CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter gives a brief introduction to spelling and its history. Causes of spelling

difficulties, common spelling errors and strategies to remedy them.

The Concept of Spelling

Good spelling is an important thing in writing activity. Spelling is an aspect of written

language, so the teaching and learning of spelling must take place as far as possible within the

context of writing (Croft, 1983, p.9). Based on the Oxford dictionary (2008), spelling is an act

of forming words correctly from single letters.

To them, while acknowledging the fact that children generally begin school with widely

different literacy experience, it is suggested that, spelling instructions should be given when

they are able to write their own names and have shown some understanding regarding the

relationship between the sounds of alphabets and the written symbols which represent them.

They also continued to say that it is helpful too; if children are able to form most of the letter

shapes correctly when spelling instructions begin. Thus, the more practice that the children

have had in making letter shapes (in clay, air or touch materials such as sand paper) the more

likely correct shapes will be learnt. Unfortunately, it is not usual to find that some basic school

children still have difficulties in forming letters.

Wright and Cashdan (1989) also stress the importance of teachers saying words as they

are formed and encouraging the children to repeat the words. To them, since they are

concerned with children being able to spell words from memory, the children could be

encouraged to say letter names as they form the words written or check the method, but in the

case of these children a multi-sensory approach may be adopted whereby the children go
through the following strategies, look at the word, say the word and then its letter in sequence.

Write it on the desk or in sand saying the whole word fist and the letters. They suggested that if

the word is correct, the child is allowed to put ticks over each correct letter and add an extra

tick if all the letters are in the correct order. Sassoon (1990) and Moseley (1994) then

concluded that if children are taken through these activities, then they will perform very well in

spelling.

The Causes of Spelling Errors

Sometimes, the error made by students in writing is easy to identify. However, the

teacher still has the difficulties to identify the errors because the factors that causes the errors

are often different. One student may have different cause of the error made from the others.

There are many causes of errors experienced by students as follows:

Inter-lingual errors are errors that happen because of the interference of mother

language.

It happens because the features of the two languages are different. Brown (2000:224) states

that the beginning stages of learning a second language are easy to be interfered by inter-

language errors.

Phonologically, one often hears marked differences in terms of pronunciation of some English

words among West African speakers of English, mainly due to L1 interference. For example,

there are certain English vowel sounds notably, the /æ/ the sound found in words like „man‟

/mæn/ „cat‟ /kæt/ bank / bænk/ and the schwa /ə/ the weak, unstressed English vowel sound

which occurs in words like „annoyed‟ /ən‫כ‬ıd/ „against /əgeınst/ and also the sound transcribed

with an inverted „v‟ which is found in words like „bucket‟ / bʌkıt/ „cupboard‟ /kʌbəd/

„butter‟ /bʌtə/ which do not exist in the phonological inventories of most West African
vernaculars, including Ghana. In these cases, the tendency then, for the West African speaker

of English is to substitute these English vowels sounds with similar sounds from his/her mother

tongue is very high.

Some major causes of spelling errors according to Karen Plumley’ (1972) are student’s

inability to hear and distinguish phonemics sound. This issue is an auditory processing

problem. Kids who have auditory processing deficits will have trouble distinguishing between

words that have subtle differences, such as pet and pat.

Some children will have no trouble recognizing phonemic sounds but still have trouble spelling

when it comes to more difficult words like heart or through which, silent letters require a

student to memorize and remember how it is spelled visually after seeing the word several

times while reading repeated misspelling of this type are caused by visual and memory

processing problems.

Finally, poor spelling may be a symptom of a larger learning problem. Leaning disorders such

as reading and writing disability or dyslexia are prevalent in students and must be identified

early. Poor spelling is just one of many signs that one or all of these problems might be

affecting a student ability to learn efficiently. When we come to our homes, some parents feel

spelling is not a major subject so do not bid it necessary to expose their wards to its

importance, and when the teacher at school does same, it leads to lack of exposure on the

pupils’ side, resulting to poor spelling. Another factor is general laziness on the side of the

pupils. Pupils’ unserious attitude towards learning affects their performance in all aspects of

their learning of which spelling is not excluded.

Spelling is one of the most forgotten aspects of literacy development. In many

classroom settings, it is looked at as an afterthought and instruction are limited at rote spelling

drills and memorization (Birsh, 2005). What's more concerning is that we do not know how

many of our students are struggling with spelling, and to what standard, because state

assessments rarely include a direct measure of spelling competence. Some of the effect of

spelling errors are:

1. It creates confusion - When there is an error in your spelling, people find it difficult to

understand what you have written when reading which creates confusion.

2. Loss of clarity and meaning - This is because, when the spelling and the pronunciation of

the words are wrongly spelt and pronounced, learners will not have the clear meaning of

the words.

Strategies used to teach spelling

Brown (2007) explains that there are some strategies teachers can use to improve the

spelling abilities of their students as follows;

The teacher must teach spelling strategies in the classroom. While teaching, the teacher should

say the word slowly and the students should listen carefully. Then you must write the word

clearly, syllable by syllable on the board.

Then, you should write on the board the words that sound similar, for example, accounts, dead,

read, bread, etc. The teacher should teach students to listen to the order of sounds in a word. In

addition, you should teach students about the derivations of different words from the base
word, for example, sign, resignation, etc. This will help children form new words by adding

prefixes and suffixes. The teacher should teach dictionary skills to his students. You must

explain the alphabetical order and use different word endings below the base word, for

example, bank, banking, etc.

According to Brown (2007), there are six common ways teachers can follow when

teaching spelling for students and they are called Six Research Based Techniques.

1. First, a careful selection of words, you cannot paint an image without pain, and you

cannot teach spelling without words. Therefore, teachers should be careful when

choosing words and must agree that words are appropriate for their students.

2. Second, using a pre-test-study-post-test format, administering a pre-test is an efficient

way to individualize spelling. In the preliminary test, each writer in the classroom

quickly and easily demonstrates whether he or she knows the words or patterns in the

study unit of the week.

3. Third, use a self-correction technique, follow a self-correction technique such as, find a

partner and take the test, ask your partner to read his words and tell him if there is any

word he doesn't know (how to say). Then, say the words to him, write them on a piece

of paper, when you complete your list, witch roles.

4. Fourth, teach children how to study unknown words. A system technique for learning

the

correct spelling of words is through the use of a combination of auditory, visual,

kinesthetic and tactile procedures. You have to follow the technique of looking, saying,

writing.
 5. Fifth, use spelling games: using games to teach students is a useful way because it

attracts

students' attention. Many students like games and will be an effective way to teach

them

using games.

6. The sixth is the classification of words, using a pocket chart.

Relevant Materials Used in teaching pupils to improve upon their spelling skills in

the classroom.

No scholar can dispute the fact that appropriate teaching and learning materials helps

pupils to learn very well and for that matter improve pupil’s performance. Dawson et al (1999)

observe that children do learn to spell without conscious effort, the words that they commonly

use. They come to recognize the name of the sound taken singly or in blends. They also do this

by configuration i.e., by retaining a picture of the total word instead of think of the

component’s letters. To them an effective procedure to teach spelling is for each to have an

alphabet on each of the cards. Then as a useful word that a pupil wishes to master is met, the

child can write the words on a piece of paper and file it alphabetically. Thereafter, the child

will consult his or her word box for many words he or she has placed there Weekes (1999)

suggested that, spelling can further be promoted by resorting to the use of dictionary.

The dictionary is a book in which words are listed alphabetically and their meanings are

explained in the same language. The dictionary shows how some words are formed by adding

the prefix, the suffix or affixation. (Prefix and Suffix) and compound words. When pupils are

exposed to the rule of words formation, spellings of such words are made easier examples.
Prefix dis +like = dislike

im + prove = improve

Suffix Faith + ful = faithful

Move + ment = movement

Affixation prefix + suffix

Im + prove+ ment = improvement

De + part +ment = department

Compound word class +room = classroom

The dictionary also gives the phonology and spelling pattern of words. When word

spelt, the sound pattern to the words to letter pattern. For pupils to spell words correctly, they

need to be taken through proper pronunciation of words.

Examples;

Word Sound pattern

Decent /di.snt/

Hour /qua/r/

Book /buk/

When the dictionary is well developed and also used as a material for handling spelling.

It leads to the generation of high ambitions in the pupils. Many pupils value the dictionary,

pick it in their free reading time because they want to know how words are spelt and

pronounced. It is therefore suggested that, teachers make good use of the dictionary because it

enhances or improve pupil’s ability to spell words correctly.

Ehri (2000) emphasizes that since beginners already know how words are pronounced,

their task is to assimilate the words printed from it phonological (speech sounds) structure.
They do this by at least matching some of the letters to phonetic or phonemic segment serves

as slot in lexical memory which are filled by images of letters seen in the words spelling.

Ehri continuous to say that if pupils are made to read over and over their books, they

become familiar with words which are found in them. This has further been stressed by

researchers that continuous reading helps in vocabulary work and correct spelling of English

language. This means that pupil’s text books or reading materials must always be developed by

teachers to improve the teaching of spelling.

Ehri continuous by saying, teachers can facilitate the teaching of spelling by use of

cards. The teacher does this by writing words on the cards with big and large letters which will

classroom. This is done by asking pupils to find the words that rhyme with another. Flash cards

are also important because they will help pupils to memorize these words.

In conclusion, spelling lesson will be very successful if the children are made to study

the words before testing. Also, pupils should be made to develop consciousness of spelling and

conscience for spelling. Teachers should do as much as they could to use relevant materials

during lesson delivery. Finally, pupils should be involved directly in spelling lesson process.