Ministry of Higher Education and Scienti…c Research

National Higher School of Cybersecurity

1st Year Integrated Preparatory Cycle Academic year : 2024 -2025
Mathematical Analysis 1

The Set of Real Numbers

Draft Version
October 2024
Dr Belkacem Chaouchi

1 Real Numbers and some Subsets of Real Numbers

we will use speci…c notations to designate some famous or well known sets of numbers

N : The set of natural numbers.i.e N = f1; 2; 3; 4; :::g

Z : The set of integers i.e Z = f 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; :::g

All these are in…nite sets and it is clear that

N Z:

Remark 1. We can write

Z = Z+ [ Z ;
where
Z =f 3; 2; 1; 0g
and
Z+ = f0; 1; 2; 3; :::g :
De…nition 1. (Rational Numbers ) A rational number is a number that can be expressed
as a ratio (fraction) of two integers (with the second integer not equal to zero). Hence, a
p
rational number can be written as for some integers p and q , where q 6= 0. This set is
q
designated by a capital Q and one has
p
Q := : p 2 Z; q 2 N :
q
3 6 3 3 6
Example 1. ; = ; ; = 6:
7 4 2 2 1
Remark 2. it is easy to see that
N Z Q:
De…nition 2. (Irrational Numbers ) An irrational number is a real number that can
not be expressed as a ratio (fraction) of two integers..
p
Proposition 1. 2 is an irrational number.
 p
Proof. Let us assume on the contrary that 2 is a rational number. Then, there exist
positive integers a and b such that
p a
2=
b
a
we assume also that is in its lowest term which means that a and b are coprime (relatively
b
prime or mutually prime) i.e. This is equivalent to their greatest common divisor
(GCD) being 1. Then
p 2 a 2 a2
2 = )2= ) 2b2 = a2 ) 2b2 = a2
b b2
this implies that a2 is an even integer which also implies that a is an even integer. At
this level, we deduce that

a = 2k for some integer k (i)

and one has

2b2 = 4k 2 ) b2 = 2k 2 (ii)
which implies b2 is an even integer which also implies that b is an even integer. that
From (i) and (ii), we obtain that 2 is a common factor of a and b. But, this contradicts
the fact that a and
pb have no common factor other than 1. This means that our supposition
is wrong. Hence, 2 is an irrational number.
At this level, the set Q is probably the largest system of numbers with which you feel
comfortable.
Real numbers The set of real numbers is denoted by R and contains all of the previous
number types
N Z Q R:
We can represent the real numbers by the set of points on a line. The origin corresponds
to the number 0. Numbers on the right of 0 are positive or > 0 and numbers on the left
of 0 are negative or < 0.

2 (R; +; ; ) as a complete totally ordered …eld

2.1 Basic notions
De…nition 3. The …eld of real numbers R is a set with two operations addition and
multiplication and a binary relation termed "less then or equal" de…ned with following
axioms

R1_ (8x; y; z 2 R) : (x + y) + z = x + (y + z) associative law for addition

R2_ (90 2 R) (8x 2 R) : 0 + x = x + 0 = x existence of the additive identity element

R3_ (8x 2 R) (9 x 2 R) : x + ( x) = ( x) + x = 0 existence of the additive inverse

R4_ (8x; y; z 2 R) : x + y = y + x commutative law for addition

R5_ (8x; y; z 2 R) : (x:y) :z = x: (y:z) associative law for multiplication

R6_ (91 2 R f0g) (8x 2 R) : 1:x = x:1 = x existence of the multiplicative identity
element
1
R7_ (8x 2 R f0g) (9x 2R f0g) : x 1 :x = x:x 1
= 1 existence of the multiplica-
tive inverse

R8_ (8x; y; z 2 R) : x: (y + z) = x:y + x:z distributive law of multiplication over addition

R9_ (8x; y; z 2 R) : x:y = y:x commutative law for addition

Example 2. Prove that (8a; b; c 2 R) : a + c = b + c ) a = b

One has
a + c + ( c) = b + c + ( c)
then a + 0 = b + 0 then a = b
Example 3. Prove that 8a 2 R : a:0 = 0
One has
a:0 = a: (0 + 0) = a:0 + a:0
then a:0 = 0:
De…nition 4.

The set R.has an order structure

The set of real numbers R is equipped with an order relation denoted by ” ,” which
means for any x; y 2 R , we have x y. Whether this is true or false depends on the values
of x and y. This order relation satis…es the following properties:

R10. (8x; y; z 2 R) : x y and y z )x z transitivity property of the binary

relation

De…nition 5.

R11_ (8x; y 2 R) : x y and y x ) x = y antisymmetric property of the binary

relation

R12_ (8x; y 2 R) : x y or y x total ordering of of the binary relation

Exercise 1. Show that for every x; y; x0 ; y 0 2 R it holds

1. x 0 = 0

2. ( x) :y = xy

3. x ( y) = (xy) = (xy)
 4. x 0, x 0

5. x y, x y

1. One has
x 0 = x (0 + 0) = x:0 + x:0 ) x:0 = 0:

2. since ( x) + x = 0; we have

xy + ( x) y = [x + ( x)] y = 0:y = 0

) xy = ( x) y

Example 2.1. What can we say about a real number x such that:

1. 8" > 0, x 4000":we say that x = 0

2. 8" > 0, 4" x ", we say that x = 0

3. 8" > 0, 4+" x < ", we say that 4 x 0

Exercise 2. Let , and be three real numbers such that

p p p p
= 20 + 14 2; = 20 14 2; = 3 + 3

Show that is solution of

3
6 40 = 0 (2.1)
and that 2 Q.

2.1.1 The Axiom of Archimedes

Axiom 1. .For an arbitrary real number b, there exists a natural number n larger than
b
b
If we replace b by (where a and b are positive numbers) in the above axiom, we get the
a
following consequence:
If a and b are arbitrary positive numbers, then there exists a natural number n such that

na > b:
1
And if instead of b we write , where " > 0, then we get:
"
Axiom 2. If " is an arbitrary positive number, then there exists a natural number n such
1
that < "
n
An important consequence of the axiom of Archimedes is that the rational numbers are
“everywhere dense”within the real numbers.
Theorem 2. There exists a rational number between any two real numbers
3 The absolute value of a real number
De…nition 6. The absolute value of a real a is de…ned by
8
< x if x > 0
jxj = 0 if x = 0
:
x if x < 0

3.0.2 Properties
Let x; y in R

1. jxj = 0 , x = 0

2. jxj x jxj

3. 8a > 0 : jxj a, a x a

4. 8a > 0 : jxj a,x a or x a

5. Triangular inequality: jx + yj jxj + jyj

6. Second triangular inequality: jjxj jyjj jx yj

Proof. One have for all x; y 2 R :

5.

jx + yj2 = (x + y)2
= x2 + y 2 + 2xy
= jxj2 + jyj2 + 2xy

we know that
8a 2 R; a jaj
then

jx + yj2 = jxj2 + jyj2 + 2xy

jxj2 + jyj2 + 2 jxyj = (jxj + jyj)2

6. We write
jxj = j(x y) + yj
by the triangular inequality, we get

jxj jx yj + jyj ) jxj jyj jx yj

We do the same for jyj, one …nds

jyj = j(y x) + xj jy xj + jxj ) jyj jxj jy xj = jx yj

 then
jx yj jxj jyj jx yj
then
jjxj jyjj jx yj

Exercise 3. Show that for all x; y in R

jx + yj jxj jyj
+
1 + jx + yj 1 + jxj 1 + jyj

Let x; y in R: One has

jx + yj 1 1
=1
1 + jx + yj 1 + jx + yj
Observe that
1 1
1 + jx + yj 1 + jxj + jyj )
1 + jx + yj 1 + jxj + jyj
1 1
)
1 + jx + yj 1 + jxj + jyj
1 1
) 1 1
1 + jx + yj 1 + jxj + jyj
jx + yj jxj + jyj jxj jyj
) +
1 + jx + yj 1 + jxj + jyj 1 + jxj 1 + jyj

4 Intervals in R
The naive de…nition of a real interval is the set of all real numbers lying between any two
numbers. More precisely

De…nition 7. A non-empty subset I of R is called an interval if 8a; b 2 I satisfying a b,

the relation a x b implies x 2 I:

Example 4. Let A be a non-empty subset of R de…ned as

1
A= ;n 2 N
n
1 1
A is not an interval. For example, if we take a = and b = which are elements of A
2 3
2
and x = which lies between a and b but it is not in A
5
We distinguish several forms of intervals:
4.0.3 1-Bounded intervals
Let a and b in R such that b > a
Open interval The set fx 2 R : a < x < bg is called open interval and we give this usual
notation
]a; b[= fx 2 R; a < x < bg
The points a and b are called the endpoints of the interval. Furthermore, one has

]a; a[ = ;:

We list below other type of intervals

Closed interval
[a; b] = fx 2 R; a x bg
Half-open interval (left-open)

]a; b] = fx 2 R; a < x bg

Half-open interval (right-open)

[a; b[= fx 2 R; a x < bg

5 The Integer part of a real number

For any real number x 2 R we denote by [x] the integer part of x de…ned as follows

E(x) = [x] = max (n 2 Z : n x)

p
Example 5. E(e) = 2; E 2 = 1, E( ) = 4, and E( 5; 2) = 6.

Consequently, E(x) is the unique integer that satis…es

E(x) x < E(x) + 1

Properties Let x; y 2 R, we have:

1. 8k 2 Z; E(x + k) = E(x) + k

0 x 2 Z;
2. E(x) + E( x) =
1 x 2 R=Z:

3. x 1 < E(x) x

4. x y ) E(x) E(y)

5. E(x) + E(y) E(x + y) E(x) + E(y) + 1:

Proof. we just give the demonstration of some properties

 1. Let k 2 Z and x 2 R. One has

E(x) x < E(x) + 1

) E(x) + k x + k < E(x) + 1 + k
) (E(x) + k) x + k < (E(x) + k) + 1

the uniqueness of the integer part implies that

E(x + k) = E(x) + k

2. Let x 2 R. One has

E(x) x < E(x) + 1
multiplying by 1; we get

E(x) 1< x E(x)

keeping in mind that x 2 R=Z then

E(x) 6= x

then

E(x) 1 < x< E(x)

) E(x) 1 x< E(x)
) E(x) 1 x< f E(x) 1g + 1

the uniqueness of the integer part implies that

E( x) = E(x) 1:

Exercise 4. Show that for all (m; n) 2 Z2 , prove that

n+m n m+1
E( ) + E( )2Z
2 2
We will consider two cases:

1. First case: If we assume that n + m is even, then

n + m = 2k;

which gives
n+m
E =k
2
 Furthermore, we have
n m+1 2k m m+1 1
= =k m+
2 2 2
n+m
Since m 2 Z and based on the previous proposition, we have
2
n m+1 1
E =k m+E =k m
2 2

Therefore
n+m n m+1
E( ) + E( ) = 2k m=n
2 2
2. Second case: If n + m is odd, then

n + m = 2k + 1;

and
n+m 2k + 1 +1
E =E =k+E =k
2 2 2
we observe that
n m + 1 = 2k + 1 m m+1
which is even since it is the sum of two even integer. Thus

n m+1 2k + 1 m m+1
E =E =k+1 2m
2 2

. We also
n+m n m + 1 + 2m 1
E( ) = E( )=k+k+1 2m
2 2
Hence
n+m n m+1
E( ) + E( ) = n:
2 2
Exercise 5. Show that for all n 2 Z, prove that
n 1 n+2 n+4
E( ) + E( ) + E( )=n
2 4 4
We will consider 4 cases: 8
>
> n = 4k
<
n = 4k + 1
>
> n = 4k + 3
:
n = 4k + 3
For the …st situation one has
n n+21 n+4
E( ) + E(
) + E( )
2 4 4
4k 1 4k + 2 4k + 4
= E( ) + E( ) + E( )
2 4 4
1 1
= E(2k ) + E(k + ) + E(k + 1)
2 2
1 1
= 2k + E( ) + k + E(+ ) + k + 1
2 2
= 2k + ( 1) + k + 0 + k + 1
= 4k = n

we obtain a similar results for the other situations

Exercise 6. Show that for all (m; n) 2 Z2 , prove that
n 1 n+2 n+4
E( ) + E( ) + E( )=n
2 4 4
We will consider 4 cases: 8
>
> n = 4k
<
n = 4k + 1
>
> n = 4k + 3
:
n = 4k + 3

Exercise 7. Show that for all n 2 Z,

p p
E ( n + n + 1)2 = 4n + 1

One has
p p p p
E ( n + n + 1)2 = E (n + n + 1 + 2 n2 + n = 2n + 1 + E 2 n2 + n

recall that
2
2 1 1
n +n= n+
2 4
then,
2
2 2 1
n n +n< n+
2
s
p p 2
1
) n2 n2 + n < n+
2
s
p p 2
1
) 2 n2 2 n2 + n < 2 n+
2
p
) 2n 2 n2 + n < 2n + 1
the uniqueness of the integer part implies that
p
E(2 n2 + n) = 2n:

then,
p p
E ( n + n + 1)2 = 4n + 1

Exercise 8. Let n 2 N: Determine

p
E n2 + 3n + 4 )

Let n 2 N: One has

(n + 1)2 = n2 + 2n + 1 < n2 + 3n + 4 < n2 + 4n + 4 = (n + 2)2

then p
(n + 1) < n2 + 3n + 4 < n + 2 = (n + 1) + 1
the uniqueness of the integer part implies that
p
E n2 + 3n + 4 ) = n + 1:

6 Upper Bounds
Let S R be a no empty set.

De…nition 8. We say "a set S is bounded above" if there exists a number M such that

8x 2 S : x M:

In this situation, we call M an upper bound of S or just u.b

Example 6. 7 is a upper bound of the set f5; 6; 7g. So are 7; 8, and 9.

Remark 3. If A has an upper bound M , one can easily …nd other upper bounds, such
as M + 1; M + 2;

Remark 4. An upper bound of a set A, may or may not belongs to the set A.

Example 7. Let A = f1; 2g be a subset of the set of natural numbers N, then 2; 3; 4; 5;

will all be upper bounds of A, but only 2 belongs to A.
1
Example 8. Let A = fx 2 Q : 0 < x < 1g be subset of rational numbers R, then 1; 1+ ; 1+
2
3
, are all upper bounds of A. However, none of them belong to A
4
7 Lower Bounds
De…nition 9. We say "a set S is bounded below" if there is a number m such that

8x 2 S : x m:

In this situation, we call m a lower bound of S or just l.b

De…nition 10. If a set A is both bounded above and bounded below, then we say A is
bounded.
Example 9. Let S = f(x; y) 2 R2 : y = x2 and 1 x 2g : there are many u.b such M =
5; M = 4:1:..
Example 10. Let S = f(x; y) 2 R2 : y = x2 and 1 x 2g : there are many l.b such
m = 2; m = 1:::

7.1 Supremum and In…mum

De…nition 11. A real number M is called the supremum of A, denoted by

M = sup(A);

if and only if
8
< M is an upper bound of A,i.e 8x 2 A,x M
:
If M 0 is another upper bound of A; then M M0

In the other words, M is the smallest among all the upper bounds of A.

De…nition 12. A real number m is called the in…mum of A, denoted by

m = inf(A);

if and only if
8
< m is a lower bound of A,i.e 8x 2 A,x m
:
If m0 is another lower bound of A; then m m0

In the other words, m is the largest among all the lower bounds of A

Example 11. If a < b, then b = sup[a; b] = sup[a; b) and a = inf[a; b] = inf(a; b]:
Example 12. If S = fq 2 Q : e < q < g, then inf S = e, sup S =
p p
Example 13. If S = fx 2 R : x2 < 3g, then inf S = 3, sup S = 3
Let A R be a non empty subset
Proposition 3. The supremum or in…mum of a set A is unique if it exists . More-
over, if both exist, then
inf A sup A:

Proposition 4. Every non empty set of real numbers that is bounded from above has a supremum ,
and every non empty set of real numbers that is bounded from below has an in…mum

Proposition 5. if A is bounded above, the supremum of A i.e M = supA is the unique real
number satisfying
8
< M is an upper bound of A,i.e 8x 2 A,x M
:
8" > 0; 9x 2 A ; M "<x M

Proposition 6. if A is bounded below, the in…mum of A i.e m = inf A is the unique real
number satisfying
8
< m is an lower bound of A,i.e 8x 2 A,x m
:
8" > 0; 9x 2 A ; m x<m+"

Remark 5. There are four possibilities for a non empty subset S of R:it can

1. have both a supremum and an in…mum,

2. have a supremum but no in…mum,

3. have a in…mum but no supremum,

4. have neither a supremum nor an in…mum.

Example 14. Find sup A and inf A ( if they exist) where

n+3
A= xn = n ;n 2 N
4
+1

Let us us prove that A is bounded. One has

n+3 n+3 n+3 1 1

n =4 =4 =4 1
4
+1 n+4 n+4 n+4

but
1 1 1 1 4 4
n+4 4) ) ) 1)4 4 1=3
n+4 4 n+4 4 n+4 n+4
then,
xn 3
on the other hand, one has
1 4 4
n 0)n+4>4>0) >0) <0)4 <4
n+4 n+4 n+4
then,
xn < 4:
Summing up
xn 2 [3; 4[
which implies
min A = inf A = 3; sup A = 4
Let us that sup A = 4: In fact,
8
< 4 is an upper bound of A,i.e 8an 2 A,an 4
sup A = 4 ,
:
8" > 0; 9an 2 A ; 4 " < an 4

let " > 0 and we look for an satisfying

4 " < an

which implies that

4
4 " < 4
n+4
4
) <"
n+4
"
) n+4> ;
4
h" i
it su¢ ces to take n > n0 = 4 +1
4
Example 15. Find sup B and inf B ( if they exist) where

1 2
B= yn = + + 4; n 2 N
n2 n

Let us us prove that B is bounded. One has

2 1 1 2
n 1) 2 and 1) + +4 2+1+4=7
n n2 n 2 n
then,
yn < 4:
On the other hand, one has
2 1 1 2
n>0) > 0 and 2 > 0 ) 2 + + 4 > 4:
n n n n
then,
yn > 4:
summing up
yn 2 ]4; 7]
which implies
inf A = 4; sup A = 7
Let us show that inf A = 4: In fact, one has
8
< 4 is an lower bound of A,i.e 8yn 2 A,yn 4
inf A = 4 )
:
8" > 0; 9yn 2 A ; 4 yn < 4 + "

then,
1 2 1 2
yn < 4 + " ) 2
+ +4<4+") 2 + <"
n n n n
then
2 2
<")n>
n "
it su¢ ces to take
2
n0 = + 1:
"
Exercise 9. Find the supremum and in…mum of each sets ( if they exist) where
1 p p
A = [0; 1]; B =]0; 1[; C = f1 ; n 2 N g; D = f 2n n + 2; n 2 N g
n
1. A is bounded above by 1 and bounded below by 0, so the lower and upper bounds
exist and are respectively 0 and 1

2. B is bounded above by 1 and bounded below by 0, so the lower and upper bounds
exist and are respectively 0 and 1

3. C is bounded above by 1 and bounded below by 0. In fact

1
n 1:0< 1
n
and
1
1 <0
n
then
1
0 1+1 +1 <0+1=1
n
 4. Let n 1: r !
p p p p 2
2n n+2= n 2 1+ ! +1
n
D is not bounded above. On the other hand, one has
2
1+ 3 for n 1
n
so r
2 p
1+ 3 for n 1
n
which implies that r
p 2 p p
2 1+ 2 3 for n 1
n
then, D is bounded below
Exercise 10. Find the supremum and in…mum of each sets ( if they exist) where
k+1
A=f ; k; m 2 N g
k+m
Exercise 11. Let A R the set de…ned by
[x] + 1 1
A=f ;x > g
x 2
1. Show that A is bounded
2. Find inf A and sup A
We can distinguish two cases
1
1. 2
< x < 1 ) [x] = 0 and
[x] + 1 1
= 2 ]1; 2[ :
x x
2. x 1 : We know that
[x] x < [x] + 1
Putting kx := [x] (2 N ) : Then,
[x] + 1 kx + 1
=
x x
then
1 1 1
kx x < kx + 1 ) <
kx + 1 x kx
[x] + 1 kx + 1 1
) 1< =1+ 2
x kx kx
Summing up
1 [x] + 1
8x > :1< 2
2 x
then A is bounded
Note that for x = 1, we get
[x] + 1
=22A
x
Then
sup A = max A = 2:
On the other hand, one has
inf A = 1:

Exercise 12. Let A and B two non empty subsets of R and f :A B ! R bounded. Compare
between
inf(sup(f (x; y); x 2 A); y 2 B)
and
sup(inf(f (x; y); y 2 B); x 2 A):

Let’s start by …xing x0 2 A and let y 2 B. Then,

f (x0 ; y) sup(f (x; y); x 2 A): (x)

Let us move to the lower bound in this inequality for y2B. we obtain

inf(f (x0 ; y); y 2 B) inf(sup(f (x; y); x 2 A); y 2 B): (y)

We then take the upper bound on x0 2 A and we …nd the inequality

sup [inf(f (x0 ; y); y 2 B)] ; x0 2 A inf(sup(f (x; y); x 2 A); y 2 B):

Exercise 13. Let A and B be two non empty, bounded subsets of R. Show that;

1. A B then
inf B inf A sup A sup B;

2. min(inf A; inf B) = inf(A [ B) sup(A [ B) = max(sup A; sup B);

3. If A \ B = ; , one have

max(inf A; inf B) inf(A \ B) sup(A \ B) min(sup A; sup B)

8 Annex Proof Techniques
8.1 Process of Proof by Induction
A proof by induction of P(n), a mathematical statement involving a value n, involves these
main steps:
Base Case: Prove directly that P is correct for the initial value of n (for most examples
you will see this is zero or one). This is called the base case.
Induction Hypothesis: Assume that the statement P(n) is true for any positive integer
n = k, for some k n0 .
Inductive Step: Show that the statement P(n) is true for n = k + 1:.
Exercise 14. Show that for all n 2 N
1 1 1 1 n
+ + + ::::: + =
1 2 2 3 3 4 n (n + 1) (n + 1)
Let P(n) be the statement that
1 1 1 1 n
+ + + ::::: + =
1 2 2 3 3 4 n (n + 1) (n + 1)
1
1. Base Case: When n = 1 the left hand side of the equation is and the right hand
1 2
1
side is So P(1) is correct.
1+1
2. Induction Hypothesis: Assume that the statement P(n) is true for any positive
integer n for some n 1.
1 1 1 1 n
P(n) : 8n 2 N; + + + ::::: + = is true
1 2 2 3 3 4 n (n + 1) n+1

3. Inductive Step: Show that the statement P(n) is true for n + 1:i.e
1 1 1 1 1 n+1
+ + + ::::: + + =
1 2 2 3 3 4 n (n + 1) (n + 1) (n + 2) n+2
One has
!
1 1 1 1 1
+ + + ::::: + +
1 2 2 3 3 4 n (n + 1) (n + 1) (n + 2)
n
n +!1
n 1
= +
n + 1 (n + 1) (n + 2)
n2 + 2n + 1
=
(n + 1) (n + 2)
n+1
=
n+2
So P(n + 1) is correct. Hence by mathematical induction P(n) is correct.
Exercise 15. Show that for all n 2 N
n (n + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ::: + n =
2
Let P(n) be the statement that
n (n + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ::: + n =
2
1. Base Case: When n = 1 the left hand side of the equation is 1 and the right hand
1 (1 + 1)
side is So P(1) is correct.
2
2. Induction Hypothesis: Assume that the statement P(n) is true for any positive
integer n for some n 1.
n (n + 1)
P(n) : 8n 2 N; 1 + 2 + 3 + ::: + n = is true
2

3. Inductive Step: Show that the statement P(n) is true for n + 1:i.e
(n + 1) (n + 2)
1 + 2 + 3 + ::: + n + 1 =
2
One has
!
1 + 2 + 3 + ::: + n + (n + 1)
n (n + 1)
2 !
n (n + 1)
= + (n + 1)
2
n (n + 1) 2
= + (n + 1)
2 2
(n + 1) (n + 2)
=
2
So P(n + 1) is correct. Hence by mathematical induction P(n) is correct.

Exercise 16. Show that for all n 2 N

n (3n 1)
1+4+7+ + (3n 2) =
2
Let P(n) be the statement that 8n 1:
n (3n 1)
1+4+7+ + (3n 2) =
2
1. Base Case: When n = 1 the left hand side of the equation is 1 and the right hand
1 (3 1)
side is So P(1) is correct.
2
 2. Induction Hypothesis: Assume that the statement P(n) is true for any positive
integer n for some n 1.

n (3n 1)
P(n) : 8n 1:1+4+7+ + (3n 2) = is true
2

3. Inductive Step: Show that the statement P(n) is true for n + 1:i.e

(n + 1) (3 (n + 1) 1)
1+4+7+ + (3 (n + 1) 2) =
2
it means
(n + 1) (3n + 2)
1+4+7+ + (3n + 1) =
2
One has
!
1+4+7+ + +(3n 2) + (3n + 1)
n (3n 1)
2 !
n (3n 1)
= + (3n + 1)
2
n (3n 1) 2
= + (3n + 1)
2 2
2
3n + 5n + 2
=
2
(n + 1) (3n + 2)
=
2
So P(n + 1) is correct. Hence by mathematical induction P(n) is correct

Exercise 17. Verify that for all n 1, the sum of the squares of the …rst 2n positive integers
is given by the formula

n (2n + 1) (4n + 1)
12 + 22 + 42 + ::: + (2n)2 =
3
1. Base Case. The statement P (1) says that

1 (2 (1) + 1) (4 (1) + 1) 15
12 + 22 = 5 = = =5
3 3
which is true

2. Induction Hypothesis: Assume that the statement P(n) is true for any positive
integer n for some n 1.

n (2n + 1) (4n + 1)
P(n) : 8n 1 : 12 + 22 + 42 + ::: + (2n)2 = is true
3
 1. Inductive Step: Show that the statement P(n) is true for n + 1:i.e
(n + 1) (2 (n + 1) + 1) (4 (n + 1) + 1)
12 + 22 + 42 + ::: + (2n)2 + (n + 1)2 =
3
One has
12 + 22 + 42 + ::: + (2n)2 + (2 (n + 1))2
n (2n + 1) (4n + 1)
= + (2n + 1)2 + (2n + 2)2
3
n (2n + 1) (4n + 1) 3 3
= + (2n + 1)2 + (2n + 2)2
3 3 3
8n3 + 30n2 + 37n + 15
=
3
On the other side of P(n + 1) is
(n + 1) (2n + 3) (4n + 5) 8n3 + 30n2 + 37n + 15
=
3 3
Therefore P(n + 1) holds. Thus, by the principle of mathematical induction, for all
n 1, P(n) holds
Exercise 18. Show that
n! > 3n ;
for n 7
For any n 7, let P(n) be the statement that
n! > 3n
1. Base Case: When n = 7 the left hand side of the equation is
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 = 5040;
and the right hand side is
37 = 2187
So P(1) is correct.
Exercise 19. 1. Induction Hypothesis: Assume that the statement P(n) is true for
any positive integer n for some n 1.
P(n) : 8n 7 : n! > 3n is true

2. Inductive Step: Show that the statement P(n) is true for n + 1:i.e
(n + 1)! > 3n+1
One has
(n + 1)! = (n + 1) n!
> (n + 1) 3n (7 + 1) 3n 8 3n > 3 3n = 3n+1
Therefore P(n + 1) holds
8.2 Proof by contradiction

In logic, proof by contradiction is a form of proof that establishes the truth or the validity of
a proposition by showing that assuming the proposition to be false leads to a contradiction.
Although it is quite freely used in mathematical proofs, not every school of mathematical
thought accepts this kind of nonconstructive proof as universally valid

Exercise 20. For every real number x 2 [0; ], we have sin x + cos x 1
2

Suppose for the sake of contradiction that this is not true. Then there exists an x 2 [0; ],
2
we have
sin x + cos x < 1:
Since x 2 [0; ], neither sin x nor cos x is negative, so
2
0 sin x + cos x < 1:

Thus
02 (sin x + cos x)2 < 12 ;
which gives
02 sin2 x + 2 sin x cos x + cos2 x < 12 :
As
sin2 x + cos2 x = 1;
this becomes
0 1 + 2 sin x cos x < 1;
so
1 + 2 sin x cos x < 1:
Subtracting 1 from both sides gives

2 sin x cos x < 0:

But this contradicts the fact that neither sin x nor cos x is negative

Exercise 21. If a; b 2 Z, then

a2 4b 6= 2:

Suppose this proposition is false. This conditional statement being false means there exist
numbers a and b for which a; b 2 Z is true but

a2 4b 6= 2:

is false.Thus there exist integers a; b 2 Z for which

a2 4b = 2
From this equation we get
a2 = 4b + 2 = 2(2b + 1);
so a2 is even. Since a2 is even, it follows that a is even, so

a = 2c

for some integer c. Now plug

a = 2c
back into the boxed equation
a2 4b = 2
We get
(2c)2 4b = 2;
so
4c2 4b = 2:
Dividing by 2, we get
2c2 2b = 1:
Therefore
1 = 2(c2 b);
and since
c2 b 2 Z;
it follows that 1 is even. Since we know 1 is not even, something went wrong. But all the
logic after the …rst line of the proof is correct, so it must be that the …rst line was incorrect.
In other words, we were wrong to assume the proposition was false. Thus the proposition is
true.