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Mobile Internet Protocol (or Mobile IP)

Mobile IP is a communication protocol (created by extending Internet Protocol, IP) that allows users
to move from one network to another with the same IP address. It ensures that the communication
will continue without the user’s sessions or connections being dropped. Imagine having a phone
number that stays the same no matter where you go. Mobile IP works similarly, ensuring that even if
your device changes its network connection, it can still communicate without interruption.

This is particularly useful for mobile devices like smartphones, laptops, and tablets, which frequently
switch between different networks, such as Wi-Fi and cellular. Mobile IP helps keep internet
connections stable and reliable, making it easier to stay connected while on the move.

Basic Terminologies Related to Mobile IP

• A Mobile Node (MN): It is the hand-held communication device that the user carries e.g. Cell
phone.

• A Home Network: It is a network to which the mobile node originally belongs as per its
assigned IP address (home address).

• Home Agent (HA): It is a router in-home network to which the mobile node was originally
connected

• Home Address: It is the permanent IP address assigned to the mobile node (within its home
network).

• Foreign Network: It is the current network to which the mobile node is visiting (away from its
home network).

• A Foreign Agent (FA): It is a router in a foreign network to which the mobile node is currently
connected. The packets from the home agent are sent to the foreign agent which delivers them
to the mobile node.

• The Correspondent Node (CN): It is a device on the internet communicating to the mobile
node.

• Care-of Address (COA): It is the temporary address used by a mobile node while it is moving
away from its home network.

• Foreign Agent COA: The COA could be located at the FA, i.e., the COA is an IP address of the
FA. The FA is the tunnel end-point and forwards packets to the MN. Many MN using the FA can
share this COA as a common COA.

• Co-Located COA: The COA is co-located if the MN temporarily acquires an additional IP

address that acts as a COA. This address is now topologically correct, and the tunnel endpoint
is at the MN. Co-located addresses can be acquired using services such as DHCP.
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Mobile IP Topology

How Does Mobile IP Work?

The correspondent node sends the data to the mobile node. Data packets contain the correspondent
node’s address (Source) and home address (Destination). Packets reach the home agent. But now
mobile node is not in the home network, it has moved into the foreign network. The foreign agent
sends the care-of-address to the home agent to which all the packets should be sent. Now, a tunnel
will be established between the home agent and the foreign agent by the process of tunneling.

Tunneling establishes a virtual pipe for the packets available between a tunnel entry and an endpoint.
It is the process of sending a packet via a tunnel and it is achieved by a mechanism called
encapsulation.

Now, the home agent encapsulates the data packets into new packets in which the source address is
the home address and the destination is the care-of-address and sends it through the tunnel to the
foreign agent. Foreign agent, on another side of the tunnel, receives the data packets, decapsulates
them, and sends them to the mobile node. The mobile node in response to the data packets received
sends a reply in response to the foreign agent. The foreign agent directly sends the reply to the
correspondent node.

Key Mechanisms in Mobile IP

• Agent Discovery: Agents advertise their presence by periodically broadcasting their agent
advertisement messages. The mobile node receiving the agent advertisement messages
observes whether the message is from its own home agent and determines whether it is in the
home network or foreign network.
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• Agent Registration: Mobile node after discovering the foreign agent sends a Registration
Request (RREQ) to the foreign agent. The foreign agent, in turn, sends the registration request
to the home agent with the care-of-address. The home agent sends a Registration Reply (RREP)
to the foreign agent. Then it forwards the registration reply to the mobile node and completes
the process of registration.

• Tunneling: It establishes a virtual pipe for the packets available between a tunnel entry and an
endpoint. It is the process of sending a packet via a tunnel and it is achieved by a mechanism
called encapsulation. It takes place to forward an IP datagram from the home agent to the
care-of-address. Whenever the home agent receives a packet from the correspondent node, it
encapsulates the packet with source address as home address and destination as care-of-
address.

Route Optimization in Mobile IP

The route optimization adds a conceptual data structure, the binding cache, to the correspondent
node. The binding cache contains bindings for the mobile node’s home address and its current care-
of-address. Every time the home agent receives an IP datagram that is destined to a mobile node
currently away from the home network, it sends a binding update to the correspondent node to
update the information in the correspondent node’s binding cache. After this, the correspondent node
can directly tunnel packets to the mobile node. Mobile IP is provided by the network providers.

OSI layer functions in mobile computing

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model defines a framework for networking that segments
network communication into seven distinct layers, each with specific functions. This layered
approach helps manage and troubleshoot complex networks, including mobile computing
environments where devices communicate wirelessly and often on the move.

Here's an overview of each OSI layer's role in mobile computing:

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1. Physical Layer (Layer 1)

• Function: Manages the physical connection between devices, including the transmission of
raw binary data (bits) over the medium (radio frequencies in mobile networks).

• In Mobile Computing: Deals with the wireless transmission technologies (e.g., radio waves,
Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, 4G/5G). It also includes signal modulation, frequency allocation, and power
management to maintain communication stability and reduce interference.

2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

• Function: Ensures reliable data transfer between adjacent network nodes, error checking, and
data framing. It also manages MAC (Medium Access Control) to determine which device
accesses the shared medium.

• In Mobile Computing: Handles MAC protocols specific to wireless environments (e.g.,

CSMA/CA in Wi-Fi), error correction to compensate for interference, and authentication and
encryption to secure data transfer in the wireless link.

3. Network Layer (Layer 3)

• Function: Manages logical addressing, routing, and packet forwarding across networks,
enabling devices to communicate across different segments.

• In Mobile Computing: Uses IP addresses to enable routing over the internet and cellular
networks. Supports mobile IP protocols, which allow devices to change networks without
losing connectivity, essential for handoffs in cellular networks as users move between cells.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4)

• Function: Ensures end-to-end data transfer reliability, segmentation, flow control, and error
recovery. It uses protocols like TCP (for reliable connections) and UDP (for faster,
connectionless communication).

• In Mobile Computing: Ensures that data sent from mobile devices reaches the destination
accurately. TCP handles retransmissions in cases of packet loss due to signal fluctuations,
while UDP supports low-latency services like streaming where speed is prioritized over
reliability.

5. Session Layer (Layer 5)

• Function: Manages and controls connections between devices, maintaining sessions

(persistent communication between two devices).

• In Mobile Computing: Essential for applications requiring continuous data exchange, such as
VoIP calls, online gaming, and streaming. It manages the start, maintenance, and termination
of sessions and can help resume sessions after interruptions, common in mobile
environments.

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

• Function: Transforms data into a format the application layer can understand. It handles data
encoding, encryption, and compression.
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• In Mobile Computing: Ensures compatibility across devices with different hardware and OS
configurations by encoding data into a universal format. It also provides data encryption and
compression to enhance security and efficiency, crucial for conserving bandwidth in mobile
networks.

7. Application Layer (Layer 7)

• Function: Provides a direct interface between the user and the network. It encompasses
protocols and services that enable applications like email, web browsing, and messaging.

• In Mobile Computing: Includes mobile applications and services (e.g., web browsers,
streaming apps, social media, cloud services). The application layer uses protocols such as
HTTP/HTTPS, FTP, and DNS to interact with remote servers, manage data, and authenticate
users.

Summary of OSI Layer Functions in Mobile Computing

OSI Layer Function Role in Mobile Computing

Wireless transmission (Wi-Fi, cellular), power

Physical Signal transmission
management

Manages wireless access, error correction,

Data Link MAC, error handling, framing
encryption

Mobile IP, handoffs between cells, network layer

Network Logical addressing, routing
security

Transport Data reliability, flow control Reliable delivery, session management (TCP, UDP)

Maintains persistent sessions, handles session

Session Connection management
disruptions

Data translation, encryption,

Presentation Data encryption/compression, format compatibility
compression

Mobile apps, HTTP/HTTPS, cloud services,

Application User interface, data management
multimedia streaming

What is TCP/IP Model?

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The TCP/IP model refers to the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol Model. This model is a
part of the network domain designed specifically for overseeing efficient and error-free transmission
of data.

The model works on a four-layered architecture model, where each layer implicit the required network
protocols on the data to be transmitted, which remodels the data to the most optimum structure for
efficient transmission over the network.

In this tutorial on what is TCP/IP model is, you will understand the working of each layer in detail to
better understand the functioning of the model.

Prerequisite Layers of OSI Model

To understand the OSI model, it is first necessary to understand the concept of layering. Layering is a
technique used in computer programming to divide a complex problem or system into smaller, more
manageable parts. The OSI model is a seven-layer model that divides the complexity of network
communications into seven smaller, more manageable parts, each responsible for a different aspect
of the communication process.

The seven layers of the OSI model are:

• Physical layer,

• Data link layer,

• Network layer,

• Transport layer.

• Session layer,

• Presentation layer,

• Application layer.

Each OSI model layer is responsible for a different aspect of the communication process.

Features of the TCP/IP Model

Below mentioned are some of the features that make the TCP/IP model stand out in the network
concepts:

• The TCP/IP model is among one of the most important network concepts that contributed to
the working of ARPANET.
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• The TCP/IP model comprises four layers: the network access layer, the internet layer, the
transport layer, and the application layer (going from bottom to top).

• The network model is implemented during network and communication-related issues.

• Communication between different modes of network devices is possible through the

application of various layers.

• The layers in the model provide maintenance of communication channels, flow control, and
reliability check format, among other applications in the form of protocols.

Layers of the TCP/IP Model

The TCP/IP model is divided into four different layers:

• Application layer

• Transport layer

• Internet layer

• Network Access layer

Each layer performs a specific task on the data that is being transmitted over the network channel,
and data moves from one layer to another in a preset pattern as mentioned below:

The above model represents the flow of data when it is being transmitted from the sender side. In the
case of data being received, the layers of the model work in reverse order.

Now, take a look at each of the layers in detail:

Application Layer
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This is the topmost layer which indicates the applications and programs that utilize the TCP/IP model
for communicating with the user through applications and various tasks performed by the layer,
including data representation for the applications executed by the user and forwards it to the
transport layer.

The application layer maintains a smooth connection between the application and user for data
exchange and offers various features as remote handling of the system, e-mail services, etc.

Some of the protocols used in this layer are:

• HTTP: Hypertext transfer protocol is used for accessing the information available on the
internet.

• SMTP: Simple mail transfer protocol, assigned the task of handling e-mail-related steps and
issues.

• FTP: This is the standard protocol that oversees the transfer of files over the network channel.

Now, move on to the next layer,

This layer is responsible for establishing the connection between the sender and the receiver device
and also performs the task of dividing the data from the application layer into packets, which are then
used to create sequences.

It also performs the task of maintaining the data, i.e., to be transmitted without error, and controls the
data flow rate over the communication channel for smooth transmission of data.

The protocols used in this layer are:

• TCP: Transmission Control Protocol is responsible for the proper transmission of segments
over the communication channel. It also establishes a network connection between the
source and destination system.

• UDP: User Datagram Protocol is responsible for identifying errors, and other tasks during the
transmission of information. UDP maintains various fields for data transmission such as:
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• Source Port Address: This port is responsible for designing the application that makes up the
message to be transmitted.

• Destination Port Address: This port receives the message sent from the sender side.

• Total Length: The total number of bytes of the user datagram.

• Checksum: Used for error detection of the message at the destination side.

Moving on to the next layer, you have:

Internet Layer

The Internet layer performs the task of controlling the transmission of the data over the network
modes and enacts protocols related to the various steps related to the transmission of data over the
channel, which is in the form of packets sent by the previous layer.

This layer performs many important functions in the TCP/IP model, some of which are:

1. It is responsible for specifying the path that the data packets will use for transmission.

2. This layer is responsible for providing IP addresses to the system for the identification matters
over the network channel.

Some of the protocols applied in this layer are:

• IP: This protocol assigns your device with a unique address; the IP address is also responsible
for routing the data over the communication channel.

• ARP: This protocol refers to the Address Resolution Protocol that is responsible for finding the
physical address using the IP address.

The last layer in the network model is the network access layer.

Network Access Layer

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This layer is the combination of data-link and physical layer, where it is responsible for maintaining the
task of sending and receiving data in raw bits, i.e., in binary format over the physical communication
modes in the network channel.

• It uses the physical address of the system for mapping the path of transmission over the
network channel.

• Till this point in this tutorial on what is TCP/IP model, you understood the basic idea behind the
model and details about its layers, now compare the model with another network model.

How Does TCP/IP Work?

The TCP/IP protocol suite is the set of communication protocols used to connect hosts on the
Internet. TCP/IP allows computers on the same network to identify and communicate with each other.
TCP/IP is a two-layer protocol, with the transport layer (TCP) responsible for reliable end-to-end
communication and the Internet layer (IP) accountable for routing packets from the host to the host.

• At the transport layer, TCP provides a reliable byte-stream service to applications. TCP
guarantees the delivery of data and that data will be delivered in the same order in which it was
sent. TCP uses several mechanisms to provide this service, including sequence numbers,
acknowledgments, and timeouts.

• At the Internet layer, IP is responsible for routing datagrams (packets) from host to host. IP
does not guarantee the delivery of datagrams, but it tries to deliver them as best. If a datagram
cannot be delivered, IP will return an error message to the source host.

The TCP/IP protocol suite is the most commonly used protocol suite on the Internet today, and it is
also the protocol suite used by most LANs and WANs.

Packet Delivery and handover management

Terminology in Mobile IP

1.Mobile Node (MN)

2.Home agent (HA)

3.Foreign agent (FA)

4.Home network

5.Foreign network

6.Correspondent node (CN)

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1.Mobile Node(MN) is not present in Home Network(HN).

2.MN is present is in Foreign Network(FN).

3.All the information regarding MN has Stored in Router FA.

4.Home Network has no location information regarding Mobile Node(MN).

For communication between CN and MN there must be a Dedicated Link.

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Step:1:CN sends request for location information to the HN, that means it sends the IP address of
MN.

Step:2

There is no information regarding MN at HN, it sends a request to the foreign Network through router
Foreign Agent.
The IP address of MN is encapsulated COA(Care of Address).
FA router decapsulated the received information.
Step:3

1.Router FA sends a request for location information of MN to the foreign Network.

2.After getting the location information from foreign network, the router FA sends these location
information to the Home Network through router HA.

3.Home Network sends the location information to the CN.

Now the Correspondent node is available with the location information of MN.
Step-4

1.After getting location information of MN, a dedicated link can be established in between
MN and CN directly.
After establishment of link information can be transmitted or received by the node.
Location Management:
Location management in mobile computing is the process of determining a mobile user's
current location and delivering calls efficiently. It involves:
• Location updates: When a mobile device changes location, it updates its location.
• Paging: When a mobile device wants to communicate with another device whose
location is unknown, it sends a paging signal.
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• Search-updates: After a successful search, the location information of the searched
device is updated at some hosts.
Location management is important in mobile computing and uses a variety of techniques,
including:
• GPS
The most common technology for tracking a user's location, GPS uses timing signals from
satellites to calculate the user's location.
• Location databases
Information is stored in location databases, such as the Home Location Register (HLR) and
Visitor Location Register (VLR).
• Location management schemes
There are various types of location management schemes, including mobility-based, data
replication-based, and signal attenuation-based.
Location management is also used in location-based services (LBS), which are software
services that require knowledge of a mobile device's location.
Agent discovery in mobile computing
ChatGPT said:
ChatGPT
Agent Discovery in mobile computing is the process by which a mobile device, also known as
a mobile agent or client, locates and identifies other network components (agents) such as
servers, routers, or other mobile devices to establish communication, exchange data, or
receive services. This process is essential for enabling mobility in networks, ensuring that
devices can connect seamlessly and maintain services as they move.
Key Types of Agent Discovery
1. Mobile Agent and Home Agent Discovery
o In Mobile IP (used to support mobility across IP networks), Mobile Agents are
devices that move between networks while maintaining their IP address.
o The Home Agent (HA) is a network router on the mobile agent's home network
that helps reroute data when the mobile device is in a foreign network.
o Discovery Process:
▪ The mobile agent sends out discovery requests to find the HA and
establish registration.
▪ Once registered, the HA can forward data to the mobile agent's current
location by tunneling it through a Foreign Agent (FA) in the visited
network.
2. Foreign Agent Discovery
o When a mobile agent moves to a foreign network, it needs to find a Foreign
Agent (FA) that provides connectivity and acts as an intermediary to its Home
Agent.
o The FA advertises its presence using Agent Advertisement Messages or
responds to Agent Solicitation Messages from mobile agents.
o This process is critical for managing handoffs and ensuring that devices
maintain ongoing connections even as they move across different networks.
3. Service Discovery Protocols
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o Service discovery protocols, such as Universal Plug and Play (UPnP), Bonjour,
and Service Location Protocol (SLP), allow mobile devices to locate services
and resources on a network.
o These protocols enable mobile devices to find printers, file shares, media
servers, and other resources in the network.
o Zero-Configuration Networking: Some protocols, like Zeroconf, allow devices
to discover each other automatically on a local network without any manual
configuration, which is helpful for IoT devices and smart home networks.
Methods of Agent Discovery
1. Agent Advertisement:
o Agents periodically broadcast Agent Advertisement Messages over the
network to announce their presence.
o Mobile devices listening for these advertisements can detect the available
agents and initiate communication when needed.
o This method is proactive and allows devices to discover agents automatically
without explicitly requesting them.
2. Agent Solicitation:
o When a mobile device does not receive an advertisement from an agent within a
set period, it can send an Agent Solicitation Message to prompt nearby agents
to respond.
o This method is reactive and ensures that devices can initiate discovery actively,
improving connection reliability and reducing latency in finding agents.
Mobile TCP (M-TCP) is a modified version of the traditional TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol) designed specifically to address the challenges of mobile computing. Mobile
devices experience issues like variable signal strength, handoffs between cells, and limited
bandwidth, which can negatively impact the performance of standard TCP. M-TCP aims to
enhance the performance of TCP in mobile environments by addressing these issues without
requiring extensive changes to existing infrastructure.
Challenges of Standard TCP in Mobile Environments
1. Frequent Disconnections: Mobile devices can frequently lose connectivity due to
signal fading, physical obstructions, or moving between cells, leading to high packet
loss.
2. High Latency: Due to factors like long propagation delays, cellular network traffic, and
limited processing power in mobile devices, latency can increase.
3. Low and Variable Bandwidth: Bandwidth is often limited and can vary widely, making it
difficult for TCP to efficiently manage congestion and data flow.
4. Handoffs and Network Changes: Mobile devices often move across different
networks, which can disrupt ongoing TCP sessions.
Features of Mobile TCP (M-TCP)
M-TCP addresses these challenges with mechanisms that modify standard TCP behavior to
adapt to mobile environments. Key features of M-TCP include:
1. Split-TCP Architecture:
o M-TCP separates the communication path into two segments: the fixed network
part (between the sender and the base station) and the wireless link part
(between the base station and the mobile device).
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o This split allows the mobile and fixed segments to handle data transmission
independently, optimizing performance for each part.
2. Supervisory Host (SH):
o M-TCP introduces an intermediary called the Supervisory Host (usually the base
station or a dedicated server) to manage communication between the fixed
network and the mobile device.
o The SH monitors the mobile device’s connection, handling acknowledgments
and retransmissions when necessary, which reduces load on the mobile device
and minimizes unnecessary retransmissions.
3. Freeze and Thaw Mechanism:
o When the Supervisory Host detects that a mobile device is disconnected (e.g.,
during a handoff or signal fade), it freezes the TCP window size, preventing the
sender from increasing the congestion window size.
o Once the mobile device reconnects, the SH "thaws" the connection, allowing
data flow to resume without triggering TCP’s congestion control mechanisms.
4. Optimized Congestion Control:
o M-TCP reduces the need for congestion control adjustments due to packet loss
in the wireless link. The freeze/thaw mechanism ensures that congestion control
isn’t triggered by mobility-related issues, which helps maintain stable data rates.
5. Selective Retransmissions:
o To avoid resending an entire packet, M-TCP supports selective retransmissions,
where only lost packets are resent instead of entire windows. This conserves
bandwidth and reduces latency on the wireless link.
Benefits of M-TCP
1. Reduced Latency and Packet Loss: By preventing unnecessary congestion control
triggers, M-TCP reduces delays and improves data flow in variable network conditions.
2. Energy Efficiency: Freezing data transmission during disconnections conserves
battery and reduces network load.
3. Stable Data Transmission: The split-connection model stabilizes data flow,
particularly in networks with high variability.
4. Seamless Handoff Support: M-TCP is designed to handle handoffs smoothly by
pausing data transfer during disconnections and resuming it without reinitiating the
session.
Use Cases for M-TCP
1. Mobile Internet Browsing and Streaming: M-TCP’s efficient data transfer management
improves the experience for mobile users who browse the web or stream multimedia in
areas with fluctuating connectivity.
2. Remote Work Applications: Real-time applications such as remote work tools (e.g.,
video conferencing, remote desktop) benefit from the seamless connection
management of M-TCP.
3. IoT and Vehicle Communications: M-TCP is also useful in IoT or vehicle networks
where devices are constantly on the move and require stable data flow.
M-TCP is a practical solution for environments with high mobility and varying connectivity
quality, optimizing TCP’s performance for mobile applications without requiring significant
changes to the network or TCP protocol itself.
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Snooping TCP
Snooping TCP is a technique used to enhance the performance of TCP over wireless networks
by minimizing the impact of packet loss due to wireless issues, such as interference or signal
fading, on the overall data transmission. In wireless environments, standard TCP often
interprets packet loss as a sign of network congestion, triggering congestion control
mechanisms that reduce throughput. Snooping TCP (also called TCP Snoop Protocol) was
developed to address this issue by introducing a mechanism at the base station to manage
and intercept TCP packets locally, providing more reliable data transmission.
Working Mechanism of Snooping TCP
1. Data Packet Flow:
o When a TCP data packet from the sender arrives at the base station, the base
station caches it before forwarding it to the mobile device.
2. ACK Monitoring:
o The base station monitors for ACKs from the mobile device. If an ACK is
received, the base station clears the corresponding data packet from its cache.
3. Handling Packet Loss:
o If the base station does not receive an ACK for a packet within a specific
timeframe, it assumes the packet was lost on the wireless link and retransmits it
directly to the mobile device.
4. End-to-End TCP Control:
o In cases where packet loss is due to actual network congestion (beyond the
wireless link), the sender can still perform its standard TCP congestion control.
Snooping TCP only handles losses on the wireless link to prevent unnecessary
congestion window reduction.
Benefits of Snooping TCP
1. Reduced End-to-End Delay:
o By managing packet loss locally at the base station, Snooping TCP reduces the
time required to recover lost packets, enhancing performance for applications
that need low-latency communication.
2. Minimized Congestion Control Activation:
o Since losses on the wireless link are handled locally, the sender does not
unnecessarily reduce its congestion window, maintaining a more stable
throughput.
3. Higher Throughput:
o Snooping TCP ensures that packet retransmissions are confined to the wireless
segment, which improves data flow efficiency over the entire path and increases
the throughput, especially in mobile networks with high packet loss rates.
4. Compatibility with Standard TCP:
o Since Snooping TCP does not require any modification to the sender’s or
receiver’s TCP protocol stack, it is easy to implement without compatibility
issues.
Use Cases for Snooping TCP
1. Mobile Internet Browsing and Real-Time Applications:
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o Mobile devices accessing web pages, video streams, or real-time applications
benefit from the reduced packet loss and improved data flow, ensuring
smoother interactions and faster load times.
2. Wireless Networks with Interference:
o In environments where interference or signal fluctuations are common,
Snooping TCP helps maintain stable performance by managing packet loss
locally at the base station.
3. Remote Work and Telecommunication Services:
o For video calls, VoIP, and remote work tools, Snooping TCP reduces
interruptions due to wireless link loss, improving communication quality for
mobile users.
Introduction of Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET)
MANET stands for Mobile Adhoc Network also called a wireless adhoc network or Adhoc
wireless network that usually has a routable networking environment on top of a Link Layer ad
hoc network. They consist of a set of mobile nodes connected wirelessly in a self-configured,
self-healing network without having a fixed infrastructure. MANET nodes are free to move
randomly as the network topology changes frequently. Each node behaves as a router as it
forwards traffic to other specified nodes in the network.
What is MANET?
A MANET is a decentralized wireless network consisting of mobile devices (nodes) that
communicate with each other without relying on a fixed infrastructure. MANET forms a highly
dynamic autonomous topology with the presence of one or multiple different transceivers
between nodes. MANETs consist of a peer-to-peer, self-forming, self-healing network MANETs
circa 2000-2015 typically communicate at radio frequencies (30MHz-5GHz). This can be used
in road safety, ranging from sensors for the environment, home, health, disaster rescue
operations, air/land/navy defense, weapons, robots, etc.
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Characteristics of MANET
• Dynamic Topologies: Network topology which is typically multihop may change
randomly and rapidly with time, it can form unidirectional or bi-directional links.
• Bandwidth constrained, variable capacity links: Wireless links usually have lower
reliability, efficiency, stability, and capacity as compared to a wired network
• Autonomous Behavior: Each node can act as a host and router, which shows its
autonomous behavior.
• Energy Constrained Operation: As some or all the nodes rely on batteries or other
exhaustible means for their energy. Mobile nodes are characterized by less memory,
power, and lightweight features.
• Limited Security: Wireless networks are more prone to security threats. A
centralized firewall is absent due to the distributed nature of the operation for security,
routing, and host configuration.
• Less Human Intervention: They require minimum human intervention to configure the
network, therefore they are dynamically autonomous in nature.
Advantages of MANET
• Separation from central network administration.
• Each node can play both the roles ie. of router and host showing autonomous nature.
• Self-configuring and self-healing nodes do not require human intervention.
• Highly scalable and suits the expansion of more network hub.
Disadvantages of MANET
• Resources are limited due to various constraints like noise, interference conditions,
etc.
• Lack of authorization facilities.
• More prone to attacks due to limited physical security.
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• High latency i.e. There is a huge delay in the transfer of data between two sleeping
nodes.
Improvement in MANET
• Quality of Service (QoS): Researchers are working to improve the quality of service of
MANET by developing efficient routing protocols that provide better bandwidth,
throughput, and latency.
• Security: To ensure the security of the MANET, researchers are developing efficient
security mechanisms that provide encryption, authentication, and
authorization facilities.
• Power management: To enhance the lifetime of MANET nodes, researchers are
working on developing efficient power management techniques that reduce the energy
consumption of nodes.
• Multimedia support: Researchers are working to provide multimedia support to
MANET by developing efficient routing protocols that can handle multimedia traffic
efficiently.
• Standardization: To ensure the interoperability of different MANET devices,
researchers are working on developing standard protocols and interfaces that can be
used by different MANET devices.
Applications of MANET
• Military and Defense Operations
• Healthcare
• Sensor Networks
• Wireless Sensor Networks
• Internet of Things (IoT)

Security in Ad-hoc network;

ChatGPT said:
ChatGPT
Security in Ad-hoc networks is challenging due to their decentralized, dynamic, and often
temporary nature. Unlike traditional networks that rely on fixed infrastructure like routers or
access points, ad-hoc networks consist of mobile nodes that directly communicate with each
other, making them highly susceptible to various security threats. Protecting ad-hoc networks
involves addressing the unique vulnerabilities that arise from these features and ensuring
confidentiality, integrity, and availability.
Key Security Challenges in Ad-hoc Networks
1. Lack of Centralized Control:
o There is no central authority to oversee and manage security policies or
authenticate nodes, which makes traditional centralized security mechanisms
ineffective.
2. Dynamic Topology:
o Nodes in ad-hoc networks frequently move, which changes the network
topology and may introduce new nodes, making it challenging to establish
stable security relationships.
3. Resource Constraints:
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o Nodes are often limited in processing power, battery, and memory, constraining
the complexity and type of security measures that can be implemented.
4. Physical Vulnerability:
o Nodes can be easily captured or physically compromised, leading to potential
extraction of sensitive information or unauthorized access.
5. Multi-Hop Communication:
o Since nodes rely on each other to forward data to destinations beyond their
transmission range, compromised nodes can disrupt or intercept
communication.
Security Threats in Ad-hoc Networks
1. Eavesdropping:
o Malicious nodes may intercept and capture data packets transmitted over the
network, compromising confidentiality.
2. Denial of Service (DoS) Attacks:
o Attackers can flood the network with traffic, consume resources, or drop
packets, disrupting network services.
3. Man-in-the-Middle (MITM) Attacks:
o In a MITM attack, an attacker intercepts and possibly alters messages between
two nodes, creating a breach of confidentiality and data integrity.
4. Impersonation Attacks:
o Malicious nodes can impersonate other legitimate nodes, gaining unauthorized
access to sensitive information or disrupting the network.
5. Routing Attacks:
o Attacks such as black hole, wormhole, Sybil, and routing table overflow
attacks aim to manipulate routing information to misroute or drop packets.
6. Replay Attacks:
o An attacker can capture legitimate packets and resend them at a later time,
causing disruptions in network behavior.
Security Mechanisms for Ad-hoc Networks
1. Authentication:
o Mutual Authentication ensures that each node verifies the identity of other
nodes it communicates with, preventing impersonation attacks.
o Digital Signatures and Certificates: Public key infrastructure (PKI) with
certificates can verify node identities, but the lack of a central authority makes
this challenging.
o Distributed Authentication Schemes: In these schemes, multiple nodes
participate in authenticating a node, eliminating the need for a central authority.
2. Encryption:
o Symmetric Encryption: Encrypts data using a shared key. It is efficient but
requires secure key distribution.
o Asymmetric Encryption: Uses public and private keys to encrypt data,
providing robust security but requiring more computational power.
3. Secure Routing Protocols:
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o Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) Protocol with Security
Extensions: Adds security to the AODV protocol to prevent routing attacks like
black holes and wormholes.
o Secure Dynamic Source Routing (S-DSR): Extends DSR by adding
cryptographic checks to prevent tampering with route data.
o Authenticated Routing for Ad-hoc Networks (ARAN): Uses certificates to
authenticate routing messages, adding security against impersonation and
routing attacks.

Wireless Sensor Network (WSN)

Wireless Sensor Network (WSN), is an infrastructure-less wireless network that is deployed
in a large number of wireless sensors in an ad-hoc manner that is used to monitor the system,
physical, or environmental conditions.
Sensor nodes are used in WSN with the onboard processor that manages and monitors the
environment in a particular area. They are connected to the Base Station which acts as a
processing unit in the WSN System. The base Station in a WSN System is connected through
the Internet to share data. WSN can be used for processing, analysis, storage, and mining of
the data.

Wireless Sensor Network Architecture

A Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) architecture is structured into three main layers:
• Physical Layer: This layer connects sensor nodes to the base station using
technologies like radio waves, infrared, or Bluetooth. It ensures the physical
communication between nodes and the base station.
• Data Link Layer: Responsible for establishing a reliable connection between sensor
nodes and the base station. It uses protocols such as IEEE 802.15.4 to manage data
transmission and ensure efficient communication within the network.
• Application Layer: Enables sensor nodes to communicate specific data to the base
station. It uses protocols like ZigBee to define how data is formatted, transmitted, and
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received, supporting various applications such as environmental monitoring or
industrial control.
These layers work together to facilitate the seamless operation and data flow within a Wireless
Sensor Network, enabling efficient monitoring and data collection across diverse applications.
WSN Network Topologies
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) can be organized into different network topologies based
on their application and network type. Here are the most common types:
• Bus Topology: In a Bus Topology, multiple nodes are connected to a single line or bus.
Data travels along this bus from one node to the next. It’s a simple layout often used in
smaller networks.
• StarTopology: Star Topology have a central node, called the master node, which
connects directly to multiple other nodes. Data flows from the master node to the
connected nodes. This topology is efficient for centralized control.
• Tree Topology: Tree Topology arrange nodes in a hierarchical structure resembling a
tree. Data is transmitted from one node to another along the branches of the tree
structure. It’s useful for expanding coverage in hierarchical deployments.
• Mesh Topology: Mesh Topology feature nodes interconnected with one another,
forming a mesh-like structure. Data can travel through multiple paths from one node to
another until it reaches its destination. This topology offers robust coverage and
redundancy.
Each topology has its advantages and is chosen based on factors such as coverage area,
scalability, and reliability requirements for the specific WSN application.
Types of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN)
Terrestrial Wireless Sensor Networks
• Used for efficient communication between base stations.
• Consist of thousands of nodes placed in an ad hoc (random) or structured (planned)
manner.
• Nodes may use solar cells for energy efficiency.
• Focus on low energy use and optimal routing for efficiency.
Underground Wireless Sensor Networks
• Nodes are buried underground to monitor underground conditions.
• Require additional sink nodes above ground for data transmission.
• Face challenges like high installation and maintenance costs.
• Limited battery life and difficulty in recharging due to underground setup.
Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks
• Deployed in water environments using sensor nodes and autonomous underwater
vehicles.
• Face challenges like slow data transmission, bandwidth limitations, and signal
attenuation.
• Nodes have restricted and non-rechargeable power sources.
Multimedia Wireless Sensor Networks
• Used to monitor multimedia events such as video, audio, and images.
• Nodes equipped with microphones and cameras for data capture.
• Challenges include high power consumption, large bandwidth requirements, and
complex data processing.
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• Designed for efficient wireless data compression and transmission.
Mobile Wireless Sensor Networks (MWSNs)
• Composed of mobile sensor nodes capable of independent movement.
• Offer advantages like increased coverage area, energy efficiency, and channel capacity
compared to static networks.
• Nodes can sense, compute, and communicate while moving in the environment.
Each type of Wireless Sensor Network is tailored to specific environmental conditions and
applications, utilizing different technologies and strategies to achieve efficient data collection
and communication.
Applications of WSN
• Internet of Things (IoT)
• Surveillance and Monitoring for security, threat detection
• Environmental temperature, humidity, and air pressure
• Noise Level of the surrounding
• Medical applications like patient monitoring
• Agriculture
• Landslide Detection
Challenges of WSN
• Quality of Service
• Security Issue
• Energy Efficiency
• Network Throughput
• Performance
• Ability to cope with node failure
• Cross layer optimisation
• Scalability to large scale of deployment