IMPACTS OF HUMAN DISTRUBANCE ON WET LAND IN ETHIOPIA

WOLAITA SODO UNIVERSIT DAWURO TARCHA CAMPUS

BY: ELIAS ANOLE

UGR/52564/13

A Seminar Paper

Submitted to Wolaita Sodo University Dawuro Tarcha Campus College of

Agriculture and Natural Resource Management in partial fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Course Students Senior Seminar (NRM 462)

Advisor: Yishak D. (M.Sc)

DAWURO TARCHA, ETHIOPIA

 APPROVAL SHEET
hereby certify that I have read and evaluated this senior siminar entitled: Impact of
human disturbance on wetland in Ethiopia prepared under my guidance by : Elias
Anole

Major Advisor Yishak D. (M.Sc)

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Above all, I would like. to thanks my God for his presence in my difficulties to accomplish many
of this works. Next to this I would like to express my heart fully gratitude to MS , Yiskak D. who
supported the in providing and. guiding necessary key information and other who supported
me to achieve this paper and finally i great full to Wolaita Sodo University Dawuro Tarcha
Campus College of Agriculture for granting this chance.

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Contents
APPROVAL SHEET........................................................................................................................i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...............................................................................................................ii

LIST OF ABBREVIATION/ACRONYMS...................................................................................iv

ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................................v

1 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................1

1.1 OBJECTIVE.....................................................................................................................2

2 LITERUTURE REVIEW.........................................................................................................3

2.1 FUNCTIONS AND SERVICES OF WETLAND ECOSYSTEMS.................................3

2.1.1 ECONOMIC FUNCTION OF WETLAND..............................................................3

2.2 ENVIRONMENTAL VALUES OF WETLANDS..........................................................4

2.3 ECOLOGICAL FUNCTION OF WETLAND.................................................................5

3 HUMAN INDUCED THREATS TO THE WETLAND.........................................................5

3.1 OVERGRAZING..............................................................................................................6

3.2 IMPROPER AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES AND EXPANSIONS............................7

3.3 URBANIZATION AND INDUSTRIALIZATION..........................................................7

3.4 NATURAL AND ECOLOGICAL PROBLEMS.............................................................8

3.5 WEEK INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITY...........................................................................9

3.6 POPULATION PRESSURE AND OVEREXPLOITATION OF WETLAND

RESOURCES.............................................................................................................................10

4 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION.....................................................................11

5 REFERENCES.......................................................................................................................12

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LIST OF ABBREVIATION/ACRONYMS

MEA MILLENNIUM ECOSYSTEMS ASSESSMENT

EPA ETHIOPA POLICY AUTHORITY

NGOs NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS

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 ABSTRACT
Wetlands are one of the most multifunctional ecosystems of the world that provide a range of
economical, biological, ecological, social, and cultural functions and services to human beings.
In Ethiopia all types of wetlands except coastal and marine-related wetlands and extensive
swamp-forest complexes are found and they are estimated to cover more than 2% of its total
surface area coverage. Wetlands deliver a wide range of ecosystem services that contribute to
human well-being such as food and feed construction materials, water supply, water purification,
climate, flood regulation and ecotourism. Wetland have played significant role in the growth of
human civilizations and cultural development. However, the degradation and loss of wetlands is
a worldwide phenomenon and seems to progress faster than in other ecosystems. Despite all
those and other indispensable values, these wetlands are under severe pressure and degradation.
Due to improper extraction of uses and misconceptions forwarded to wetlands, the health of the
wetlands is continuously decreasing from time to time that in doubt their existence in the near
future. In order to reverse these emerging problems and conserve these fragile but crucial
wetlands, integrated problem solving approach through realizing the collaboration of relevant
stakeholders from policy level down to grassroots community is indispensable opportunity to
Ethiopian wetlands

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1 INTRODUCTION
Wetlands are among the world's cradles of biological diversity (MEA (Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment), 2005). They support a high concentration of birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians,
fish and invertebrate species. They are also an important storehouse for genetic materials.
Despite providing habitats for aquatic life, wetlands are severely threatened ecosystems on our
planet (MEA, 2005). Globally, more than 50% of wetland areas were lost during the 20th century
(MEA, 2005). More than 33% of global wetlands had been lost in the first two decades of 21st C
as well (Hu et al., 2017). Europe, Asia, and South America exhibited the most wetland loss (Hu
et al., 2017). The loss of wetlands in different parts of Africa was also overwhelming. Evidences
(Leemhuis et al., 2017; Munishi and Jewitt, 2019) displayed that 40%–90% of wetland areas has
shrunk in eastern Africa. Wetlands in Ethiopia have also been degrading. The studies done in
different parts of the country (Gebremedhin et al., 2018; Hussien et al., 2018; Tolessa et al.,
2018) reported that wetlands area had declined from 20% to 60% within 25 years. The
degradation of wetlands has severely threatened biological diversity (MEA, 2005). The loss or
extinction of biodiversity in the freshwater ecosystem was far greater than the terrestrial
ecosystem (Gatti, 2016). Gatti (2016) estimated that 54% of freshwater vertebrates had lost in
tropical latitude.Various empirical studies (Assefa et al., 2021; Gatti, 2016; He et al., 2015;
Kuiper et al., 2014; Laurance et al., 2012; Mitchell, 2013; Rebelo et al., 2011; Seki et al., 2018;
Wu et al., 2019; Xie et al., 2010) have been conducted to investigate the reasons why wetlands
have vanished and their biodiversity have lost. The findings of these studies indicated that
biological invasion, hydrological disconnection of water sources, urban expansion, climate
change, sedimentation, excessive exploitation of biological resources, agricultural
intensifications, water extraction and construction of roads and dams are the factors for the loss
of wetland biodiversity.It is important to note that the factors that caused for wetland biodiversity
loss vary spatially and temporally (Ayyad, 2003). Accordingly, country or site-specific studies
are needed. In the Ethiopian context, few studies (Bezabih et al., 2020; Gezie et al., 2017;
Wondmagegn and Mengistou, 2020) have been done on anthropogenic threats of wetlands
biodiversity. These studies focused only on anthropogenic effects of macroinvertebrates and
avifauna diversity. Other wetland biodiversity such as woody plant species and macrophytes
were not studied. Besides, Gezie et al. (2017) and Wondmagegn and Mengistou, (2020) used

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human disturbance index to analyze the effect of human intervention on the wetland biodiversity.
Although human disturbance index was calculated using anthropogenic factors such as
hydrological modifications, habitat alteration, and land use practices indicators, it does not show
the effect of each anthropogenic intervention on the biodiversity of studied wetlands in detail.
Evaluating the effect of anthropogenic intervention on biodiversity using only a simple
combination of variables, however, is criticized. An index that is computed based on various
indicators cannot provide the detail information (Wiedmann and Barrett, 2010) on how each
factor affects biodiversity. Wagaw et al. (2019) also conducted a review work on anthropogenic
threats of biodiversity in Lake Abijata. This review work made assessment on the trends of
biodiversity including phytoplankton, zooplankton, macroinvertebrates, fish and migratory birds.
It is also analyzed the effect of different anthropogenic activities on the biodiversity. Although
this review work is comprehensive, it could not reveal the real situations of wetlands found
throughout Ethiopia. Accordingly, the present study investigates the anthropogenic factors that
contribute for the degradation of biodiversity in the Lake Tana Region specifically Infranz
Riverine Wetland, northwestern Ethiopia. For evaluation of the magnitude of anthropogenic
intervention influence, we assessed the extent of wetland biodiversity (riverine trees, macro-
invertebrates and macrophytes) degradation. It is believed that this study will contribute to the
protection and sustainable use of the study wetland and wetlands with similar biophysical and
socioeconomic.

1.1 OBJECTIVE
To review the major anthropogenic threats of Ethiopian wetland.

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2 LITERUTURE REVIEW

2.1 FUNCTIONS AND SERVICES OF WETLAND ECOSYSTEMS

2.1.1 ECONOMIC FUNCTION OF WETLAND
Fisheries are one of the important use of wetlands, where there are other uses like fuel wood
collection, agricultural water supply, ecotourism etc. The coastal wetland of Gulf of Mexico
provides habitat to juveniles of three species of penaeid shrimps upon which the local shrimp-
fishery industry is totally dependent (Engle, 2011). (Bassi et al., 2014).In India several wetlands
are spot of tourist attraction. Chilka lake of Odisa, backwaters of Kerala, Small Run of Kutch,
are some of the examples of many of the wetland-based attraction spots for national and
international tourists, and in this place, tourism are one of the major income sources for the
common people (Bassi et al., 2014).Wetlands, besides proving resources for economic
development, but also may protect life and property of the coastal communities effectively.
Bassie et al. (2014) mentioned about the efficiency of Bhitarkanika mangrove of Odisa, India,
against the cyclones and protecting the local communities. Through a study by Hashimet &
Catherine (2013) it was shown that mangroves can reduce wave height and impact on shorelines
as well as can protect the soil from washing away. Wetland can supply required freshwater for
agricultural purpose. According to Greenway (2005) the artificial wetlands can effectively
remove nutrient from water, and the water can be applied for irrigation purpose at agriculture,
golf course and many other places.Though there are several important studies performed around
the world the world in form for actual economic services with factors like cost effective
maintenance, actual income in terms of money etc., this review only tried to touch upon some of
the economic fields which can be supported by the wetlands. There are several other ways by
which the wetland can support the economy like maintaining soil fertility by periodic flooding,
reducing human health risk from contaminations thus saving hospital expenses, conserving
biodiversity, keeping the balance of the ground water table etc.

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2.2 ENVIRONMENTAL VALUES OF WETLANDS
Wetlands are of value because they play an important role in maintaining environmental quality,
sustaining livelihoods and supporting biodiversity. Wetlands also play a critical role in
maintaining the quality of the environment by absorbing and processing waste products.
Wetlands biologically cycle carbon dioxide, methane and hydrogen sulfide. They sequester (trap)
and release carbon, regulating climate change. Globally, wetland peat deposits take up just 3% of
the land area but store 14- 16% of the soil carbon pool. Many wetland functions effectively work
for the benefit of people. However, social and economic factors often result in pressure to make
wetlands work harder, for example, through their utilization for agriculture. They serve to slow
down storm flood, trap sediments and carbon sink, protect property damage in downstream,
waste water treatment and the siltation of dams go to Ayalew (2010) Lake Tana wetland farming
systems provide multiple services, satisfying the needs of the local community (food security,
livelihoods) while providing fundamental ecological services for the larger catchment
population. Traditional management of these multiuse systems was aimed at optimizing food
production (fish and crops) as well as income generation (wetland vegetation and products)
(Ayalew, 2010). Wetlands encompass a large and heterogeneous spectrum of aquatic habitats.
Similarly the Rift valley wetland is one of these ecological systems and provide ecological
functions which maintain and protect nature and human systems through services such as the
maintenance of water quality, flow and storage, flood control, sand storm protection, nutrient
retention and micro climatic stabilization, along with the production and consumption activities
that they support . The whole Rift valley ecosystem, including its wetland drainage system and
up lands, is regarded as a rich strategic site for a wide variety of resident and migratory
avifauna population.

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2.3 ECOLOGICAL FUNCTION OF WETLAND
Costanza et al., (1997) was investigated that wetlands are most valuable biomes on our planer
providing ecosystem services such as nutrient cycle, soil formation and wastewater
treatment. Climate change and large-scale land-user changes (Seneviratne et al., 2006)
affect large-scale water fluxes and balances. These changes should therefore also be
expected to affect wetland functions and associated ecosystem services. Balasubramanian
and Selvaraj (2003) had reported tanks are also very important from the ecological
perspective as they help conserve soil, water and bio-diversity. According to Raje et al.,
(2013) had given some of the nature-based engineered solutions already used in urban
planning and water management (e.g. green roofs, bio-infiltration rain gardens, vegetation
in street canyons) have demonstrated to be more efficient, cost-effective,adaptable multi-
purpose and long-lasting than the so-called 'grey infrastructure' alternatives.

3 HUMAN INDUCED THREATS TO THE WETLAND

The world's surface freshwater wetland is rich in species composition and is a habitat for over
40% of plant and animal species (Zedler & Kercher 2005). They are particularly important in
Sub-Saharan African countries such as Ethiopia because they sustain agricultural livelihoods,
mainly in areas with low or unpredictable rainfall and land scarcity where uplands have poor soil
(Bezabih & Mosissa 2017, Menbere & Menbere 2018).

However, wetlands face a substantial threat due to human interaction, which indicates that
approximately 50% of the world's wetlands have been lost since 1900 (Bezabih & Mosissa 2017,
Hirpo 2018, Moges et al. 2018. Unregulated utilization of wetlands, including diversion of water
for agricultural intensification, urbanization, dam construction, population pressures, food
shortages, increased drainage and cultivation, and collection of sedges and reeds for roofing and
housing, were identified as major drivers of wetland degradation in Ethiopia (Bezabih & Mosissa
2017, Menbere & Menbere 2018).

However, wetlands face a substantial threat due to human interaction, which indicates that
approximately 50% of the world's wetlands have been lost since 1900 (Bezabih & Mosissa 2017,
Hirpo 2018, Moges et al. 2018. Unregulated utilization of wetlands, including diversion of water
for agricultural intensification, urbanization, dam construction, population pressures, food

5
shortages, increased drainage and cultivation, and collection of sedges and reeds for roofing and
housing, were identified as major drivers of wetland degradation in Ethiopia (Bezabih & Mosissa
2017, Menbere & Menbere 2018. Such drivers have resulted in wetland disturbances,
degradation, and loss, which ultimately can cause the elimination of native plant species,
encroachment of exotic species, and reduction of ecological and socioeconomic values of
wetlands in Ethiopia (Collins 2005, Mulatu et al. 2014.)

3.1 OVERGRAZING
Farmers in the study areas raised livestock for various purposes. The livestock species reared included
cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys and poultry. Based on the data obtained from kebele agricultural offices, the
total cattle, sheep, goats and donkey population in 2019 was estimated to be 16,372, 3034, 2203 and
1423, respectively .The livestock feed sources were grazing pasture, crop residues, crop aftermaths, hay,
weeds and agro-byproducts. Communal grazing pastures were the major source of livestock feed for all
herders. The contribution of grazing lands in supplying pasture, however, has declining for the last three
or more decades. The LULC pattern presented in annex 7 indicated that the grazing land had decreased by
27.4%. As other parts of Ethiopia (Belay and Mengistu, 2019; Birhanu et al., 2019; Hailu et al., 2020),
large areas of grazing lands had changed to cultivated lands. Most of the remaining communal grazing
lands were located in mountainous, sloppy and less fertile marginal lands and they were severely
degraded.Due to the shrinkage of grazing lands and their less productivity, livestock herders’ reliance on
Infranz wetland has increased. The cattle, shoats and donkeys of four KAs have freely set to graze and
browse in the wetland.

Poverty plays a great role in threaten wetlands. In an attempt to use wetland resources to make
their livelihood, people over exploit these resources . Vegetation resources in almost all wetlands
have been alarmingly denuded that siltation of water bodies is becoming major problem and
birds and other wild animals are leaving wetland areas because of nesting and resting shelters
distraction. This is due to the fact that trees have been cut down and grasses have been
overgrazed .Water abstraction for agricultural crop irrigation and industrial use is also severely
threatening some lakes including Lake Tana, Ziway, Abjata, Shalla, Abaya and Chemo.
Therefore, the economic factors are aggravated by poverty and population pressure. As
population pressure increases, the newly formed farm house holds i.e. the youth has limited
access to farmland. These farmers encroach in to wetlands and forest areas for conversion.
Moreover, poor households sell firewood and charcoal to cope with food insecurity.

6
According to, report in recent years, Lake Abijata and its associated wetlands are degrading
progressively due to natural and human factors such as farmland expansion, sand mining,
mineral salt extraction, over use of water for irrigation and other development intervention like
soda Ash factory are among major threats of wetland management.

3.2 IMPROPER AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES AND EXPANSIONS

Draining of wetlands for agricultural purpose is a century old practice in some parts of the
country mainly in Southwest Ethiopia. Long term draining interferes with the ecological
recovery of the wetland system and will fasten its drying up (Mc Kee, 2010). Draining of
wetlands for agricultural purpose is a century old practicing some parts of the country mainly
in Southwest Ethiopia Long term draining interferes with the ecological recovery of the
wetland system and will fasten its drying up (Mc Kee, 2010). Shortage of agricultural land
derived from increased human and livestock populations, the low awareness of communities
regarding the ecological benefits of wetlands and the lack of technical and financial support for
wetland conservation are underlying factors exerting pressure on the wetlands (EPA2004)The
natural resource base in Ethiopia such as land, wildlife and water are vital sources of domestic
and national income. Such provide the basis for farming, fishing, energy production and tourism.
However, these resources have been degraded due to high demand for agricultural land and
home energy use resulting from high population pressure. Hence, environmental degradation has
been and will remain a major cause of low agriculture production. Particularly, in Ethiopia,
wetlands are converted to farmland and sometimes used in uncoordinated way, due to lack of
information on its environmental benefits (Deribe S,2008) Wetland biodiversity are severely
affected and in great danger of being lost. Taffa (2008) describes in southwestern parts of
Ethiopia, Illu-Abba-Bora Zone, the percentage of the available wetlands under agriculture was
increased from 27.7 per cent in 2003 to 65.6 per cent in 2006

3.3 URBANIZATION AND INDUSTRIALIZATION

Wetland ecosystem such as rivers, lakes, marshes and rice fields provide benefiters that
contribute to human wellbeing. This includes fish and fiber, water supply, water purification,
climate regulation, flood regulation, recreational opportunities and increasing tourism. Ancient
time, human settlement follows river banks and lake shore areas. Wetlands (mainly rivers and

7
their associated flood plains) have been the heart of human civilization Maetos M 2004. Thus,
wetland systems have played key role throughout the development and survival of humanities.
Growing urbanization industrialization and unplanned tourism development activities around the
lake and river banks in lack of adequate infrastructural amenities have negatively affected
wetland recreational values. According to Dugan (1993) report the importance of water for urban
construction and dwellers is vital. Human activities such as settlement, grass and reed collection,
grazing, brick production, agriculture taking place in around the wetlands have imposed
undesirable impacts on wetlands. Wetlands degradation in Ethiopia is closely linked to the
development of urban centers countrywide. Ethiopian wetlands which are found near to urban
are suffering negative consequences from the expanding sectors sources (e.g. hotels, health
centers, households and factories). For instance, the amount of solid and liquid wastes generated
by different sources is increasing in size and composition. In addition to urbanization, industries
within the wetlands such as in Addis Ababa, Bahir Dar, Awash and Arba-Minch industry. Out
of these human origin disturbances 73% are thought to result from direct human actions, while
the remaining 27% are believed to come from indirect sources. Ayalew (2010 Stated that
wetlands in Lake Tana catchment are now threatened from sedimentation (silt load) as a result of
upstream intensive agricultural activities and deforestation. Invasive species such as water
hyacinth are becoming threats to aquatic ecosystem of the country. Deforestation and recession
agriculture coupled with high erosion from the high lands of Lake Tana catchment resulted in
high sediment deposition (average annual sediment yield of 30-65 tons/hectare; (Gebriye et al.
2009)

3.4 NATURAL AND ECOLOGICAL PROBLEMS

Climate change and recurrent droughts are threats to wetland ecosystems of the country
(EWNRA 2008; Matthew et al. 2006). An increase in temperature due to global warming is
generally affecting wetlands and other ecosystems. Such phenomena adversely affect
hydrological cycles, which in turn affect the biodiversity Industrial centers of Ethiopia such as
Addis Ababa, Mojo, Akaki, Hawassa and Bahir Dar are good example in sourcing different solid
and liquid effluents to their respective nearby wetlands (EWNRA 2008). The illegal settlements
in and around wetlands also affect the health and size of the wetlands significantly. Most of the
problems from urban to wet lands in Ethiopia are related to the absence of systems that collect
and manage solid and liquid wastes (Abebe and Geheb 2003).

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3.5 WEEK INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITY
Although the local institutions play a vital role in regulating wetland use, the local institutions set
up in Ethiopia are fragmented, and are unable to function effectively without the support of other
stakeholders such as governmental and non-governmental (NGOs) institutions (Wood ,2002).
The decision makers at all level of management (from the grass root level up to the higher
decision making body at different regions of the country) are not well informed on the
importance of management of wetlands, Lack of innovative researches, lack of skilled manpower
and finance, and lack of wetland management training programs in higher learning institutions
are also some of the major limitations for effective and efficient wetland management and
protection (Gashaw, 2014).Wetland management in Ethiopia also suffers from capacity
limitations such as lack of skilled manpower, finance and technology. Wetland focused training
programs are very scarce in higher learning institutions of the country. Institutions have
responsible for land administration, and other natural resources management. However, there is
little or no awareness of current status, threats or values of wetlands, lack of capacity to
implement the government police (EPA 2004), or even the need for their conservation and
sustainable utilization. Although there are various organizations/institutions with some sort of
wetland expertise and awareness, no coordination exists between these institutions for the
conservation, management and wise use of wetlands in Ethiopia Abebe Y,Gheb K(1997). Efforts
in wetlands management in Ethiopia are being challenged due to poor legal supports resulting
from insufficient political will that failed to incorporate sufficiently the sustainable management
of wetlands in the land use policy (Mengistu, 2003). A forestation and degradation of catchments
the major threats of wetland in Ethiopia are land degradation caused by deforestation,
overgrazing, unsustainable agriculture product of coffee that is generated from this plant directly
causes. The pollution of this coffee washing plant has also triggered the expansion of many
animal diseases.

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3.6 POPULATION PRESSURE AND OVEREXPLOITATION OF
WETLAND RESOURCES

Population growth and the concomitant demand for additional arable land are the main drivers of
human encroachment into the wetlands of Ethiopia (Simane, 2013). Furthermore, in Ethiopia, the
natural and artificial forests, which are very important biologically, are overused and abused by
the local people for the purpose of timber and fire wood (Tadesse, 2003).Wetland resources such
as salt and minerals, fishes, macrophytes, riparian vegetations, and other biodiversity’s are
depleting, and the major causes for these problems are the unregulated use and increased demand
of these resources, poverty of the society, population pressure and urban expansion (Vigot,
2006). In line with this, (Weisser, 2011) concluded that in many parts of the world, societies are
trying to increase their income and improve their livelihood at the expense of wetlands survival.
It is quite common to observe when the conversion of wetlands to another land use usually
results in adverse ecological impacts, salinization habitat degradation, destruction of traditional
production system, displacement of population, and water depletion (William, 2015). Because of
the disruption of natural processes by urbanization, agricultural intensification, dam construction,
pollution, water transfer, and other forms of interventions in the hydrological and ecological
systems, many wetlands have been lost in Ethiopia (Wood, 2002). The modernization of
agriculture and the expansion of capital-intensive agriculture such as flowers production in
greenhouse and fruit production are increasing demands of water for irrigation, which in turn has
a negative impact on wetlands water resources (Yeshaneh, 2013). As Abebe and Geheb (2003)
indicated Lake Chamo, Shalla, Abaya, Abijata, Ziway and Tana are among the lakes, which are
severely threatened due to water abstraction for either industrial or agricultural purposes. There
are the poorest households that mostly rely on the wetland since there is no other source to
sustain their livelihoods. Over harvesting of the wetland resources by the communities is also a
major threat to this ecosystem. Since the majority part of the wetland is under communal hand.
Wassie et al. (2012), noted that selective fishing in Lake Tana caused a 75% decline in
Labeobarbus species during 1990s.

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4 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Wetlands are defined as: “areas of marsh fen, peat land or water whether natural or artificial
permanent or temporary with water that is static or flowing fresh brackish or salt including areas
of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters. Wetlands are
distinctive ecosystem in between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems or are transitional zone
ecosystems between dry land and open water body. Accordingly, Ethiopia owns different types
of wetlands which have national, regional as well as global ecological and socio economic
significances. In spite of all their indispensable functions and values, these wetlands are in the
rapid crisis of deterioration due to neglect and unplanned and skewed development needs and
priorities. The degradation and loss of wetlands is a worldwide phenomenon and seems to
progress faster than in other ecosystems. Wetlands carry out a wide range of ecosystem services,
economic values and recreational values that contribute to human well-being such as food and
feed, construction materials, water supply, water purification, climate regulation, flood
regulation and recreational values. These include fish and fiber, water supply, water purification,
climate regulation, flood regulation, recreational opportunities and, increasingly, tourism

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