experience and qualifications. If you are unemployed or
desperate to switch jobs, the inventory CV is a good time
saver. You can write a customary covering letter for each
job you apply for and you can send the same CV to all
recruiters. If you are interested in several careers write
several inventory CVs each for a particular career goal.
6) One page summary CV and when to submit it:
Sometimes, owing to limited time or hectic schedule, the
organizations invite a one-page summary CV, because they
aim at the most relevant information regarding the position
they have advertised so for. It is brief, composite,
comprehensive and precise information what a large
company needs for the recruitment, when so many CVs are
expected. This format helps the company to short-list the
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 257

befitting, appropriate and suitable candidates for further

interview or screening to fill the offered position. In this
case, a brief and to-the-point one page summary resume
would be ideal.
When an individual intends to send a CV on speculative
consideration when the applied seats or positions are not
offered so for, then one-page summary CV is the best; thus,
it makes one able to start a suitable opening with a
company. A brief cover letter explaining you plus points and
preferences followed by a summary CV would gain you
enough curiosity to be called for an interview, if vacancies
exist.
What should be included in the one-page summary CV?
1. Begin with the educational qualification by mentioning
the highest degree first. Write it in a tabular form to take
the least space without compromising on information.
2. Experience should be mentioned in reverse chronological
order highlighting the relevant aspects which are the best
match for the job you are applying thereof.
3. Key skills and additional expertise either of soft or
technical sorts should be mentioned which would serve as
profound and attractive addition to the value of your CV.
Don't try to assort everything, CV would loose its
attraction and appeal, be decisive and distinguish what to
include and what to exclude.
4. Mention very important information about your personal
data what you think is very essential and crucial, too, to be
included.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 258

5. As it is one-page summary CV, it should not only be brief

but also suitable and befitting to the position you are
applying for.
6. List all the skills first, then go for a through scrutiny in
order to decide what skills are closely relate to offered
position then include them in your CV.
DO'S AND DON'TS OF CV WRITING

Dos of CV:
 Your CV should be your own not the copy of somebody
else's.
 CV should consist of your "Life History", "Your Job
History", "Your Achievements" and "Your Skills".
 It should be computerized one.
 Exactly spelled.
 Skillfully formatted.
 Plan it into different parts with suitable heading.
 Heading must be bold than the contents of CV.
 Write name, address, phone number in capital letter where
required.
 Do use plenty of white space, and a good border.
 Properly printed.
 Use A4 paper for printing CV.
 List your career aims and objectives.
 Give details of you educational background.
 Describe you achievements.
 List your work experience.
 Included information about related experiences.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 259

 Clearly state what you were accountable for.

 Quantify and back up your claims.
 Make it shorter, more readable and more understandable.
 Do consider how your skills, education, and experience
compare with the skills that the job requires.
 Do collect thorough information about the job description.
 Make it brief and suitable to the post you are applying for.
 Arrange information in order.
 Make it simple and communicative, because they say: "If
they didn't hear it, you didn't say it".
 Proofread carefully for spelling, punctuation, and
typographical errors.
 Submit it within the time frame you are being asked so
for.
Don'ts of the CV:
 Don’t copy other CV.
 Don't use a hand written CV.
 Not poorly printed on low quality paper.
 Don't use lots of different font types and sizes because it
is not like a magazine.
 Don't use the same CV for each job or position.
 Don’t use the sample or template because it does not
reflect you in its exact sense.
 Don't use idioms, jargon, cliché, threadbare phrases.
 Don't overcrowd the content of CV use another sheet if
one does not suffice.
 Don’t list personal statistics such as your weight, height,
and age.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 260

 Don't use "big" words or long complicated sentences.

 Don’t' use unfamiliar abbreviations or unnecessary jargon.
 Don't include information about salaries or wages.
 Don't include references on the same sheet as the résumé.
 Don't include personal references such as a neighbour or
friend.
 Don’t add the details of jobs held more than 10 years ago.
 Don’t include minute details of more recent jobs.
 Don't mention the reasons for leaving a previous job.
 Don’t mention current and past salaries.
 Don’t include the failed examinations.
 Don’t add nationality and age if not required.
 Don't write details of referees. Don’t yearn for full details
of hobbies and interests

A SAMPLE CV (British Style)

Name Fahad Jawed

Address Ward# 4, Near Shahnawaz Chowk, Badin.
Telephone 029783345 Moblile: 03332681013
e-mail [email protected]

Objective To find a role in a film or TV production

company that will enable me to acquire and develop
the skills required for a career in film or television.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 261

Profile An outgoing and articulate graduate with work

experience in both television and teaching

Education / Qualification:

2009- MA in Media Studies, the Quaid-e-Azam

University Islamabad. Expected 2010.
2005-2009 BA in Media Studies with English (2:1) st
class. Major: English; Minor: French and Urdu,
University of Sindh, Jamshoro.
1997-2004 Beacon School, Badin.

Work Experience

October 2007 – June 2008: Language assistant in

secondary school in Hyderabad. Taught English to large
classes and small groups. Ran a film club and a holiday
dance and drama club. Assisted with school drama
productions.
September 2004 – August 2005: Production assistant at
Sachal and Associates Filmmakers. Karachi, Malir 12.
Performed office and on-set duties.
June – September 2004: Tutor for Sindh Drama
Workshop. Led groups of teenagers of different
backgrounds in dance and drama activities.
July – August 2003: Host at Adventure Camping
holiday campsite in Karachi. Led the children’s club for
4-10 year olds and performed various practical duties
on the campsite.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 262

Skills
Languages: English near native-speaker fluency; Urdu
and Sindhi as L1.
Good keyboard skills. Familiarity with Word, Excel and
film editing packages.
Clean driving licence.

Interest Drama, both acting and directing; singing (was

member of university choral society). Regular
volunteer at a local centre for the homeless.

Reference – attached

A SAMPLE RÉSUMÉ (American Style)

Haider Raza
[email protected]

Present Address: Permanent Address:

Flat A-15, House # 12, Block C
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 263

Agriculture Complex Ideal Society, Satellite Town

Hyderabad Mirpurkhas, Sindh, Pakistan
Tel: + 92- 22243523 Tel + 92-297834256

OBJECTIVE To obtain an entry-level management

position within an international
hospitality organization.

EDUCATION

Masters in Business Administration (M.B.A),

2006-2008, the Quaid-e-Azam University
Islamabad.
B.A. in International Hospitality, 2002-2006
University of Sindh, Jamshoro.

EXPERIENCE
Travel Agent, Sep. 2006-Present
Adventure Extreme Tours, Qasimabad,
Hyderabad
Organized adventure package torus for large
students groups, trained and supervised new staff
members, and maintained partner relationships.
Camp Counselor, Jun 2002-Aug 2006
Voyageurs Summer Camp, Youth Adventure
Club, Hyderabad
Group leader for children aged 10-15. Developed
curriculum for campers and led overnight hiking
trips.

HONORS
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 264

Agent of the Month, Adventure Extreme Tours,

March 2008
Voted “Most Popular Counselor”, Voyageurs,
2005&2006

SKILLS & Fluent in Sindhi, Urdu and English

INTEREST Enjoy web design in HTML and Flash

COVERING LETTER

Whenever, you submit one-page or two-page CV or

whatsoever type or job application it must be submitted with
a covering letter for these reasons:

1. The covering letter is addressed to the right person either

by name or designation as it suits. To make sure that the
CV arrives on the desk of the correct person. Take the
trouble to telephone, and find the name of the person who
will be dealing with applications or CVs, and address your
letter, and envelope, to that person by name. In a small
company, it may be the managing director. In a medium
size company, it may be the head of section/department.
Only in a large company will there be a Personnel or
Human Resource Department.
2. To persuade the person to read your CV. So it must be
relevant to the company, interesting, and well produced.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 265

3. The covering letter should have a subject line where the

post applied for is clearly mentioned; Start your letter with
an underline heading giving the job title you are interested
in. If you saw the job advertised, say where you saw it. If
it is a speculative CV, then indicate your preference such
as marketing department, accounting department or back
end office, or R&D department, etc. Do not say, 'I would
be interested in working for Widgets Ltd', but say 'I
believe my skills equip me to work in the product
development department/accounts office/whatever'. When
sending a speculative CV, you may try telephoning later
to push your enquiry further.
4. The covering letter is to draw attention to one or two key
points in the CV which you feel make you suited to that
particular job with that particular employer.
5. The covering letter should be typed in the same type set as
the CV.
6. The covering letter gives a brief introduction to yourself
and explains the reasons why you are applying for the job.
7. The covering letter is friendly and invites attention to the
CV.
8. The covering letter expresses clearly a sincere wish to join
the company in a suitable capacity.
9. Use the style and pattern of a business letter suited to your
culture and country. Ask for advice about this. Try to find
sample business letters so that you can follow style and
layout.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 266

10. Your career office may have a sheet about this, or show
you a sample. The letter should only be on one side of A4
paper. It must be polite and easy to read.
11. Also mention when you are available for an interview.
Ending your letter with a request for specific extra
information may give a positive response.

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 267

a) A SAMPLE COVRING LETTER

Flat 3
19 Strangelands Road
London
Ms. F Hunter NE23 6ZB
Human Resources Manager Tel:
020733734589
Timson Office Supplies 20 January
2010
Unit 5 Males Industrial Estate
Cambridge CB7 9HD

Dear Ms. Hunter

Senor Accounts Clerk

I am writing to apply for the post of senior accounts clerk
advertised in the Cambridge Evening News of 17 January.

As you will see from my enclosed CV I am currently an

accounts clerk in a medium-sized printing firm. In addition
to my normal bookkeeping duties, I am responsible for
invoicing and chasing up late payments. I also deal with
credit checks on potential customers.
I am committed to pursuing a career in management
accounting and am currently studying for further
professional qualifications by distance learning. I am
particularly interested in your post as it would enable me to
gain experience of working in a larger company with the
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 268

opportunities for professional training and development that

this brings. In addition to my skills and experience as an
accounts clerk, I would bring to the post a proven ability to
deal successfully and tactfully with customers and clients.

I am available for interview for the next three weeks.

I look forward to hearing form you.

Yours sincerely

Dilip Patel
Delip Patel

Ecn. CV

b) A SAMPLE COVRING LETTER

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 269

To
The Principal
Sargodhian Sprit Trust Public School
Rashidabad, Tando Allahyar, Sindh.

Subject: Request for the post of Teacher.

Esteemed sir,

I earnestly and the most sanguinely apply for the post of

Teacher advertised in the Daily Dawn of April 27, 2009.
Please find enclosed a copy of my CV.

It is my deepest yearning and earnest ambition to work as a

faculty member in your institute. Since, I have been teaching
in different schools and colleges at the higher secondary
level and have learnt, acquired and practiced various tools
and ways of pedagogy. I intend the render my services for
the uplift of your institute in particular and education in
general.

If your Majesty honors me with an opportunity to serve the

institute, I will leave no stone unturned to meet the exigency
of time and your expectations too. I would remain thankful
to you for this act of kindness.

I will be glad enough to show you my bulky portfolio. I look

forward to receiving your positive response.

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 270

Yours truly,

Khalid Raza Chandio

Lecturer in English
Farhan Public School Kadhan.

May 9, 2009.

Note: The sample letter "a" is written in accordance with the

international standards; whereas, the sample letter "b" is
written keeping the indigenous or local practice in view. The
students of Pakistan in general and Sindh in particular are
advised to follow the "b" sample letter, yet they are at liberty
in ever volatile world.

APPLICATION FORMS

Sometimes, recruiters or employer advertise or ask for a

particular specimen for job application. It, therefore, is
strongly suggested to fill in the form with complete details
and highlight the required information. You need much care
to fill in the form; sometimes, it becomes even much typical
as compare to CV writing. The application form should be
dispatched along with a covering letter and also enclose a
copy of your CV though it is not asked so for. Keep some
basic tips in your mind while filling the application form:

 Plan everything you will say on a separate piece of paper.

Or make a photocopy of the form, and practice
completing it first.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 271

 Only complete the real form when you are exactly sure
what is the best thing to be said.
 It must be very neat and clear, and in black pen so that it
can be easily photocopied.
 You should 'angle' your answers to the company, in the
same way as explained for your CV.
 Do not say in answer to any question – 'see my CV'. They
do not want to try to read both at the same time.
 Take a photocopy to keep, so that you can remember
exactly what you said. If you are called to interview, take
this copy with you into the interview.
 Other points
 Keep copies of all letters, applications forms, and CVs
sent, and records of telephone calls and names of those
you spoke to.

THE INTERVIEW

Present matters but presentation matters much. To interview

or to be interviewed, of course is an art that needs much
skill, expertise, confidence, eloquence, patience,
perseverance and talkativeness. Ask your seniors for advice.
Assume what kind of questions you will be asked. Ask one
of your friends, or seniors, teachers or career consultant to
pretend to interview you keeping the position you have
applied for in view.
Be positive, and confident, though it is hard to be, but not
over-confident. Be well-informed about the company, its
record and achievements, about the job and why you want it.
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 272

Have questions ready to ask about the company and the job.
If you are not accepted, some employers may be kind
enough to look at your interview notes, and explain to you
how you could improve your CV and interview technique.
Ask – you can only be refused, and it shows you are
prepared to develop and learn; they may make a note about
you for future reference.
Listen carefully, and answer politely and confidently. If you
are unable to listen to any question, you may ask for the
repetition of the question like: "I beg your pardon, or would
you please repeat it?" But, it does not mean that you start
asking same for each question, for that you should listen to
the interviewer with full concentration. Don’t look at roof or
at floor. Try to have an eye to eye contact with the
interviewer. Don’t fiddle with your fingers or clothes. Job
interviews can be traumatic. When an outcome is crucial,
but uncertain, the result is tension. However, you impress
interviewers by appearing confident and unflustered.
Make a professional impression Turn your cell phone off
before entering the building. Give the interviewer a firm
hand-shake. Don't mumble. Speak clearly and confidently.
Sit up straight. Look the interviewer in the eye. Don't fidget.
If the interview is after lunch, ensure there are no food stains
on your tie, shirt, or pants. Don't eat garlic. Don't drink
alcohol. No late night jollying before a morning interview.
Have an early night. To create a professional impression
carry a folder, complete with an agenda. Open it, allowing
the interviewer to see headings like "Interview Objectives"
and "Key Issues". Tick off points as they are covered.
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 273

Decline drinks if offered by the interviewer because there is

a great chance that your hand may shake lifting a cup,
indicating nerves.
There are various books to help you out in the case of
interview one of them is named here which may help you:
"The Perfect CV" by Tom Jackson and Ellen Jackson,
published in USA by Doubleday, and in UK by Judy Pratkus
Ltd, ISBN :0749916931.

HOW TO DRESS?

Dress is the cardinal constituents of one's personality. The

selection of proper dress for appropriate occasion shows the
caliber of that person. Therefore, it is essential to take
considerable pain in selecting suitable dress for the
interview.

 Wear comfortable dress

 No food stains on dress
 No orange suits for men
 Men should wear dark blues and charcoals.
 No bottle greens and chocolate brown.
 No white socks.
 No grey shoes.
 No takkies or slops.
 Black loafers or polished shoes are safest.
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 274

 Wear black socks that are quite long so hairy legs won't
be visible should you cross your legs.
 No jewellery.
 No earrings.
 No pony-tails or massive afros (unless it's an ad agency
job).
 Smart, short hair is safest.
 Finger nails should be short, with no dirt under the nail.
 Don't smoke.
 Don't chew gum.
 No pony tails for women either.
 Women are advised not to carry a handbag.
 Simply carry the folder.
 If wearing trousers, wear a matching jacket.
 If you wear a skirt, wear stockings and a shoe with a
heel.
 A business suit creates a good impression.
 No huge costume jewellery.
 Wear glasses rather than contact lenses, especially if the
lenses make you squint.
 Leave sunglasses in the car.
 Don't smoke.
 Decline drinks if offered because there is a chance that
your hand may shake lifting a cup, indicating nerves.

(THE END)

Muhammad Tufail Chandio