Anp 202

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
COURSE CODE: ANP202
COURSE TITLE: PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL

PRODUCTION
ANP202 COURSE GUIDE
COURSE
GUIDE
ANP202
PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL PRODUCTION
Course Team Dr. Samson O. Aribido (Developer/Writer) - KSU,

Ayingba
Prof. Afolabi Adebanjo (Programme Leader) - NOUN
Dr. Jari Sanusi (Coordinator) - NOUN
ii
ANP202 COURSE GUIDE
National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos
Abuja Office
No. 5 Dar es Salaam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja
Nigeria
e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
Published By:
First Printed 2011
ISBN: 978-058-908-8
All Rights Reserved
CONTENTS PAGE
iii
ANP202 COURSE GUIDE
Introduction ……………………………………..………………….. 1
What You Will Learn in this Course …………………………..…… 1
Course Aims ………………………………………………….…….. 1
Course Objectives …………………………………………...……… 2
Study Units………………………………………………………….. 2
Unit Structure……………….……………………………………… 4
Tutor-Marked Assignment………………………………….………. 4
Assessment …………………………………………………………. 4
Final Examination and Grading…………………………………….. 5
Course Marking Scheme……………………………………………. 5
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials……………………………………. 5
Summary……………………………………………………………. 6
iv
Introduction
This course guide provides a synopsis of the teaching schedules into

which all study units in this course material are categorised. The
Principles of Animal Production as laid out in this course guide are
fundamental bases for acquiring knowledge, skills and techniques for
animal production management and improvement that are needed to
translate a livestock enterprise for higher productivity and profitability.
Thus, understanding the guiding principles in animal production is akin
to “holding the bull by the horns” which will afford a producer to tune
his production activities for best results within the limits imposed b y the
environment and genetic make-up of the animal. This course; Principles
of Animal Production (ANP 201) is an introductory course offered in the
second year of B.Sc. Agric degree programme. It is a two-credit unit
course consisting of 13 study units presently scheduled in the
subsequent section.
Each unit entails activities expected to be covered in one week of study.

Learners are requested to schedule their study programme to
accommodate Tutor-Marked assignments, references and weekly
tutorials provided by facilitators. Regular attendance to the schedule of
work and classes is encouraged for up-mobile learners.
What You Will Learn in this Course?

Your expectations to acquire knowledge on principles of Animal
Production have been carefully itemised in form of course guide and
study units in this course material. The foregoing course overview
briefly introduces you to changes in behaviour and ability you are likely
to acquire with respect to practical knowledge and its applications to
animal production for the benefit of mankind. The focus and purpose of
the course are laid out in the course aim and objective to enable your
mind concentrate on specific goals to be achieved as well as stimulate
your interest in developing appropriate vision for overcoming
constraints and improving livestock production in your environment.
Thus, the study units are serialised to bring forth understanding of the
subject matter from basic concepts, roles, constraints and strategies to
specific techniques of livestock management as they relate to individual
livestock specie in the tropical environment and under the systems the
tropical environment has imposed.
Course Aims
The course aims at providing an understanding of the established facts

underlying the management and operation of livestock production with a
view to inculcating appropriate technical skills in students to enable
ANP202 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL PRODUCTION
them increase production, improve productivity and cope with

challenges arising there from.
Course Objectives
Specific objectives are set from the foregoing in a pattern such that at
the end of the course, students (or readers) should be able to:
· Appreciate historical and current advances in the development of

animal production; the roles of animal production and its
relationship with other life sciences.
· Recognise the overwhelming influences of the production
environment and genetic constitution over improvements in
productive performance, system of livestock production,
development of natural adaptation and acclimatisation features in
animal breeds.
· Identify physical and production traits of indigenous breeds of
livestock and some exotic breeds.
· Employ basic principles and techniques of animal breeding while
using criteria from production records, physical evaluation and
livestock judgments.
· Apply principles and tools of animal management for the
husbandry of various classes and types of livestock namely cattle,
sheep and goats, pigs, poultry, and rabbits.
Study Units
The thirteen study units contained in the course are as follows:
Module 1
Unit 1 An Overview of Animal Production: Concepts, Roles,

Constraints and Strategies
Unit 2 Effects of the Tropical Environment on Animal Production
Unit 3 Adaptation and Acclimatisation as Means of Coping with
Environmental Stress
Unit 4 Systems of Livestock Production
Unit 5 Principles and Techniques in Livestock Breeding
Module 2
Unit 1 Livestock Breeding in the Tropical Environment

Unit 2 General Principles of Cattle Production
Unit 3 General Principles of Sheep Production
Unit 4 General Principles of Goat Production
ii
Module 3
Unit 1 General Principles of Pig Production

Unit 2 General Principles of Poultry Production
Unit 3 General Principles of Rabbit Production
Unit 4 Livestock Management Tips
The first unit provides an overview of animal production. It also

introduces learners to the concepts and the evolution of the traditional
techniques of livestock production to modern scientific techniques with
vast linkages with other life sciences. The growth in the skills of
managing livestock has led to modernisation and automation of various
techniques that forecloses gap between demand and supply of animal
products, such that livelihood, employment, food and other socio-
economic roles of this subject matter are fulfilled. However, problems
and constraints are still emerging but knowledge based solutions are
being deployed in form of new strategies.
Study units 2, 3 and 4 describe peculiar influence of the tropical

environment on animal performance and perhaps, survival. This
peculiarity imposes enabling environment for major constraints to
animal productivity, demanding that learners must be guided to
appreciate and assist animals to ameliorate or overcome through the
application of appropriate biological and environmental principles. One
of such means of overcoming environmental constraints is to organise
animal production into different systems that suit specific condition,
socio-economic ability of the producers and other considerations central
to the entire production activities or processes.
Units 5 and 6 illustrate the principles of animal breeding and their

application in selecting replacement stock for tropical farm animals.
Genetic (inherited) factors are the second set of variables (to those of
environment) that control the features, traits, performance and other
productive abilities of an animal and its generations to come. Breeding
and other management skills are means for drawing from large pool of
genetic resources reserved in animal to the fore of productivity and
profitability. In fact it may be assumed that if learners imbibe the
principle of animal breeding one half of this course and its objectives
would have been achieved.
The general principles of management for cattle, sheep, goat, pig and
poultry including pullets and broiler and rabbits are provided in study
units 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12 respectively. The units map out the precepts
for undertaking practical activities in animal production by the general
principles of management of various livestock species. Unit 13 is an
iii
extended summary of management tips for livestock production not

restricted to particular animal species but to the farm enterprise.
Unit Structure
Each study unit is presented in the following table of content that forms
the unit structure.
1. Introduction
2. Objectives
3. Main Content
4. Conclusion
5. Summary
6. Tutor-Marked Assignment
7. References/Further Reading
Tutor-Marked Assignment
Tutor-marked assignments (TMAs) account for 30per cent of your total

course work. At least four TMAs are given in each study unit, three of
which you expected to answer and submit for grading by
Facilitator/Assessor. The assignments would be returned to you for your
review. This course material and suggested reading and references will
assist learners to complete their assignments and prepared for
examination. Learners are however strongly warned against copying in
verbatim their responses on assignment or memorising from the course
content. You are required to undertake independent reading of relevant
materials, extract useful points. The totality of your comprehension of
the subject matter from the study unit, references and other relevant
material should broaden your mind to address problems and give
professionals insights and practical skills to the subject of animal
production at a degree level.
Appropriate time schedule for assignments and examination have been

provided, ensure that you adhere strictly to the schedule. In any
circumstance that you are unable to meet time schedule for assignment,
timely arrangement of work at a new date should be made with you
facilitator.
Assessment
The overall evaluation of students consist of two phases – one phase

consist of continuous assessment i.e. the Tutor-Marked Assignments
(TMAs) and the other consist of the Final Written Examination,
covering all areas of the course which will scheduled at your study
centre. The work you submit to your tutor for assessment (TMAs) will
iv
account for 30 per cent of your total course work at the end of the course
you will need to sit for a final or end of course examination of about 2-3
hours duration. This examination will account for 70 per cent of your
total course work.
The TMA as a matter of compulsion must be submitted to your tutor

within the stipulated period for assessment. It is important to revise self-
assessment exercises, TMAs and Tutor’s comments in preparation for
your examinations.
Final Examination and Grading
The final examination at the end of this course will hold for 2-3 hours
and it will be graded on a score of 70 per cent of total course work. The
examination questions will reflect understanding of the subject matter or
topics discussed in this course material. Application of the principles of
animal production to solve farm condition problems commonly
experienced by farmers will be expected. As much as possible the entire
course content will be covered in the assessment, sound grasp of every
discussion on the main content through reading formalisation with
reference materials may be very helpful to you. A revision of TMAs and
comments of facilitators prior to the examination is strongly advisable.
Course Marking Scheme
Assessment Marks Obtainable

1. Tutor-Marked Assignments: Select best 3 at 10% each = 30% of
1-4 No. course work.
2. End of Course Examination = 70% of Course Work

Total = 100% Course Work
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials
Tutorials covering a total of 16 hours have been slated to assist you in

assimilating this course. Information regarding the dates, time and
location of the tutorial will be conveyed to you as well as the name and
phone contact of your facilitator. The facilitator to whom you are
assigned will expect that you forward your assignments by post at least
two working days prior to the deadline for submission. The facilitators
have been instructed to mark record and also comment on your
assignments and later return them for your revision. It is important to
establish contact with your facilitator as soon as you are assigned to
him/her for one or more of the following reasons:
v
· If you do not have clear understanding of the study, reference

material or assignment given.
· If you have difficulties with marking or grading of the TMAs or
self-test.
Attendance at tutorials is extremely desirable as it affords face-to-face
contact between the learners and the facilitator. Active participation at
tutorial would assist the facilitator to know the point of intervention to
help your understanding.
Tutor-marked assignment presented at the end of each is a set of
exercises for learners to attempt and return to the facilitators for
assessment and grading as part of continuous assessment. Facilitators
are requested to return marked assignments to their students to
determine their performance and makes necessary adjustment where
needed.
Summary
Principles of Animal Production as a course aims at offering the learner
the basic concepts and the principles underlying the techniques and
methods for raising farm animals for improved productivity and
profitability. On completion of this course, learners would have been
sufficiently equipped with knowledge on concepts of the subject,
interrelationship between traditional scientific methods of producing
livestock, roles, constraints and strategies associated with animal
production, the overbearing influence of the tropical environment,
systems of animal management, breeding and genetics and the
application to replacement stock, general principles of management to
livestock species commonly found in Nigeria and management tips for
animal farm enterprise. In addition, learners will be able to answer such
question as:
· Explain briefly the concept of animal production.
· Identify important roles and constraints to livestock production in
Nigeria.
· Enumerate direct effects of tropical climate on animal production
and discuss their management implications.
· Pinpoint rationale for restriction on importation of European
cattle breed into Nigeria.
· List and discuss the various modes of energy transfer.
· Describe the influence of heat stress on five specific animal
performance traits.
· List and describe systems of livestock production you are familiar
with under the traditional system.
· Identify and describe factors affecting system of livestock
production in Nigeria.
vi
At the end of this course the basic principles of animal production would
have been sufficiently revealed to you to enable you acquire further
instructions for your professional growth and development. I wish you
the best in your learning and as you grow through the noble profession
of Animal Production for your personal good and Nigeria at large.
vii
Course Code ANP202

Course Title Principles of Animal Production
Course Team Dr. Samson O. Aribido (Developer/Writer) - KSU,

Ayingba
Prof. Afolabi Adebanjo (Programme Leader) - NOUN
Dr. Jari Sanusi (Coordinator) - NOUN
viii

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos
Abuja Office
No. 5 Dar es Salaam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja
Nigeria
e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
Published By:
First Printed 2011
ISBN: 978-058-908-8
All Rights Reserved
ix
CONTENTS PAGE
Module 1 ………………………………… ……………………… 1

Constraints and Strategies………………………..…. 1
Unit 2 Effects of the Tropical Environment on
Animal Production……………………………….….. 11
Unit 3 Adaptation and Acclimatisation as Means of
Coping with Environmental Stress………………..… 21
Unit 4 Systems of Livestock Production………………..….. 36
Unit 5 Principles and Techniques in Livestock Breeding…. 42
Module 2 ………………………………… ……………………… 55
Unit 1 Livestock Breeding in the Tropical Environment ….. 55

Unit 2 General Principles of Cattle Production……….…… 63
Unit 3 General Principles of Sheep Production……….…… 80
Unit 4 General Principles of Goat Production……….…….. 92
Module 3 ………………………………… ……..……………… 114
Unit 1 General Principles of Pig Production…………..……. 114

Unit 2 General Principles of Poultry Production…….......… 143
Unit 3 General Principles of Rabbit Production…………… 176
Unit 4 Livestock Management Tips………………………… 187
x
MODULE 1

Constraints and Strategies
Unit 2 Effects of the Tropical Environment on Animal Production
Unit 3 Adaptation and Acclimatisation as means of Coping with
Environmental Stress
Unit 4 Systems of Livestock Production
Unit 5 Principles and Techniques in Livestock Breeding
UNIT 1 AN OVERVIEW OF ANIMAL PRODUCTION:

CONCEPTS, ROLES, CONSTRAINTS AND
STRATEGIES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Animal Production
3.2 Brief History of Animal Production
3.3 Roles of Animal Production in Nigeria
3.4 Problems Confronting Production of Livestock
3.5 Strategies for Advancing Animal Production in Nigeria
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, students will be introduced to the concept of animal

production and its relationship with other branches of agriculture and
science. You will discover application of scientific principles as
compared to traditional methods of production and their influence on
current level of animal productivity. You will learn a brief historical
development of animal production. You will also recognise and
appreciate the various roles of livestock production and the problems
challenging it in Nigeria. Students will be guided to discuss advances in
farm animal production as means of proffering solutions to the present
constraints.
1
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
· explain the concept of animal production and your preference for

application of scientific techniques rather than traditional
techniques in animal production
· identify the important roles and constraints in livestock
production in Nigeria
· suggest solutions to the constraints and chart way for advancing
production of livestock particularly in Nigeria.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Concept of Animal Production
Animal production is an aspect of agricultural production. Agriculture is

simply defined as the art and science of crop, animal and fibre
production for human consumption. As a branch of agriculture, animal
production deals with production of domesticated animals other than
pets and game animals.
As a subject matter it has roots in the natural sciences not only by the
application of basic principles of science but also in theoretical
foundations. Thus, animal production relates in certain aspects to
zoology, pathology, genetics, microbiology, botany, biochemistry,
chemistry, physics, statistics, mathematical and pharmaceutical sciences.
Since animal production forms a central theme in the provision of

essential human needs, the evolution of its practices over time has
benefited from skills and knowledge acquired through cultural and
scientific techniques. Both traditional and scientific skills have served
useful purposes in the development and advancement of animal
production. While the traditional technique often evolves slowly over
several decades; conservative; limited to a locality or group of people
and possibly extended by ancestral linkage; the scientific techniques has
proven to be more versatile, and considered as a better alternative
approach. It is more dependable in conveying knowledge and skills from
an individual or from one place to another. Science-based skills much
more than cultural skills are indeed more sustainable and profitable for
individual farmers and nations applying them in their production
activities or systems. Far beyond meeting social, economic, nutritional
and profitability targets application of scientific principles in animal
production has sustained productivity to barely satisfy the present level
of world demands for animal products.
2
Under the traditional practice and knowledge system, taboos, custom

and beliefs are associated with production, processing and consumption
of livestock and livestock products. The Hindus religious sect of India,
for example, forbids the slaughter of cattle and consumption of beef.
Similarly in Nigeria, the Fulani cattle owners derive social dignity in
terms of number or heads of cattle owned by an individual rather than
the productivity of the herd.
In addition, same herders are traditionally bound to a specific coat

colour or breed of animals inherited from their ancestors and may not
permit introduction of a different coat colour or breed even if the latter
offers superior desirable traits. Acceptance of certain beneficial
technologies for adoption has suffered from rigid adherence to certain
traditional beliefs or practices notwithstanding the potential advantages
they hold. The use of artificial insemination as a cheaper means of cross-
breeding exotic (foreign) bulls with the local breeds of cows for instance
was resisted and rejected by local herdsmen because they considered it
un-natural to inseminate animals by artificial method and processes.
In some instances, the traditional skills have been of tremendous to

support to the production and healthcare of animals especially in areas
remote from access to orthodox drugs and healthcare services. The use
of herbs and bark of trees for disease treatment or to lessen reproductive
difficulties has been shown to be effective. Indigenous knowledge has in
recent time become an interesting subject of research study. However,
limitations of extending the practice for wider adoption, ascertaining the
quantity of active ingredient, determining the application rate or
preserving such materials have constituted a major constraint, besides
the slow rate of their discoveries.
The application of scientific principles and skills on the other hand has
surpassed these limitations, and has greatly improved production and
productivity of livestock with the aid of scientific principles; careful
study of anatomy and physiology of the body systems of various
livestock species; formulation of different feed and nutrient
requirements for varying production purposes or targets have been
determined, and are in use. On these principles diets are formulated and
applied in accordance with body requirements of the class and specie of
the animal.
In animal breeding, genetic studies have made provisions for crossing

two or more breeds of animal with near predictable characteristics of the
offspring, obtain higher hybrid vigour or determine how much of the
character is heritable. Closely related to this is the artificial insemination
technology which evolved from the accumulation of scientific
knowledge on reproductive physiology and anatomy of animals. It is
3
possible to collect and extend genetic material from a productive and

proven male animal to artificially inseminate several other female
animals far away from the environment of the bull or its generation.
New advances in biotechnology application in animal production
suggest production of several offspring’s from artificial initiation of
stem cell division into many units, each of which is capable to grow into
individual animal. Several applications of scientific principles have
evolved into skills and technologies with tremendous impact on
improving animal production system, productivity and profitability. One
beauty of the application of science is the ease with which it can be
extended over a wide geographical area, its potency to solve the problem
being targeted and the assurance to bring results if the procedures are
carefully followed as well as the fast rate of generating new discoveries.
3.2 Brief History of Animal Production
Animal production perhaps began about 10,000 years ago, when man
started domesticating animals from the wild for his immediate and
continual needs. Man’s efforts in this regard deviated from killing and
destruction of animals especially for their products. In man’s renewed
attitude, captured animals were tendered through proper feeding,
breeding and application of other management practices, which have led
to favourable adaptation and multiplication within the confine of human
environment. As man further realised the potentials of farm animals as
sources of food, fibre, and income, greater attention and efforts began to
evolve to improve production and productivity.
Outstanding performance of measurable and quality characteristics

started to manifest for identification and consideration for possible
multiplication through selection, breeding and upgrading. Since then
new advances began to unfold especially in the Western countries. The
advances brought alongside; provision of proper housing, feeding
selection and breeding methods resulting in the automation of various
aspects of animal production and processing at the present time. The
improvement in livestock production in the Western nations far outstrip
the level of development in the sub-Saharan Africa, where over 90% of
ruminant animals are still in the hands of peasants who use traditional
production methods. Applications of modern production methods in
Nigeria are largely restricted to institutional farms and a few commercial
farms.
4
3.3 Roles of Animal Production in Nigeria
The importance of animal production to the Nigerian economy derives

largely from its provision of animal protein foodstuff, employment,
industrial raw materials and foreign exchange earnings, and extends to
several socio-cultural roles among different societies.
The recognised role of animal production in the nutrition of Nigerians

particularly as source of animal protein stems from the common
knowledge that 35 per cent of the nation’s meat supply comes alone
from sheep and goats not to mention supplies from cattle, swine and
poultry. Failures to meet demand for the animal protein have resulted in
continual importation of animal products with or without official
permission. Optimum animal protein intake, without exaggeration, is
required for optimum physical and mental development of every
individual. The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO, 1985) of the
United Nations recommended a minimum of about 56g of protein intake
per person per day to be consistent with good living. About 50 per cent
(or 28g) of this should come from such animal protein sources as meat,
milk, eggs and fish. The British Medical Association recommended a
higher minimum intake of 68g per person per day. Most Nigerians
consume less than 10g of protein per person per day out of which only
about 3.2g is animal protein compared to the recommended daily intake
of 28g. The expected role of animal production is to fill the wide gap of
about 25g of daily animal protein intake per person in Nigeria
(Dafwang, 2006).
Engagement in farm animal production activities provides gainful

employment and means of livelihood to a large cross section of
Nigerians as herdsmen, butchers, livestock specialists, manufacturers
and suppliers of feeds, drugs and other production inputs, marketers and
traders in the diverse animal products produced regularly and on daily
basis. In certain part of Nigeria, animal production activities offer an
alternative full employment during the dry season when other
agricultural production activities are reduced or non-existent. The
alternative means of employment at off season enables the people
concerned to earn a living while discouraging tendency to engage in vice
habits.
The provision of primary industrial raw materials of animal origin is a

major consideration for undertaking production of animals in most
countries. Nigeria is known for export of the famous ‘Morocco leather’
obtained from the skin of Red Sokoto breed of goats in addition to the
hides and skins from other livestock. Milk and eggs produced in large
quantities in the developed nations form raw materials for large and long
chain of assorted industrial firms upon which the economies of the
5
countries depend. The economy of Holland is largely dependent on

dairying activities, so also are nations of Australia and New Zealand
whose revenues are derived substantially from live animals, beef and
other meat products.
Export of industrial raw materials of animal source naturally translates

into huge foreign exchange earnings for the exporting countries. As a
result, nations aspiring to earn large foreign revenue make specific plans
to develop their livestock industries for optimum productivity. The
potentials of the Nigerian livestock industry to develop in order to
satisfy domestic demands and earn huge foreign exchange within the
sub-Saharan African and West African regions are clearly indicated in
the impressive contributions of the subsector to the economy. These
important roles and benefits from a well organised livestock production
system are yet to be tapped to the fullest in Nigeria.
However, one role of animal production that seems to have been

exploited perhaps to its maximum is the use of livestock production to
meet socio-cultural obligations in marriages and festivals, where animals
are used for sacrifices and as symbols of social status in the
communities concerned. These cultural obligations are of tremendous
social values to a large section of producers in Nigeria. There is a great
task ahead to re-orientate and modify these values into the primary
objectives of animal production which entail provision of animal protein
food needed for growth development, gainful employment and improved
livelihood. There is also an urgent need for repositioning the industry to
earn foreign exchange for the nation as well as produce raw materials
for industrial growth.
3.4 Problems Confronting Livestock Production
A number of constraints confront the Nigerian livestock industry and

impedes its growth and development. Some of the most limiting factors
are listed and discussed as follow:
(1) Nutrition and Feed Supplies: The provision of feed that is

adequate both in quality and quantity and accessible to animals
all year round is the most outstanding problem of livestock
production in Nigeria. The natural range resources that form the
primary source of nutrients have been observed to rapidly
increase in nutritive value at the onset of rains and decline shortly
thereafter. The state of poor nutritive feed quality often last
longer during the year than the period of forage abundance and
high nutritive quality. Supplementation with crop residues from
cropped farmlands scarcely meets the requirements for animal
6
growth. The unavailability of grazing feedstuff in the year round

is aggravated by the widespread bushfire and imbalance between
the stocking rate and carrying capacity of the range. The
consequence of overstocking is simply high incidence of erosion
and a reduction in the carrying capacity of vast land area with
potential for high cattle production as in the Jos and Mambilla
Plateaux, Sahel and Sudan ecological zones. In event of acute
shortage of range resources during the dry season and extending
for a period of 2 years as in 1972-1974 considerable losses in live
weight and number of stock usually result. The cyclical
occurrence of feed deficit year in and year out impairs animal
growth rate and reproductive performance while instigating
movement of stock from one place to another with its numerous
attendant problems including high susceptibility of animals to
diseases and pest attack and often fatal clash between h erders and
farmers.
(2) Inadequate Breeding Programme: Adoption of haphazard

breeding programme in which indigenous cows are crossbred
with bulls by natural or artificial insemination at one time and
massive importation of exotic breeds into Nigeria at another,
have failed to make any tangible impact. The consequence of this
is the proliferation of local breeds of cattle in their numbers not
responding to improvement in quantitative traits. It is still not
clear as to what means to categorise local breeds of cattle as dairy
or beef type. They all exhibit dual or triple-purpose traits, with
productivity far below the average expected. The reproductive
performance of the cows which is an important consideration in
breeding is hampered by long calving interval that is rooted in
poor management and inadequate feeding. Worst still, Nigeria
has no breeding policy programme for her livestock.
(3) Disease and Pest Infestation: Due to tropical nature of the

Nigerian environment, a number of important epizootic diseases
of livestock easily thrive. In cattle, for example; rinderpest,
contagious pleuropneumonia (CBPP), dermatophilosis foot and
mouth disease, anaplasmosis, babesiosis and trypanosomiasis.
These diseases are so virulent that they limit production, increase
morbidity and cause widespread death of cattle. Recently, Nigeria
was officially declared free of rinderpest infection. However,
other diseases of less epizootic nature are assuming increasing
significance e.g. mastitis, brucellosis, dermatophilosis, heartwater
etc. Together these reduce productivity of the national herd even
if they are less virulent. Although much progress has been made
in the diagnosis and control of some of these diseases, the
increasing populations of vector-pests that transmit the diseases
7
constitute a major hazard and threat to farm animal production in

Nigeria. Infestation of tsetse fly alone for example, covers 75 per
cent or 600,000 to 700,000 km2 of the entire country (FMA and
GRNC, 1981) rendering areas with valuable feed resource nearly
inhabitable for cattle. Other pests of significant economic
importance are enteric and helmintic parasites of coccidian
emeria, flukes, roundworm and hookworms as well as
ectoparasites like ticks, mange, mites and lice. They cause
diarrhoea, loss of appetite, slow growth rate, unthrithfulness,
damages to skin and most often debilitating mortality among
stock leading to grave economic losses.
(4) Land Ownership and Usage: Land tenure remains a major

obstacle to livestock development, for herders have no secured
individual accesses or rights to land. Communities and
individuals who crop the land often lay claim to ownership of the
land. A concession to carry out agricultural activities is merely
given to settled pastoralists rather permanent land tenureship.
Little or no opportunity is available for pastoralists to invest and
develop the land for a full return of benefits and expansion.
(5) Low Investment Potential: The slow rate of growth of the

livestock industry in Nigeria denotes a long gestation period for
investment to mature. This is contrary to quick return on
investment desired by financial institutions like banks and
investment houses. Livestock projects are scarcely attractive
unlike services and trades that have tendency to return borrowed
funds and interest more quickly due to longer period of growth
required and the high uncertainty it is associated. Collaterals and
guarantee of substantial value are not easily available for
livestock producers to secure sufficient loans to improve
production even in few instances where financial institution may
be willing to do so.
(6) Institutional Problems: Lack of genuine institutional support

and political will to muster required efforts to improve livestock
production cannot be divested from problems confronting the
industry. In countries of India, Netherlands, Australia, New
Zealand etc, deliberate action-packed programmes are outlined
and implemented with very strong extension component that
enables experts work in collaboration with native producers to
find solutions to the problems of production. In Nigeria such plan
programmes are tested within a limited area and frustrated by
undue rivalry and competition for position, profession or
financial benefits as well as poor implementation strategy.
Policies are written and are never implemented before abrupt
8
changes are introduced. As a result, Nigeria has as many policies

as the number of commissions set up to assess part or all the
teething problems militating against the growth of the livestock
industry. As if the poor attitude on the part of government is
insufficient, the greater undoing comes from producers who are
largely uneducated, conservative and highly mobile. Meaningful
extension outreach can rarely accommodate producers who
harbor hatred, suspicion or reject and are nonchalant towards
innovations put in place for adoption.
3.5 Strategies for Advancing Animal Production in Nigeria
Some strategies for purposeful development of the livestock industry in

Nigeria are suggested as follows:
1 Change in value and attitude of livestock producers from the

present consideration for number of stock as status symbol to
more important objectives of higher productivity and socio-
economic benefits that are business oriented.
2 Careful selection of local breeding stock from breed and
individual records.
3 National upgrading and breeding programmes involving exotic
and local breeds, thereby mass producing the heterozygous
offspring for production purposes.
4 Careful exploration of various farming systems to ensure
availability of feedstuff throughout the year and intensification
agricultural production system.
5 Feed quality improvement through deliberate supplementation
and range exploitation to meet daily requirements for various
nutrients.
6 Exploitation of the biological abilities of the stock to derive
maximally from the available feedstuff.
7 Establishment of a responsive and resilient animal health system
that is capable of quick intervention, continuous and effective
management of animal diseases and their predisposing agents and
conditions.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Animal production both in concept and practice is rooted in scientific

principles upon which it has made substantial growth and development.
The traditional methods of production, though still persistent and
possibly played some roles in the past, are gradually fading out. The
significance of livestock production is daily increasing with greater
implications for human survival, economic and social advancement in
the face of challenging constraints that need pro-active efforts to resolve.
9
5.0 SUMMARY
Animal production is defined as an aspect of agriculture which in itself

is the science and art of producing crop, animal and fibre products for
human use. Just as in wider agricultural activities, animal production
depends on art (or traditional) and scientific principles in practice and
theory. Current level of progress has indicated that scientific
applications tend to be more amenable t o meet present and future targets
for animal products. The demand and usefulness of animal products for
human health and survival economic and industrial growth as well as
provision of other social services are ever increasing. Yet, challenges
and constraints limiting Nigeria and other developing nations in
fulfilling these demands for animal products are manifest. Perhaps,
solutions lie in developing strategies around value and attitudinal
orientation of the majority of producers, selection and upgrading of
genetic pool for various desirable traits, and exploitation of the farming
systems and feed resources for greater animal productivity while
curtailing incidence of animal pests and diseases through a virile animal
health management system.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. Briefly explain the concept of animal production

2. Itemise rationales for your preference for the application of
scientific principles rather than traditional techniques in animal
production.
3. Identify important roles and constraints to livestock production in
Nigeria.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Dafwang, I. I. (2006). “Meat, Eggs and Milk from Farm Wastes:

Explorations in Animal Nutrition Research and Extension.” An
Inaugural Lecture, NAERLS, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.
F.A.O. Food and Agriculture Organisation and World Health

Organisation, United Nations University (1985). “Energy and
Protein Requirements.” WHO Technical Report, Series 724.
Geneva, Switzerland. (http://www.afpafitness.com).
FMA & GRNC (1981). Federal Ministry of Agriculture & Green

Revolution National Committee. “The Green Revolution – A
Livestock Production Plan for Nigeria.” Pp. 40-47.
10
UNIT 2 EFFECTS OF THE TROPICAL

ENVIRONMENT ON ANIMAL PRODUCTION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Tropical Environment and its Moderating Factors
3.2 Direct Effect of Climate
3.3 Indirect Effects of Climate
3.4 Effects of Altitude and Soil Condition on Animal
Production
3.5 Effect of Tropical Climate on Animal Parasites, Vectors
and Diseases
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit introduces students to the overwhelming influence of the

environment; specifically the tropical climate, altitude and soil fertility,
on animal production. As you progress further in this study you will
discover far-reaching effects of the climatic elements directly on the
system of animal production, body physiology and animal behaviour,
feed supply and quality, proliferation of pests and parasites as well as
preservation of animal products. Students will also be exposed to the
moderating influence of altitude and soil on the overall activities of
animal production.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
· identify the geographic limits of the tropical environment and its

peculiarities
· explain the direct effects of three climatic elements on animal
production and productivity in the tropics
· discuss the indirect effects of the tropical climate on animal
production
· describe effects of altitude and soil fertility on animal production
system.
11
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Tropical Environment and its Moderating Factors
The tropical region lies between the latitudes (tropics) of Cancer and
Capricorn in the north and south of the Equator. By its geographical
location, the region is expected to be uniformly hot all year round, but
this is not so. A number of environmental factors moderate the hotness
of the region such that several micro-climates (mini pockets of climatic
conditions) are created in certain places by factors such as distance away
from the equator (the degree of latitude), altitude (height above sea
level), soils and contours vegetation, ocean currents, wind, rainfall and
distribution of land and water. Differences between one micro-climate
and another are noticeable by variation in such climatic elements as
temperature, rainfall and to a lesser extent, humidity are the climatic
elements of greatest influences in moderating conditions in a micro-
climate. Similarly, they also cause major effects on animal physiology,
behaviour and productivity through their individual or separate effects
but, more often, by their combinations with other environmental factors.
The influence of climate on animal production (including animal body
functions, behaviours and productive abilities) may be direct or indirect.
In either way, systems of animal husbandry or management are also
affected. Direct influence of climate on animal production and
husbandry has to do with such influence on the animal itself, while
indirect influence is on the animal’s environment each of these shall be
examined closely.
3.2 Direct Effect of Climate
It must be noted from the onset that responses of individual animal to

certain climatic condition vary between individual animals of the same
breed.
Temperature
All domestic animals are homeotherms or warm blooded. In other

words, they maintain their body temperature within a range most
suitable for optimal biological activity. The body temperature range is
relatively constant and is higher than the environmental temperature.
The ambient temperature on the other hand varies with changes in the
climatic elements at a particular time. The animal body temperature
ranges within certain limits defined as the ‘comfort zone’ is a
temperature range within which no demands are made on the
temperature regulating mechanism. For a typical tropical breed of cattle,
the ‘comfort zone’ range from 10 to 27 while a tropical temperate cattle
has between -1 and 16. If there is a change in ambient temperature
12
beyond either the upper or lower limit, the body mechanism for
regulating animal body temperature is triggered to action to enable the
body remain or return to normal. However, thermo regulative
mechanism may begin to fail, resulting in abrupt rise in rectal
temperature, decline feed intake, an increase in water intake, a decrease
in productive process such as growth and milk/egg production and
perhaps a loss in body weight. Sometime the composition of milk
produced may be affected. This partly explains the deterioration of
highly productive cattle imported from temperate area to the tropics.
Other behavioural and physiological responses of animal to excessive

high temperature or heat load include sweating, panting, wallowing in
mud or pool of water, reduction in physical exercise and mating
activities. Let us examine a few of these effects of temperature on
animal conducts.
Effect of Temperature on Grazing Activity
(a) The Effect of High Air Temperature on Cattle is Reflected in

their Grazing Behaviour: Studies have shown that length of day
time grazing is related to the ambient temperature, and reduction
in heat load improves grazing behaviour. Herders in semi-arid
and arid area have adopted the act of grazing at night to improve
both intake and length of grazing in hot seasons. Fast growing
broiler birds are often fed in the night and sprinkled with droplets
of water in the day as means of alleviating heat load to improve
feed intake and overall production.
(b) Effect of Temperature on Growth and other Productive

Performance: High ambient temperature depress appetite and
reduce feed intake and grazing time which may also diminish
production as measured by growth, milk yield and milk solids
production. Experimental evidence has shown that there is a
partial correlation with growth rate when body weight is constant.
However, under good management conditions where feeding and
management are adequate, high ambient temperatures do not
appreciably affect growth rates. Temperate type sheep in the
tropics of Australia that are exposed to high air temperature often
have a low lambing percentage and give birth to small weak
lambs that have a high post-natal mortality. Lambs born in early
summer and reared through hot summer are usually smaller at
birth than lambs born in the cool months of early dry season. In
poultry light breeds and young chicks are more resistant to heat
than heavy breeds and adult birds. High temperatures predispose
laying birds to abrupt decline in egg production.
13
(c) Effect of Temperature on Milk Yield and Composition:

Studies have indicated the effect of temperature on milk yield,
butter fat and solids – not – fat. All these are depressed by high
temperature, but usually by indirect effect of temperature on
changes in feeding. As much as between 44 per cent and 55 per
cent differences in milk yield and butter fat production were
noticed between twin heifer reared under sound tropical and
temperature management conditions. With increasing air
temperatures appetite is depressed, food intake lowered, and heat
production reduced. The exact mechanism of temperature effect
on milk and milk composition is not known. Either the high
temperature directly affects appetite, thus decreasing feed intake
productivity and heat production or the need to reduce heat
production forces down appetite and hence lower feed intake.
The direct effect of temperature is further appreciated in a study
that defines optimum temperature (0C) for milk production as 21-
27 in Jersey and Holstein 29-32 in Brown Swiss and higher in
tropical breeds of cattle. Similarly, milk constituents namely;
butter fat, chloride, lactose and total nitrogen are affected when
temperature rises above 27-30.
(d) Effect of Temperature on Reproduction: Air temperatures do

not seem to affect reproductive cycle of cows, but bull fertility is
markedly influenced. High testicular temperatures adversely
affect spermatogenesis and hormonal system. Seminal
degeneration and temporary infertility have been reported in
Merino sheep exposed to temperature above 330C over a length
of time. Both sizes of egg and thickness of its shell decline when
laying fowls are exposed to high temperatures. Egg productivity
decline has been experienced in poultry farms in Nigeria.
However, incubation and brooding are favoured under high
temperature.
Humidity
As stated earlier, it is difficult to separate or single out the effect of

temperature, precipitation and humidity on animal production.
Evaporation is one of the important channels of heat loss. It depends on
ambient air temperature, the amount of available moisture in the
atmosphere (humidity), area of evaporating surface and the degree of air
movement. The amount of available moisture partly affects the rate of
evaporative heat loss from the skin and respiratory system of an animal.
High humidity adds to the heat load of the animal by depressing
evaporative heat loss with declining effect on feed intake and
productivity as demonstrated under temperature effects.
14
Solar Radiation
The quantity of solar radiation received in tropical region differs

profoundly from the temperate. For tropical breeds of animal, solar
radiation effects are scarcely noticeable because of their skin and eye
that are pigmented. When temperate breeds are exposed suddenly to
solar radiation of the tropics they suffer from sun burns or skin cancers,
epithelioma (eye infection from solar radiation) and other photosensitive
disorders. Solar radiation correlates with air temperature and thus partly
contributes to the ambient temperature which is a principal climatic
element affecting animal production. Management systems adopted in
the tropics are a means for minimising adverse effects of solar radiation
such as grazing in the night, clipping of excessive hair, grazing under
shades in the day time etc. Solar radiation may contribute or may even
create a more severe heat stress.
3.3 Indirect Effects of Climate
Effects of the climatic environment on animal production, biotic agents,

nutrition including the influence on animal feed supply and quality may
be regarded as indirect effect that does not bear on immediate conduct of
the animal but on its environment.
Effect on Feed Supply: Climate affects the quantity and quality of feed
available to the animal. Temperature, precipitation, daylight and
humidity limit plant growth and affect feed quality more drastically than
other climatic factors. In humid and sub humid areas where there is
sufficient rains, plant exhibit seasonal growth, hence seasonal
availability of forage. In the dry season when plant experience slow
growth or complete growth seizure, available grazing stuff declines and
animals lack enough to eat. In the arid and semi-arid zone lack of
sufficient grazing material results in seasonal movement in search of
forage feed in the wetter areas. The pattern of distribution of rainfall in
which tropical region experience torrential rainfall in a short duration
also partly explain rapid growth of plants within a short while followed
by fast decline in biomass and other nutritional qualities. Nutritional
quality of feed has to do with proportion of constituent nutrients,
availability and balance of these nutrients in the ratio needed by the
animals. Feed quality is most influenced by the climatic factors as
precipitation and humidity. Rapid growth of plants results in production
of high fibrous content of the forage feed as quality deteriorates with
age. Tropical forage compared with that of temperate matures quicker,
such that at same age the fiber content is higher; and digestible protein
and total digestible nutrients lower. Thus stocks in the tropics usually
have to digest more fibrous feeds and this may add to their heat load.
15
Studies have indicated the extreme sensitivity of cattle to heat stress. It

is noted that the balance of acetate available for purposes other than heat
production is increased as environmental temperature increases.
Ruminants in hot climate are more sensitive to imbalances of protein-
energy, which results in an increased heat production. High temperatures
and high humidity provide favourable breeding environment for internal
and external parasites, fungi and disease vectors. There is high incidence
of internal parasites in the humid tropics and in the wet season. In arid
areas, and in dry season, the incidence of insect pests and external
parasites remain a major health threat. As much as the vegetation-type
influences the incidence of insect pests/vectors of disease, so much is
climate indirectly affects animal production. Incidence of tsetse fly
infestation and distribution between the humid and sub humid area
explains the interaction between the climate and vegetation and their
influence on an animal production. Heat / humidity stress may have all
or some of the following effects:
· Increases the requirement for protein by the animal

· Decreases the efficiency with which metabolisable energy is
utilised
· Heat stressed animals must reduce feed intake
· An unbalanced diet which leads to excessive metabolic heat
production will compound the effects of heat stress due to
climatic condition.
Tropical climate favours the rapid deterioration and increases the cost of
handling animal products. In arid or humid climates of the tropics,
substantial quantity of animal products have been lost to putrefying
organisms which multiply rapidly under such conditions to cause
deterioration, spoilage and ‘food poisoning’ of enormous economic
value. This indirectly affects animal production in terms of high cost of
generating electricity and provision of refrigeration on the farm to
reduce wastage of valuable animal products.
3.4 Effects of Altitude and Soil Condition on Animal

Production
Altitude refers to height of a place over and above relative to the sea
level which is usually measured in metres. Three plateaux in Nigeria
exhibit micro-climatic conditions that differ slightly from the general
tropical environment in terms of relatively lower ambient temperature,
temperate vegetation and sometimes precipitation. This distinct
condition confers on the Obudu Hill, Jos and Mambilla Plateau
temperate like micro-environment on these places located within the
tropical Nigerian climate. As such, production of cattle and other
livestock may take the semblance of the temperate system of animal
16
production. Some of the environmental stress conditions earlier

enumerated may be unnoticed or moderated in the elevated places.
Physiological responses of animals supported by favourable micro-
climatic condition tend to stimulate improved animal performance in
terms of intake and metabolism of nutrients, growth and reproductive
activities. Federal and state governments, organizations and wealthy
individual scramble to establish livestock farms on Obudu Hill, Jos and
Mambilla Plateau as well as other unique environments in Nigeria to
take special advantage of the modified climate in such places for
improved animal production and tourism. The emerging growth in dairy
production in Kenya is partly attributed to high productivity of dairy
cattle located on high altitudes and highlands of the country. The
geographical principle of “the higher the relative altitude of given place,
the cooler it becomes” is characteristic of the micro-climatic
phenomenon experienced in most tropical highlands, which has led to
improved animal productivity.
The effect of soil condition on animal production is more or less

indirect. The nutrient composition in food and forage, and possibly
water depends on the soil content of micro and macronutrients. Relative
balance of the required nutrients available for growth, production and
reproductive performance in the body system of farm animal derive
primarily from soil fertility and retention of nutrients in crops and forage
which the animal consume. Palatability of certain forage feeds has been
ascribed to the fertility of the soil. Forage and crop residue upon which
tropical livestock survive are known to deteriorate rapidly in nitrogen
and biomass contents, and lack in P, Ca and Na partly as a result of soil
fertility factors, and these impact seriously on tropical livestock
productivity. A few soil borne bacterial diseases such as anthrax and
blackleg in contaminated sites may constitute a major problem on
animal health.
3.5 Effect of Tropical Climate on Animal Parasites, Vectors

and Diseases
In the vast tropical regions characterised by marked dry seasons and

periodic droughts, climate is often the most prominent factor influencing
animal health. It determines seasonal loss of body conditions,
production and periodic starvations in years or times with exceptionally
poor rains. Apart from this, the tropical climate stimulates proliferation
of infectious and parasitic diseases through recurring provision of a
favourable environment for development, growth and spread of such
diseases and their agents. The resulting problems they cause livestock
vary between various climatic regions, systems of management and
between breeds or populations of animals.
17
Climatic differences between regions have profound effects. It is

obvious that worm eggs survive far better in humid climates than in the
deserts, although surprisingly favourable conditions may occur locally
around water points in a dry area. In Africa, tsetse flies thrive in warmer
lower regions, while the tick vector of East Coast fewer prefers cooler,
higher areas of greater altitude. As a general rule, animal populations
tend to be adapted to the local diseases in the area in which they lived
many generations, especially as they are kept under traditional,
extensive management. Problems tend to crop up or increase, when they
are kept in crowded conditions, favourable to intensive disease
transmission and to concentrations of helminthes, eggs, coccidia and
ectoparasites.
Major climatic effect on animal diseases and parasites arise when

European cattle are introduced into the tropics. Quite apart from the
tropical climatic stress that further compound the poor health condition,
exotic breeds such as dermatophilosis, theileriosis, trypanosomiasis,
babesiosis, cocodiosis, tick infestation and a host of other diseases than
are populations of local cattle in the areas in which such diseases are
endemic. It is thus clear that co-evolution of host and parasite tend to
result in natural selection of greater resistance on the part of the host.
Quite often it is not so much a matter of breeds or species, but more of
populations locally selected by natural disease pressure.
Worm infestations are less spectacular than acute bacterial, viral or

protozoan diseases, and their harmful effects, loss of production or sub-
optimal performances, are often underestimated. Acute rise in the degree
of worm infestation during the rainy season in the tropics has been
reported. The use of existing knowledge on the epidemiology and
immunology combined with use of drugs have assisted a great deal to
limit infestations to levels where they are harmless or nearly so.
Eradication is hardly possible due to major part of the worm population
occurring in the environment in form of eggs and larvae.
Ectoparasites infestations apparently take over from the internal

parasites as rainfall diminishes into the dry season. Ectoparasites inflict
irritation, wounds and abscesses by their biting habit on the host. Thus
resulting in painful bites, restlessness, reduced production performance,
damages to hides, loss of blood, teat and part of the udder, causing
considerable economic waste. The conditions further predispose animals
to various parasitic and disease attack. Beside climatic conditions that
permit the prevalence and proliferation of the ectoparasites, alternative
hosts, especially wild beasts and domestic animals, harbor different
stages of the biological cycle of the parasites. Certain pocket of micro-
environments also provides suitable places for breeding of the
18
ectoparasites, making eradication much more cumbersome where such

programme exists.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Virtually all production aspects of animal agriculture are affected or

influenced by the unique tropical climate. It is very clear that the climate
impinges directly on the biological functions of the body system, animal
behaviour and production performance through such overbearing and
moderating influence of temperature, humidity, solar radiation, and
indirectly on feed supply, parasites and diseases, storage and handling of
animal products. Progress in animal production has for age long being
dependant on adjusting production system to suit the influence of the
climate or changing the body physiological functions and behaviour to
fix-up with climatic dictates. These fundamental factors underlie the
various systems of production, systems of housing, feeding,
reproduction and the overall management practices that are often
adopted, modified or imposed.
5.0 SUMMARY
The review has indicated the divergent effects of the tropical climate on
the production system, animal behaviour, productivity, feed production,
and animal healthcare with implications for management practices
required to reduce negative or enhance positive influence of the climate.
The knowledge of the production environment in the tropic are tools for
management practices in animal production. Students need to pay great
attention in undertaking theoretical and practical course in the subject
area.
1. Enumerate direct effects of tropical climate on animal production

and discuss their management implications.
2. Of what significance are the indirect effects of the climate on
animal productivity in Nigeria, giving specific examples?
3. Pinpoint rationales for restriction on importation of European
cattle breeds into Nigeria, citing associated climatic,
environmental health risks and their implications.
19
Anonymous (1990). “Livestock Pests and Diseases of Tropical Region.”

In: Preston, T.R., Mauricio, R. and Tang, H (Eds.). Integration of
Crop in Response to Increasing Population Pressure on
Available Resources. Proceedings of Seminar held on July11-14,
1989, in Mauritius.
Payne, W.J.A. (1990). An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the

Tropics. Fourth Edition. New York, U.S.A: Longman Scientific
& Technical (Publ.).
20
UNIT 3 CONCEPT OF ADAPTATION AND

ACCLIMATISATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Some Concepts of Adaptation and Acclimatisation
3.2 Adaptive Means of Coping with the Environment
3.3 Concept of Energy Balance in the Physical Environment
3.4 Effect of Stress on Animal Productivity
3.5 Mechanism of Body Defence against Stress
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit introduces students to some basic concepts in understanding

animal adaptation and acclimatisation to its environment. Students will
be in position to explain adaptive means by which animals cope with
their physical environment. One component defined by a few concepts is
the environmental energy balance, energy distribution and transfer. In
different environments and energy many times, the energy distribution
produces stress against which animals gradually build mechanism to
reduce and improve productivity. The effects of these on animal
productivity are important for students to appreciate just as it is
worthwhile to understand the various mechanisms of the animal body
against heat or cold stress.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
· explain the concepts of adaptation and acclimatisation

· identify various means by which animals cope with their
environments
· describe the concept of environmental energy balance,
distribution and transfer which often result in heat or cold stress
· discuss the effect of environmental stress on animal productivity
and mechanism of body defence against stress.
21
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Some Concepts of Adaptation and Acclimatisation
Due to the super-imposing influence of the environment on the survival,

behavior, character (expressed as performance, productivity and
responses) of farm animals, great consideration is often given to
modifying the environment by livestock owner to ensure its suitability.
Equally of primary importance is the need for adaptation and
acclimatisation of the hereditary and physical features of the animal
itself to the predominating environment if stock must survive under
favourable and harsh environment conditions. Adaptation and
acclimatisation of the animal to the environmental conditions form the
basis for any modification or adjustment required on the part of farmer
to apply into the management system for survival and improved
productivity of the stock. In other words, an animal must first and
foremost undergo natural selection for survivals in an environed before
improve growth, reproduction, and other productive traits can be
contemplated. By natural selection therefore, the genes favourable for
survival in that environment interact, interrelate, associate and
coordinate with the environment to ensure the survival of the animal.
This condition is known as adaptive norm which is an array of related

genotype capable of adjusting to the demands of the environment. It
embodies heterosis, adaptive polymorphism and homeostasis. From the
genetic point in view, fitness is the ability to produce offspring which
will survive and produce their likes. Thus, a biologically fit population
is one that is capable of adapting to its environment in such a way that it
can survive and reproduce. The fitness of animals includes more than
their ability to survive but also to withstand the demands of future
environment. These criteria of fitness or ability will depend on
adaptation variability, stability and rate of environmental change. It is
important to note that while domestication improves on all criteria of
fitness, diseases negate and reduce fitness to almost nil. It may be
deduced from the foregoing that living system not only respond to the
environment but also control and regulate their reactions towards
environmental effects. This is the concept of homeostasis.
Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the constancy of the internal environment of an animal

and the mechanism by which such constancy is maintained. It involves
regulation of many internal body variables as temperature, PH, salt,
water content, nutrient and chemical composition etc. mammals and
birds that occupy the highest evolutionary scale, possess the greatest
regulatory capacity and regulate the greatest number of internal factors
22
with the best precision through a deployment of appropriate

physiological adaptation and compensation.
Physiological Adaptation
Any change in the internal condition of an organism which favours its

survival during changes in the environment is known as physiological
adaptation. Physiological adaptation involves the possession of
mechanisms and capacity that allow organism to adjust itself to other
living organisms and to external physical environment. Physiological
adaptation may manifest as acclimatisation, acclimation, habituation,
learning and conditioning.
Acclimatisation: Acclimatisation refers to a long term adaptive

physiological adjustment which results in an increased tolerance to
continuous or repeated exposure to complex climatic conditions
occurring under natural condition.
Acclimation: Acclimation refers to adaptive changes to a single climatic

variable normally produces in an artificial environment e.g. increasing
temperature in a climatic chamber.
Habituation: habituation is a gradual change which may lead to a loss

of response as a result of repeated stimulation.
Learning: learning is the acquisition of a new response or a qualitative

change of an existing response which may be inform of inhibition or
increase of an existing response by a new stimulation.
Conditioning: Conditioning is the transfer of an existing response of

new stimulus. Besides physiological adaptation, other forms of
adaptations in organisms include biological and genetic adaptation.
Biological Adaptation
Biological adaptation involves the morphological, anatomical,

physiological, biochemical and behavioural characteristic of the animal
which promote welfare and favours survival in a specific environment.
Genetic Adaptation
Genetic adaptation refers to the heritable animal characteristics, which

favour the survival of a population in a particular environment; such
favourable characters are derived from evolutionary changes over many
generations.
23
It is important to note that individual animal has limit to its ability to

regulate its reaction according to genetic make-up. Animal has a defined
range of environmental variation within it can live. This is referred to as
Zone or Range of Tolerance, beyond which the animal will exhibit some
resistance, suffer some damage, and eventually succeed. The Zone or
Range of tolerance has upper and lower limits at either ends also known
as Upper and Lower Incident Lethal levels at which death occurs.
The micro-climatic environment has the most profound influence on

animal production, physiology and behavior. It is determined by such
meteorological factors as: air temperature, air pressure, relative humidity
of air, wind density and air density as well as radiation (defined as the
heating and cooling of the atmospheric air). Man can modify his micro-
climate by building houses, offices, travelling in cars, planes, ships,
wearing clothes etc. animals on the other hand modify the micro-climate
by burrowing or moving into or from these meteorological factors in
search of warmth, cold or calm. The behavioural entrance or escape
from inclement meteorological conditions is, however, limited in
providing the required optimum body conditions at all times. The
primary means by which animal control, or respond to variations in the
meteorological factors, and thereby maintain its body conditions, is
through the flow of energy or total energy exchange between the animal
and environment.
Energy is the ability to do work. It is regarded biologically as the source

of life and movement. All life process involves in one way or other the
expenditure of energy through work. An animal cannot continuously
gain or lose energy to the environment, otherwise it will die. Thus
animal tolerates energy gains or losses from their immediate
environment only within certain limits in the Zone or Range of
Tolerance.
An animal exchanges its energy with its environment (micro-climate)

through radiation, convention, condition, evaporation and metabolism.
The pathways of energy flow are many and characterised by direct
interaction between animal and its environment. In order to survive in a
given environment over a long period of time, the energy gain of an
animal must be equal to energy loss.
The energy balance of an animal is therefore expressed as:
Ra – Re Cv Cd Ev Mh = 0 (thermo-neutrality)
Where: Ra = Radiation absorbed

Re = Radiation emitted
Cv = Convection
24
Cd = Conduction
Ev = Evaporation
Mg = Metabolic heat
NB: The positive signs represent gain of energy and the negative signs
depict loss of energy. After a long term, the total must add up to zero,
but within a short period there can be loss or gain of energy while an
animal is cooling down or warming up.
Modes of Energy Transfer
1. Radiation: Radiation is a form of energy transfer in wavelength

by electromagnetic waves. Radiant energy is ubiquitous (i.e.
found everywhere) and is emitted from all objects whenever the
surface temperature of the object exceeds absolute zero. Energy
loss by radiation is one of the primary sources of heat loss by
animals. Objects at ambient temperature (23 – 250 C) radiate
mostly infrared rays at long wavelength and beyond. Objects
at very high temperature e.g. the sun radiate shorter
wavelength in the ultraviolet and blue region. The amount of
energy radiated is proportional to the 4th power of the surface
temperature in absolute degree i.e.
Where δ = Stetan – Boltzman Constant

E = Total energy radiated/M2/S
T0 = Temperature (Absolute) of surface radiation
Also,
E = e δ T4
Where e = Emissivity
Radiation in the natural environment is derived from 2 – main

sources: high temperature of the sun (direct source) and the
extended source which is the thermal radiation from the ground,
trees clouds or atmosphere. An animal exposed to direct solar
radiation, absorbs certain quantity of incident energy depending
on the surface exposed, angle of surface and absorbance of the
surface. The absorbance of the surface determines the greatest
percentage of the incident radiation absorbed. An animal with a
black body surface absorbs all the incident energy and its body
temperature is much more affected by the quantity of radiation
falling on its surface.
25
2. Conduction: When an object is in contact with another,

molecular motion can be transferred from one object to another
by a process of bombardment similar to diffusion activity. Such
transfer of molecular motion is known as thermal conduction. Air
for example, is a poor thermal conductor while water is a good
one. Conduction however occurs only from regions of higher to
region of lower temperature. It is only the heat that is transferred
and not the material.
3. Convection: this is a special form of heat transfer by conduction.

It occurs where the surrounding medium is fluid e.g. air or water.
Upon increase in temperature air or water rises due to its
decreasing density (becoming less dense) and the layer of fluid
next to the warm object is replaced by another mass of cooler
(more dense) fluid. The exchange of energy by convection is
proportional to:
a. Surface area
b. Temperature differential between animal surface and free air
beyond the boundary layer
c. Convection coefficient
C α A (Ts – Tc)
C = hcA (Ts – Tc)
Where hc = Coefficient of convection which depends on thermal

conductivity and thickness of the boundary.
A = Surface area
Ts – Tc = Temperature differential between animal surface and free air
beyond the boundary layer.
The Boundary Layer plays an important role in maintaining body
temperature. The concept of Boundary Layer is given as: Just
immediately to the surface of the animal is a bound layer of air which is
more or less stationary and it is the transfer zone between the
integument temperature (skin temperature) and temperature of the free
air beyond the boundary layer. As it is already known heat is always
transferred along the temperature gradient occur between the surface
temperature of animal and air temperature of short distance away from
the surface. The rate of heat conduction across the boundary layer is
dependent on:
(1) the thickness of the layer

(2) the temperature differential between the skin and fluid
26
(3) the thermal conductivity of the fluid

(4) movement or stillness of air.
Transfer of energy across the boundary involves two methods: by
molecular conduction across the boundary layer and into the free air and
by mass movement of air. Natural convection occurs when there is no
wind or free air while forced convection occurs when there is wind to
transfer energy.
3.2 Adaptive Means of Coping with the Environment

Temporary acclimatisation has to do with adaptation to or tolerance to, a
short duration of heat stress rather than to more moderate continuous
heat stress. Temporary acclimatisation effect of the heat stress. The wide
changes in heat stress between the day and night in three dry zones and
between seasons of the year readily prepare animal to acclimatise and
adapt easily.
Permanent acclimatisation to climate stress may be due to changes in the
behavior of the animal or to changes in physiological relations that may
or may not be inherited. Natural or artificial selection for morphological
characteristics that assist the animal to acclimatised may be needed for
permanent acclimatisation such changes in behavior of domestic
livestock ought to form good management aims and indicators to
facilitate the adaptation. Common adaptive behaviours to heat stress by
tropical livestock include sluggish movement to reduce muscular heat
production, raising of the wings among poultry to allow for air
circulation and heat loss; tendency of livestock to graze at night and
more often seek to stay under shade in the hot day; drinking of large
volume of water; slow rate and reduced consumption of feed; pigs
Walloons in water ponds or moist environment and often stretch
themselves in lying position. Physiological adaptations to tropical
environment on the other hand are several and, often, not easily
observed. These include:
· decreasing the body metabolic rate and varying the body
temperature
· varying coater turnover (loss) by concentration of waste products
in urine to conserve body water
· recycling of urea in the saliva to conserve nitrogen in period
when forage is lacking
· varying tolerance to salt concentration in drinking water
· decreasing certain hormonal activity, for example, the thyroid
and adrenal hormones
· panting or reduction of body heat through the short and quick
breath.
27
There are also morphological adaptations or characteristics that help to

achieve environmental acclimatisation especially to temperate animal to
tropical condition. These include:
· possession of large skin area in relation to live weight especially

develop or large comb
· skin pigmentation, with short and light coloured hair to reduce
heat and light radiation absorption
· tendency to have thin layer of subcutaneous fat deposit
· possession of long leg by Desert sheep or goats to cover long
distance in search of feed and water.
Most adaptative features are derived from natural selection and they
often form the basis for ultimate development of a new and more
adapted breed or strain with minor manipulation by man, as the
manager. Breeding of animal for higher productivity must recognise
important adaptive traits that may help to achieve good performance.
Similarly, importation of livestock from a distinct environment to
another need to take into consideration adaptation to major climatic
factors and disease and parasite criteria, feed situation, prices of inputs
and products as well.
3.3 Concept of Energy Balance in the Physical Environment
Since mammals and avian that form bulk of farm animals are
homeotherms and hence maintain a constant body temperature, they
possess means for producing and losing heat during extreme cold or heat
conditions respectively.
Hear Production: Animal produce heat when transforming chemical

energy of food into work. Under normal circumstances a grazing animal
while in the sun may gain heat directly or indirectly from solar radiation.
The added solar heat and metabolic heat generated from food and
muscular activities form the animal heat gain.
The heat gains in one animal vary from another as a result of:
(a) the intensity of heat production by different organs varies

depending of the weight of the organ. On net weight basis, the
brain generates heat faster than the muscular tissue due to higher
density of the former
(b) the body size also affects heat requirement, for instance, smaller
sized animals require a greater heat production per unit weight
than larger sized animals if the same temperature is to be
maintained. This is because the smaller the animal, the greater the
surface area and the more the heat loss
28
(c) specific surface area which is the ratio of surface to volume

determines heat loss. This is because with increasing body size,
the surface to volume of the animal increases, and therefore the
relative surface from which is dissipated increased. When heat
production is better expressed per unit surface area, the effect of
body size is largely eliminated. Heat production is better
expressed in terms of body surface area.
Evaporation: Evaporative water loss occurs from the skin after it has
been secreted by the sweat glands. Other areas of evaporative of water
losses include respirative water loss and sweating. The two forms of
water are two major processes used in temperature regulation in animals.
The process of evaporation of water requires a large amount of energy
and is therefore used to cool the body of animal. Evaporation occurs
only when the air is not saturated already with water.
Metabolic and Chemical Heat Transfer
With increasing environmental temperature body temperature for

homeotherm is constant while that for poikilotherm increases. Increasing
ambient temperature for poikilotherms increases the metabolic rate and
decreases with decreasing ambient temperature similar normal chemical
reaction. However, with homeotherms, the metabolic rate decreases with
increasing temperature and increases with decreasing temperat ure. Other
chemical reactions like muscular activities, shivering and metabolic
reaction of the liver are also involved e.g. liver apart from producing
heat also releases glucose into circulation which is a basic requirement
for chemical temperature regulation.
29
Factors Affecting Heat Production
Ingestion of food leads into increase in heat production which varies

greatly with the type of nutrients ingested. Also in ruminants the rumen
micro-organism constitutes an auxiliary source of heat (about 10 per
cent) in addition to the animal’s moral heat production. The foetuses as
well as lactation add up to the amount of heat production by the dam.
During severe cold or active physical exercise, the heat generation by
muscular activities increases while the heat from abdominal organ
decreases. In cattle and sheep, heat production is about 10 per cent
greater in standing position than in lying position. In pregnant animal,
foetus metabolism together with the acceleration of body processes of
the dam result in an increment in the total heat production.
The presence of brown fat is another source of heat production. Brown

fat is found in rodents but has been found in other animals including
man. It is especially useful in homeotherms exposed to cold and
hibernators. The brown adipose tissue is distributed around vital organs
of the thorax, along sympathetic ganglia of the central nervous system,
around the cervical and thoracic segment of the spinal cord to prevent
loss of heat and excessive cold from inactivating the function of the vital
organs. Both the metabolic and thermo-genic actions of the brown fat
are by stimulation from sympathetic nervous system under cold
condition.
Heat Loss: Heat loss from animal body is by two means:
(1) sensible heat loss i.e. through radiation, convection and

conduction
(2) insensible heat loss which is through evaporation of water.
Heat loss by means of sensible heat loss offers little or no control for the
animal to regulate unlike insensible heat loss in which animal exerts
marked control. Heat transfer by sensible heat can be in either direction
of loss or gain, while insensible heat transfer is only along one direction
i.e. through loss from animal to the environment.
Heat transfer involves two forms of gradient:
· Inner gradient and out gradient. Inner gradient concerns with heat
flows from the core of the body to the surface of the body.
· Outer gradient on the other hand refers to the heat that goes from
the surface of the body to the environment. Heat transport along
the inner gradient is affected by conduction across the tissues and
by convection by the blood. Along the outer gradient, heat
transport is by the following:
30
1. Convection across the hair coat and boundary layer of still air
surrounding the body
2. Convection from the boundary layer of air to the fully moving air
3. By radiation from the tips of the air across the boundary layer
4. Evaporation across the hair coat and boundary layer.
3.4 Effect of Stress on Animal Productivity
Generally heat result in increase in the blood volume and a decline in

red blood count. However, longtime heat stress at moderate level leads
to haemo-concentration as a result of heat loss. Heat loss also creates an
acid surplus due to formation of lactate, metabolic or respiratory
acidiosis which may exhaust the bicarbonate buffer system of the blood
resulting in a fall of PH. The increase in blood volume also leads to a
drop in total protein concentration. The decline in tyroxine secretion is
accompanied by increase in ACTH (growth hormone) released and also
induces the release of vasopressin from the posterior pituitary gland.
Other effects of heat stress on specific productive parameters are
discussed as follows:
1. Effect of heat of reproductive Function: In the male, heat stress

impairs testicular function resulting in depressed
spermatogenesis, lower testosterone function before leydig cells,
delayed puberty, and decrease libido. There is also an increase in
sperm abnormalities and impaired integrity of sertoli cells.
Heating the testises to abnormally high temperature cause a
complete cessation of spermatogenesis. There is also a decline in
sperm mobility, sperm density and fluctuation in seminal PH.
In female animals there is delayed puberty, reduced ovulation

rate, increased incidence of silent heat. Short oestrous and
prolonged oestrous cycle. Other effects are reduced conception
rate, increased rate of embryonic mortality, increased litter
abnormality, increased incidences of abortion and therefore
depressed little size, low birth rate, poor growth rate and poor
lactation.
2. Effect of Light on Reproduction: Certain animals are seasonal

breeders while other breed throughout the year. Experiments have
shown that exposing sheep to constant photoperiod reduces
spermatogenesis and if the photoperiod is reduced to 13 hours
daily there is increase in ovulation rate. Seasonal fluctuation in
day length is an important factor affecting the length of breeding
in some other parts of the world except the tropics. In ewes the
constant photoperiod is not as efficient as reducing photoperiod
in inducing oestrus.
31
3. Effect of Climate on Egg Production: It has been demonstrated

that among all factors affecting egg production, temperature,
humidity and light play a major role. An increase in temperature
above 270 C, reduces the number of egg laid per year and egg
shell thickness. If temperature is above 270C the shell thickness is
reduced and the egg quality is reduced. Of all the parts produced,
the egg yolk is the least susceptible to heat stress while the
albumen is most susceptible to high relative humidity also lower
egg production.
In birds, the control of sexual maturity depends largely on the pattern of

photoperiod. Exposing bird to increasing day length is known to hasten
sexual maturity while shorter day length delays sexual maturity.
Increasing the day length also causes an increase in the number of egg
laid per year.
However, beyond certain period of day length, increasing the

photoperiod will make the bird photo-refractory i.e. resistant to
photoperiod with cessation of reproductive.
3.5 Mechanism of Body Defence against Stress
Mechanism of Body Defence against Cold
The animal body can defend itself against cold by three means namely:
storing or conserving heat, through insulation and by increasing heat
production or a combination of all. Increasing the body insulation
against cold is more economical considering energy expenditure
involved.
Differences in species nurtured by adaptation have favoured economic

ways of supporting higher body insulation to animals living in cold
climates. The body insulation is in three classes:
1. Peripheral Tissue: This act by vasoconstriction of the

coetaneous and sub-coetaneous to reduce the temperature
gradient from the skin surface to the environment and also by the
aid of subcutaneous fat.
2. Hair Coat Insulation: This depends entirely on trapped air

which occupies over 95 per cent of volume of the air coat. The
insulating capacity increases with thickness and air density of the
air coat. For example, temperature and arctic species of animals
tend to develop thick air coat while most tropical animal have
thin air coat. There is also a non-linear fall of temperature along
the hair coat, so that as the body size of animal decreases below
32
certain level, the level of the hair coat decreases. However, wind
and rain greatly reduce the efficiency of hair coat as insulating
mechanism. But the impeding effect of wind diminishes with
increasing hair coat density.
3. Insulation of the Air: This insulation is caused by the layer of

air or boundary layer adhering to the surface of the hair coat in
the hairy species and to surface of the body in non-hairy species.
It varies from one specie to another and is almost independent of
the body size. The insulating mechanisms of the boundary layer
decreases with increasing air speed.
Mechanism of Body Defence against Heat
This can be effected by:
1. Behavioural means e.g. moving away from heat source, drinking

more water, looking for shed or cold surface
2. Reduction in body insulation e.g. (a) vasodilatation to the ears,
legs and tongues as more blood flows there to dissipate heat by
taking advantage of hairlessness of the body parts. (b) Shedding
of hair: If environmental temperature is equals to body
temperature, vasodialation ceases to be very effective.
3. Increase in temperature loss: This occurs either from the skin or
respiratory tract. The evaporation from skin is by sweating
through sensible and insensible heat loss. Loss of heat energy
from respiratory tract is by panting as often noted in chicken or
dog.
4. By lower rate of heat production if exposed to heat stress. The
appetite drops and animal consume less feed. It also reduces its
motor and thyroid activities. The thyroid gland regulates basal
metabolism for homeotherm.
5. Increase in the reflectance of hair coat to solar radiation. Animal
with lighter hair coat reflect more heat than those with darker
coat colour. The relative importance of cutaneous and respiratory
evaporation varies from specie to another. A sweating animal
controls the amount of water while a panting animal controls the
amount for larger proportion of total evaporation than European
type of cattle. Also within a breed, heat tolerant animal have
higher cutaneous and lower respiratory evaporation than heat
intolerant counterpart.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Animals living in different ecologies of the world have for several

decades and for every moment of the day developed means for coping
33
with their environment as a matter of survival. Farm animals expectedly

must go beyond survival to improve their productivity notwithstanding
the degree of stress to contend with. Breeding or introduction of animal
into an environment should recognise important adaptive traits and
concepts that may help to achieve good performance. Consideration
must be given to effects and adaptive mechanisms for different stress
factor.
5.0 SUMMARY
The concept of fitness of farm animal extends from ability to survive

now and withstand environmental demands in future, to ability to
produce sufficiently to justify cost of domestication. Homeostasis,
physiological, biological and genetic adaptations are concepts in
understanding the means by which animal cope with their environment.
The concept of energy balance forms the central pivot which tilts the
environmental stress in different directions for animal to respond.
Effective responses of animals to environmental stress often result in
depressed productivity even in attempt to apply mechanisms to ward off
the pervading stress condition. The responsibility of the producer is to
understand these concepts in the management of the stock for survival
and higher productivity by controlling the overbearing influence of the
environment.
1. Define and explain the following concepts.
(a) Heterosis
(b) Homeostasis
(c) Habituation
(d) Conditioning
(e) Learning
2. List and discuss the various modes of energy transfer

3. Describe the influence of heat stress on five specific animal
performance traits.
34
Adeyemo, O. Heath, E., Adadevoh, B. K., Steinbach, J. and Olaloku,

E.A. (1979). “Some Physiological and Behavioural Responses in
Bos indicus and Bos taurus Heifers Acclimatised to the Hot,
Humid Seasonal Equatorial Climate.” International Journal of
Biometerology 23 (3): 231 – 237.
Bligh, J., Cloudsley – Thompson, J. L. & MacDonald, A.G. (eds.).

Environmental Physiology of Animal. Oxford, U.K: Blackwell
(Publ.)
Findlay, J.D. (1954). Climate Physiological of Farm Animals. Met,

Monogr 2: 19 – 29.
Johnson, H.D. (1985). “Physiological Responses and Productivity of

Cattle.” In: Yousef, M.K. (ed). Stress Physiology in Livestock.
Vol. II: Ungulates. Boca Raton: CRC Press (Publ.)
35
UNIT 4 SYSTEMS OF LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Extensive System of Livestock Production
3.2 Intensive System
3.3 Semi-Intensive System
3.4 Integrated Livestock Production System
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
All systems of livestock production are related to their environment. An

understanding of why a system has developed with its particular local
characteristics is essential to any study of livestock production or
attempt to improve on it. Two broad systems of livestock production are
found in the tropics – the traditional and modern production systems.
Each has several subdivisions depending on the prevailing climatic
condition and other factors; environment, farm system, legislation, level
of urbanisation, degree of adaptation, carrying capacity of the grazing
land.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
· identify and describe system of livestock production as well as

their sub-systems
· enumerate factors responsible for the adoption of a particular
system of production under different circumstances of time,
season etc
· list specific advantages and disadvantages associated with
pastoralism and ranching systems of cattle production
· recommend feedlot system as a strategy to meet sudden rise in
demand of meat or live animals
· appraise integration of system of livestock production with other
system agricultural production or practices.
36
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Extensive System of Livestock Production
The traditional systems of livestock husbandry have evolved in response

to climate and environmental factors. In the dry parts of the tropics,
flocks or herd are large and often travel long distances. These are also
known as extensive systems.
Under extensive production systems, livestock graze and browse large

area of land that usually of a marginal nature, and unsuitable for other
agricultural use. The distance herds or flock move daily to reach out for
water, shelter at night and pastures dictates the degree sedentarisation or
normadism. A sedentary system is one with fixed homestead and steady
grazing area. A large proportion of tropical stock of mixed or individual
species of cattle, sheep and goats may be grazed at same time. Within
the extensive system two traditional subsystems are recognized, both of
which have utilised marginal areas successfully for very long time.
These are nomadism and transhumance. Nomadism was widespread
until recently, when it is gradually transforming into sedentary and
transhumance systems. Camps are fixed at different points along their
route of movement depending upon the amount of water and pastures
available in an area. Political boundaries are often ignored in the course
of movement, which often pose legal constraints and other bottleneck.
Transhumance is a common feature in the tropics involving movement
and seasonal pastures as well as between different regional areas. Apart
from wide cycle movement, altitude transhumance, also occurs between
lowland areas and mountain top in response to temperature. Shuttling
occur specially between very dry and wetter are to avoid pest infestation
and in search of good quality and abundant forage and water as well
which vary with change of seasons between north and south in the sub-
Saharan Africa. The practice is also found in other parts of Africa, South
East Asia, Near and Middle East, Mediterranean Europe and South
America.
Several reasons other than a search for forage and water accessibility are
given for transhumance practice that often take different modes.
Animals from different families may be grouped together as one large
flock or herd for transhumance expedition at a season, hired herder may
be employed and mixed species could be involved. Goats are often
move to pastures at higher altitudes than cattle because they are more
agile and can better utilise sparse vegetation rather swampy in river or
lake basins. The migratory movement is not an aimless wondering as
erroneously misconstrued in the past, and number of reasons may be
adduced, namely:
37
1. To find feed and water throughout the year for stock

2. To avoid flooding in wet areas
3. To permit cropping of homestead for food production
4. To avoid discuss and pest infestation known to be prevalent in a
particular place
5. To afford full utilisation of grazing resources perhaps lying waste
in the marginal land areas
6. To conserve and improve soil fertility for seasonal agricultural
production, in which crop residues are consumed by livestock
and in return they give manure.
The Fulani in West Africa are transhumant. Their permanent bases are
in areas of seasonal crop production. In rainy season they move into
tropical savanna and desert scrub. In the dry season they return to
cultivated areas where their animal feed on crop residues; they may even
extend further into the fringes of the forest zone. Herd and flock sizes
may range from 50 – 300 heads per herder with a herd or flock
composition of 55 per cent mature female, 25 per cent mature male and
25 per cent young female of sheep, cattle or goats.
3.2 Intensive System
The intensive system of livestock production refers to management

practice where animals are confined and by implication are not allowed
to forage or fend for themselves under similar practice; a fenced land
area may be designated as grazing area or paddock, usually adjacent to
animal pens. Often high cost resulting from labour costs, expensive feed
or a large investment in one of the farm assets such as land, housing or
animals, as such products are highly priced and optimum productivity is
desirable to achieve success or economic viability. Housing facilities
managed under hygienic condition are provided for the stock and
appropriate medications and health management are offered as well. Of
significant importance is the provision of good quality feed that is
sufficiently balanced in the required nutrients and quantity for animals
to perform optimally under confinement. Agro-industrial and farm
wastes constitute bulk of feed material for intensively managed stock.
Stall feeding is the method commonly adopted in this system.
Ranching System
The system is commonly found in lowland, Europe, where it was

introduced by colonial settlers into Africa and Asia. Herds or flocks are
kept in large sizes on an expense of land area surrounding by fence.
Imported breeds or their crosses are stocked under ranches. Pasture as
the main source of feed receives quality improvement in form of
agronomic inputs, maintenance, conservation and control. As such,
38
control or rotational grazing form part of daily management practices to

ensure sufficient good quality forage throughout the year. Young
ruminants are engaged in creep grazing to permit access to better and
uncontaminated pasture than the older stock. It ensures sufficient time
for the grazed portion to recover and to produce sufficient re-growth.
Specific time for recovery of a pasture is strictly monitored to ensure
production of non-fibrous but highly digestible forage. A rotational or
spelling period of seven weeks is usually allowed for vegetation
recovery of a paddock to obtain good nutritional balance. However, a
longer period of 10 weeks is required to control parasitic worm
infestation in a paddock striking a balance between nutritional and
veterinary requirements may be difficult, however, behoves the manager
to reach out for appropriate compromise. Ranching system depends
importantly on availability of god quality forage throughout the year for
encamped stock. It is therefore recommended for areas with sufficient
rainfall to support good growth of pasture grass.
Intensive Finishing (Feedlot Fattening)
Intensive finishing represents the final stage in meat-type production

system for ruminant animals. Although it requires relatively expensive
inputs, the high-valued products often derived more than compensate for
the cost of production. The span of intensive finishing is usually limited
to a period of 3 – 4 months for cropping a set of fatteners. Where large
number of stock is to be kept together in a confinement, standard of
management needs to be high. Finishing units are located in near towns
and large urban centres where there is great demand for meat. The
intensity of management of inputs reflects on the high quality of
feedstuff offered and veterinary services administered, which to a large
extent determine functionality and success of the system. Intensive
finishing is usually programmed to target religious period when it
becomes obligatory for adherents of Islamic faith to slaughter animals
for sacrifice.
3.3 Semi-Intensive System
As may be observed in the foregoing, varieties of subsystems have been

adopted to take advantage of low-cost of the extensive system and the
high productivity of the intensive as circumstances may dictate under
different operational environment. Many times, such adapted system
takes the semblance of both the intensive and extensive system, forming
a hybrid system between the two. Most improvement efforts on the
traditional extensive system deliberately avoid high cost of the intensive
system to adapt to semi-intensive system. Under such intensive system,
a limited number of stocks, specially breeding female animal is confined
only at night in an enclosure in which there is a shelter large enough for
39
all animals. Grazing with the animal is done daily using a paid labourer
in addition to concentrate feed, mineral salt block and clean water. Herd
or flock has access to cultivated leguminous fodder and vaccination
against common diseases of internal and external infections. Breeding is
highly controlled.
The system is amenable to integration with other farming systems and

may take different forms in terms of its operation under different
production conditions. A few of subsystem management practices under
semi-intensive systems are listed as follows:
· Shepherded grazing
· Grazing in fenced paddock
· Tethering
· Scavenging
3.4 Integrated Livestock Production System
A good number of production practices have evolved which entail

integration of one system of livestock production with another
agricultural practice. Most intensification practices of this nature are still
on trial or at experimental stage, while a few cases are actually in
practice. Livestock production intensification practices often arise from
constraints of increasing pressure of urbanisation, complementarily
between systems in terms of benefit or resource sharing, disposal of
waste or manure, legislation etc.
An example of such intensification of livestock production is the age

long practice of crop-livestock integration. In this system, crops are
grown primarily or partly for feeding livestock and the latter is
employed in land preparation and soil fertility improvement using the
animal manure.
In urban areas, integration of poultry production with aquaculture fish

farming has been reported. The poultry droppings are channeled into the
fish pond to enrich and fertilize the pond to support growth of plankton
on which fish feed. In places where ducks are kept as poultry, swimming
in the pond also helps to aerate the water. Similar intensification practice
has been suggested between small ruminant and pond fish production. In
swamp rice growing area, introduction of fish into irrigated rice farm
has been suggested.
In certain parts of Nigeria, crop residue (or leftover) of farm harvest are
deliberately preserved for grazers to feed on, and encamp for a specified
period to ensure sufficient dropping of manure for cereal production in
40
the next growing season. The advantage of intensification is

considerable and be enumerated.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Several systems of livestock production abound in the tropical area in

response to the environment. The main traditional and modern systems
with their subdivisions arose from climatic and seasonal effects, farming
systems, carrying capacity etc. the advantages and problems of each
system requires new modifications, adaptation and adoption depending
on certain factors and capacity of the farmer.
5.0 SUMMARY
All systems of livestock production evolve from dictates of the

environment where production activities take place. Systems are
developed in response to the environment to create convenience for
productive performance. There are two systems of animal common in
the tropical Africa – the traditional and modern production systems each
with several subdivisions. The attributes of extensive, intensive and
semi-intensive systems continue to be attractive to the practitioners
despite their challenges. The challenges also stimulate further search for
new methods including integration method and various modifications
under the influence of certain controlling factors.
1. List and describe systems of livestock production you are familiar
with under the tradition system
2. Identify and list factors affecting the system of livestock
production in Nigeria
3. Discuss advantage and disadvantage associated with pastoralism
and ranching systems
Bayer, W. (1986). “Agropastoral Herding Practices and Grazing

Behaviour of Cattle in the Sub-Humid Zone of Nigeria.” ILCA
Bulletin (24): 8 – 13.
Cossins, N.J. (1985). “The Productivity and Potential of Pastoral
Systems.” ILCA Bulletin (21): 10 – 15.
Le Houerou, H.N. (1980). “Browse in Africa.” ILCA (Publ.) Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia.
Wilson, R.T. (1982). “Livestock Production in Central Mali.” ILCA
Bulletin (15), 23 pg.
41
UNIT 5 PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES IN

LIVESTOCK BREEDING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Methods of Genetic Improvement
3.2 Techniques and Processors for Testing Performance
3.3 Improvement Programmes
3.4 Cross Breeding and Artificial Insemination
3.5 Some Inherited Defects to be Avoided
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The early part of this course focused on the effects of the tropical
environment on animal production. In this unit, another important factor
controlling performance of farm animal will be examined. Genetic
factors relate to the influence heritable characters from parents and
ancestors have on the performance ability of an animal. Genetic factors
differ from environmental factor which do influence performance of
animal arising from the external environment rather than from inherited.
The two principal tools (genetic and environmental factors) are available
for livestock owner to use for improving animal performance. For each
to be used successfully, the other must be properly taken care of. If
maximum improvement is to be derived from selection, animals should
be reared in most favourable environment. This unit will offer basic
principles and techniques used for animal breeding for all important
performance traits.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
· explain the basic principles of animal breeding

· recognise heritable characters and methods for genetic
improvement
· explain the procedures and use of artificial insemination for
successful breeding improvement
· develop improvement programme
· identify inherited defects.
42
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Methods of Genetic Improvement
The farmer has two main ways in which he can attempt to raise the
performance of the animals. He can either improve their environment or
try to change their genetic make-up in order to increase their genetic
potential. The various traits or characteristics of a pig for example are
genetically controlled and inherited through genes, which contain the
basic hereditary material. These genes can be manipulated to achieve
genetic improvement by either increasing the frequency of favorable
genes or combinations of genes by selection, or by introducing new
genes into the population by crossbreeding with other breeds or strains.
Selection for Improvement
Genetic traits can be divided into simple traits governed by a single pair
of genes, such as shape of the ears or coat colour, or complex traits,
controlled by many genes, which include the performance traits such as
growth rate, feed –conversion efficiency and carcass quality. With
simple traits genes are normally dominant and recessive. If present in
the heterozygote (i.e. a mixture of dominant and recessive genes), the
dominant gene suppresses the expression of the recessive gene.
Recessive traits will thus only appear when two recessive genes come
together in the homozygous form this means that occurrence of a trait in
a breeding programme can be predicted. As an example, if a recessive
trait was desirable (e.g. prick ears) then only prick –eared animals would
be used as parents. This pattern of inheritance was first discovered by an
Austrian monk called Mendel, in his classic work with green peas, and
is therefore known as Mendelian inheritance.
In the case of complex traits, the situation is entirely different. If we

take growth rate as an example, within a given environment the
individuals, who possess a greater frequency of genes favouring growth
rate will exhibit superior growth rates compared to the rest of the
population. Thus, if only animals with superior growth rates are selected
as parents, this will increase the frequency of the favourable genes in the
next generation. This may be illustrated in a population of pigs where
selection is being considered according to growth rate, and only the
animals growing faster than 750g/day would be used as parents.
The major factors which affect the efficiency and genetic progress in
selection programme are as follows:
43
· Definition of Objectives
It is of paramount that selection objectives are clearly defined before a

breeding programme is embarked upon, and that they are not subject to
constant change. This is particularly important in tropical conditions,
where traits such as adaptability, coat colour and ability to produce on
low-quality diets may be more critical than growth rates or carcass
characteristics. Priorities may be completely reversed, e. g. fat pigs are
preferred to thin pigs in some situations, The number of traits in a
breeding programme must be kept to a minimum, as the more traits are
selected for simultaneously, the slower the progress for each trait.
· Selection Differential
This is a measure of the superiority of the selected parents over the mean
of the population from which they are derived; the bigger the
differential, the greater the genetic progress. Clearly, the larger the
variation in a heritable trait in a population, that is the scope for a bigger
selection differential, the faster the rate of genetic progression.
· Heritability
Heritability is a measure of the proportion of the superiority of the

parents above their contemporaries which on average is passed to the
offspring. More precisely, the heritability indicates the proportion of the
total phenotypic variance that is due to additive genetic effects.
Conversely, a heritability of 100 per cent indicates that the trait is totally
heritable whereby differences in environment between animals will not
affect the phenotypic variation of such a trait. In general in the pig,
reproductive traits tend to be of low heritability, growth traits of medium
heritability and carcass traits of relatively high heritability. Genetic
progress will always be greater when selecting for traits of higher
heritability (Table 5.1).
44
TABLE 5.1: Some Heritability Estimates for Important

Traits in the Pig
Heritability %
Number piglets born per little litter

Litter-size at weaning 15
Daily weight 7
Daily weight gain 9
Feed-conversion efficiency 21-41
Dressing-out percentage 20-49
Mean backfat 26-40
Carcass length 43-74
40-87
Generation Interval
This is defined as the average age of the parents when their offspring are
born, and represent the time interval between generations. The shorter
the generation interval, the more rapid the genetic progress, and if young
boars are mated with gilts and replaced by selected progeny after one
litter, the generation turnover can be as short as one year. Even in the
normal situation where it is assumed that progeny born in first-to-fifth
litters are equally likely to be chosen as replacements, pigs with an
average generation interval of 2-2.5 years still have a great advantage
over other domestic meat-producing species such as sheep (three-four
years) and cattle (three-five years).
Accuracy of Measurement of Units
The success of a selection programmed is entirely dependent, in the first

instance on the accuracy of the records that are used. In this case
important traits are easy to measure, e.g. live weight gain, but in others it
is more difficult to be accurate, e.g. feed –conversion efficiencies and
carcass measurements. Before embarking on a selection programme, it is
essential to ascertain that the traits involved can be accurately measured.
Estimating the Response to Selection
Once the values for heritability (h2) and selection differential (SD) and
generation interval (GI) have been determined, the genetic gain per year
can be estimated.
45
3.2 Techniques and Processors for Testing Performance
Progeny-Testing
As the boar has a relatively large influence on the characteristics which

the next generation of a pig herd will inherit, testing systems have
tended to concentrate on improvement of boars. Boar progeny-testing
systems have been in operation throughout the world for a long time and
are based on measuring the relative merit of a boar’s progeny from
several sows. This obviously gives a true indication of what a boar may
be able to contribute towards the genetic improvement of a herd.
However, in addition to being very expensive progeny-testing takes a
long time in order to accumulate the data required to evaluate a boar,
which makes him relatively old before his potential is known. This
reduces his useful life. Consequently, as a routine system, progeny-
testing has largely been superseded for traits of higher heritability by the
performance test. Nevertheless progeny-testing is useful for assessing
traits which do not lend themselves to performance-testing, e.g. sex-
associated and slaughter traits.
Performance-Testing
The basis of a performance test is that an animal own performance taken

as a measure of its genetic merit and with traits of high heritability used
as a guide to how its progeny will perform. Thus the better individuals
are selected from within group of contemporary animals that have been
treated similarly. The value and accuracy of a performance test can
always be checked by running a subsequent progeny test seeing if the
result agrees with the merit order of the Performance test. Performance
test can be carried out at central performance-test station, where the
environment standard for all animals tested. If facilities are adequate,
testing can be carried out on-farm for within-herd comparisons.
The traits and selection criteria which are used in a test will obviously
vary between countries according to their relative importance. They will
also vary between countries according to their relative importance they
will also vary within that country depending on the use for which the pig
is required. The criteria for selection of a boar which is to used for
generating gilts for commercial breeding, for example, will be different
from those of a boar which is to be used as a terminal sire for the
production of slaughter stock. Nevertheless, various combinations of
growth rate, feed-conversion efficiency and back-fat thickness are the
traits which generally form the basis for selection.
46
Selection Methods
Selection methods also differ and the two mostly commonly used are
independent culling levels and the selection index.
Independent Culling Levels
In this method, a level of performance is set for each trait, and if a pig
fails to reach the desired standard in any trait it is automatically culled.
It can be likened to an examinati on system where if you fail any subject,
you have failed the total examination. A major weakness of this
technique is that if a pig has outstanding qualities in some traits say
growth rate and feed conversion efficiency, and just fails to reach the
standard on conformation, it is culled. The genes for the outstanding
traits are therefore lost. This method is the main system used for judging
merit in pedigree breeding schemes.
The Selection Index
In the index method, the traits to be selected for are combined for one
animal into a total score or index. Each trait is normally weighted
according to its economic value and heritability, so that the highest –
index animal should yield the highest financial return. These economic
weightings in the index can be adjusted as economic circumstances
change. The advantage of the index method is that exceptional
performance in one trait can balance out a weakness in another and if
two traits are correlated so that improvement in one leads to a
simultaneous decline in another required trait this can be allowed for in
the weighting.
3.3 Improvement Programmes
As an example of how testing and selection procedures can be integrated

into a genetic improvement programme, the national pig improvement
programme in Zimbabwe is described. This programme is based on a
pyramidal structure A small number of registered nucleus breeders
assessed to be the best herds genetically in the country, send their pigs to
a central performance – test station. Approved boars and gilts pass out
to multiplication herds, assessed to be the next rung down in terms of
genetic merit, where their progeny is performance tested on the farm.
Animals which pass this test are then available to commercial producers,
thus ensuring a constant supply of quality replacement stock to
commercial herds.
At the central test station, pigs are housed in pens of two and fed
individually and their performance is measured from 35 tropical
47
indigenous and an imported exotic breed. For this reason, the level of
heterosis will always be highest in the first (f) cross, and decrease in
subsequent crosses as the genetic differences decline. However, the
overall economic gain which can be obtained from heterosis effects can
be cumulative within a crossbreeding system. Thus for litter –size at
weaning, for example, if the first cross dam gives a heterosis
improvement of 11 per cent, and there is a further 6 per cent to be
gained from her progeny’s performance, the cumulative effect is 17 per
cent, or more than one additional pig weaned per litter. There are a
number of different cross – breeding strategic which can be used, all of
which harness different amounts of heterosis.
Of these two breeding systems, crisscross system is probably the most

appropriate for the small- scale producer in the tropics. If a third pure
breed is available this can be extended to a triple crossing system using a
sire selected from each of three breeds in rotation. Maximum heterosis is
obtained when the genetic diversity, between the parent breeds is large,
and there is therefore considerable potential for cross between exotic
and indigenous tropical breeds. The best use of such crosses is likely to
be in semi-intensive systems of production where the hardiness and
foraging ability of the indigenous animal will be complemented by the
growth and improved performance of the exotic. Large numbers of cross
– bred, animals can be found on these systems. The two main problems
are the maintenance of exotic boars for generating the cross –breed, as
they often fail to survive due to disease and management hazards, and
the lack of breeding control, resulting in indiscriminate interbreeding.
One possible solution under such condition is the use of institutionally

managed boar –holding centre, such as those in some parts of northern
Nigeria, where indigenous sows from small- scale farmers are kept to be
mated with pure-bred exotic boars. Alternatively, private farmers with
intensive production units could be encouraged to produce crossbred
progeny for sale to small scale farmers. Similar methods could be use
for the generation of exotic x indigenous boars for use on indigenous
sows in small –scale production systems.
The benefits of heterosis in female reproductive traits can also be

utilised in boars. Cross- bred boars have been shown to have greater
libido, larger testes and higher sperm counts than their purebred
contemporaries, leading to more reliable breeding and improved
conception rates. This enhanced reproductive fitness is obviously likely
to be a major advantage in extensive and semi-intensive production
systems in developing countries.
The harnessing of heterosis is maximised in the genetic improvement

schemes run by the private breeding companies in the developed world.
48
Each company maintains a network of super- nucleus and nucleus herds

in which superior genes are concentrated. These herds are subjected to
strong selection pressure with rigid and comprehensive testing of stock
for important traits. Selected purebred stock from nucleus herds is then
used to populate multiplier herds where improved lines and breed are
crossed. The resultant first cross or hybrid gilts are sold to commercial
producers.
3.4 Cross Breeding and Artificial Insemination
In the previous section, methods of pig improvement have been based

on selection within breed. There is, however, another means by which
the producer can attempt to genetically improve the performance. This
involves crossbreeding which is the:
· exploitation of the phenomenon of heterosis, which occurs when

two breeds, which are genetically different, are crossed. If the
crossbred individual shows an improvement in performance
above the mean of both parents it is said to exhibit hybrid- vigour
or the ability to combine in one or more individuals the desirable
characteristics of two or more existing breeds.
The higher levels of heterosis tend to occur in traits which are of lower
heritability, e.g. reproductive traits.
Artificial Insemination
Artificial Insemination (AI) involves the collection of semen from a

boar and then the introduction of semen into a sow or gilt at a later stage
by means of a catheter. This contrasts with natural service where a boar
mounts a sow and introduces his semen.
The major advantage of AI is that is allows for the wider use and
distribution of boars of high genetic merit. The ejaculate from one boar
can be extended to inseminate up to 25 sows. Recent advances in
methods of boar semen storage make it possible for developing
countries in the tropics to the very top genetic stock from developed
countries (e. g. in the UK, only the top 5 per cent of boars performance-
tested by the Meat and Livestock commission are eligible for entry to AI
studs). This calibre of genetic material would not otherwise be available
to developing countries.
49
Other benefits of AI are:
· It overcomes the need to purchase, house and feed a boar. This is

particularly pertinent to the small-scale producer who cannot
justify keeping a boar for a small number of sows, and who
cannot afford a boar of good quality. The effective use of AI is
especially relevant where small-scale producers are involved in
group or co-operative pig development schemes, and their units
can be serviced from a central boar-holding centre,
· It prevents the transmission of disease from farm to farm by the
sale and purchase of boar and on-farm reproductive disease
cannot be spread by boar-to-sow contact.
· It overcomes the practical problems of differences in size of
males and females. On occasions, this problem can severely limit
the use of boars of high caliber.
· It reduces the risk to stockmen of handling boars for natural
service.
Techniques
a. Semen collection
Although various artificial vaginas and electro-ejaculators are available,

they are not necessary for successful semen collection. Boars can easily
be trained to mount a dummy sow device or an oestrous sow, and firm
pressure on the penis by a gloved hand causes ejaculation to occur. The
first low-sperm fraction can be collected through a filter funnel, which
removes the gelatinous fraction, into a warmed (300C) bottle.
A drop of semen can be observed under a microscope to check its

fertility characteristics and, if desired, the semen can then be diluted. A
number of diluents and extenders are available, and the individual doses
are normally stored in 50 ml plastic bottles for up to three days at 150-
200c. the number of spermatozoa used under commercial conditions for
one insemination normally varies from 1×109 to 3×109 .
b. Insemination
This involves the insertion of a rubber spiral catheter into the sow’s
vagina, and then rotating it in an anti-clockwise direction until the tip
locks into the cervix. The bottle containing the semen dose can then be
attached to the other end of the catheter and the semen runs in under
gravity slight pressure. The insemination process may take up to 15
minutes.
50
c. Heat Detection and Timing of Insemination
It is very important note that higher conception rates are achieved with
AI approach than those that occur with natural service. Accordingly,
accurate heat detection must be carried out, preferably using a boar
twice a day in order that the timing of insemination is correct. To
overcome inaccuracies in the detection of the start of oestrus and the
natural variations in time of ovulation two inseminations approximately
12 hours apart are recommended. More recently, devices have been
developed which measure the electrical resistance of the vaginal
mucosa. As this varies in relation to hormonal events, it can be used to
predict more accurately the timing of ovulation and hence the optimum
timing of insemination.
System of semen storage
(a) Frozen Semen
In contrast to bull semen, the nature of boar semen renders it susceptible

to damage by the freezing and thawing procedures, and as a
consequence only relatively recently have successful techniques for
freezing boar semen been developed. Frozen semen can be obtained in
either pellet form or in straws, and acceptable conception rates obtained,
this has provided a major breakthrough for the introduction of superior
genetic material into developing pig industries.
(b) ‘Long-life’ Semen
Extenders have now been developed which allow for the storage of fresh
semen for up to seven days without any marked loss in fertility. This
allows for fresh semen to be sent by air around the word and used to
impregnate sows successfully in the country of destination
3.5 Some Inherited Defects to be Avoided
There are many anatomical defects for example in pigs which can affect
performance. The majority of these are genetic in origin and therefore
likely to be inherited from generation to generation. Tests are conducted
to detect defects. These defects may be simple (i.e. controlled by one
pair of genes) or complex (controlled by several pairs of genes). At the
end of the test, the feed conversion efficiency is calculated, and the fat
thickness is measured by an ultrasonic machine. Pigs are assessed on the
basis of an index derived from the relative economic values of feed
conversion efficiency and fat thickness; animals which do not pass the
index are culled. In addition, animals with any abnormal sexual
51
characteristics, blind or insufficient teats, or other defects such as weak

legs or undesirable body conformation are also culled.
On – farm performance tests are then carried out on the sons and
daughters of approved centrally – tested sires. Pigs are inspected for any
weaknesses and, if they attain certain performance standards in terms of
growth and fat thickness, they are made available for sale.
The potential value of regular performance –testing can be seen from the
results of a control landrace herd, in which both boars and replacement
gilts were selected on the above scheme over eight generations. The
improvement in feed – conversion efficiency represents a considerable
saving in costs.
Simple Defects
The can be effectively eliminated from a herd by culling. The main

defects in this category are:
· Congenital tremors in this condition, piglets are born with

rhythmic tremors of the head and limbs. It occurs at a frequency
of about 0.1 percent in the population. The recessive gene is
carried by the dam, and in carriers 50 per cent of male piglets are
affected. Dams of affected litters should be culled.
· Club foot this defect causes a deformed and swollen foot. It has a
very low incidence and is restricted to the landrace breed. Both
male and female parents should be culled.
Complex Defects
These are more difficult to eliminate, but greatest response will be

achieved by culling boars. However, the incidence of these defects is
generally relatively low, so it may be more economic in the long run to
keep a good boar which is a carrier of a known defect rather than replace
it with a genetically inferior boar which is not a carrier. If good records
are available, the cost of the defect can set against the gain in pig
performance attributable to the carrier boar. Such a boar should only be
used for the production of slaughter stock and none of his progeny
should be retained for breeding. The main defects in this category are:
· Scrotal hernia: A weakness in the body wall allows part of the

intestines to pass out into the scrotum. It occurs at a frequency of
around 0.7 per cent and has an estimated heritability of 15 per
cent.
· Umbilical hernia: A similar condition which occurs at the site of
the umbilicus. Found at a frequency of around 0.6 per cent.
52
· Imperforate anus: The incidence of this condition in piglets is

around 0.3 per cent. Mortality in male piglets is always 100 per
cent, but often around 50 per cent of females survive as the faeces
are voided via the vagina.
· Splaylegs piglets are born with either the front or hind legs
splayed, sometimes both, and are unable to stand. The incidence
is around 1.5 per cent and can be worsened by nutritional
deficiencies. If piglets survive for three days, the condition often
tends to disappear.
· Hermaphroditism: In this condition, females tend to exhibit male
characteristics. Incidence is estimated at 0.07 per cent.
· Cryptorchidism: Also known as a ‘rig’ pig, one testicle in the
male fails to descend into the scrotal sac. Found at a frequency of
0.22 per cent.
· Female genital defects, including ‘inverted nipples’. These occur
at a frequency of around 0.15 per cent.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The principles and techniques of breeding advance knowledge; and

application of selection and cross-breeding are means of farm animal
improvement. They have been used as major tool in animal production
in combination with environmental management of stock.
Genetic improvement forms the foundation upon which appropriate

feeding; healthcare management, housing and other environmental
management efforts are built. Tremendous progress can be attributed to
genetic improvement of animal traits. Genetic and environmental factors
are however not independent rather both have large area of overlap or
interaction.
5.0 SUMMARY
Selection and cross breeding are the most common methods for genetic
improvement. Either method involves culling and promoting characters
of animals which are undesirable and desirable respectively by farmers.
These require that farmer is able to identify specific traits that are
genetically heritable; have high selection differential and in animal with
short generation interval in order to attain high genetic progress. The
two methods similarly require preliminary testing and evaluating
animals to be used in the improvement scheme. Cross breeding in farm
animal has improved livestock productivity greatly and widely as a
result of artificial insemination, benefiting specifically from semen
collection and preservation technology. Much as desirable characters are
known, some undesirable simple and complex traits must be identified
and using appropriate method discriminated against them.
53
1. Explain the principles of animal breeding.

2. Describe methods for genetic improvement.
3. Highlight procedure for an improvement programme you desire
for a named livestock specie in Nigeria.
4. How will you discriminate against certain undesirable traits with
known heritability coefficient?
Eusebio, J.A. (1980). Pig Production in the Tropics. Harlow, England,

U.K: Longman (Publ.)
Holness, D.H. & Chabeuf, N. (1991). The Tropical Agriculturalist

Series. (p. 23-45.)London, U.K: CTA and Macmillan Education
Ltd. (Publ.).

Tropics. Fourth Edition. Longman Scientific & Technical (Publ.)
Pp. 169-193.
54
MODULE 2
Unit 1 Livestock Breeding in the Tropical Environment

Unit 2 General Principles of Cattle Production
Unit 3 General Principles of Sheep Production
Unit 4 General Principles of Goat Production
UNIT 1 LIVESTOCK BREEDING IN THE TROPICAL

ENVIRONMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Past Livestock Improvement Efforts
3.2 Modern Approach to Livestock Breeding
3.3 Crossbreeding as a Tool for Tropical Livestock
Improvement
3.4 Major Genetic Differences between Tropical and
Temperate Livestock Breeds
3.5 Options for Genetic Improvement in Tropical Livestock
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The much wider gap between performance of tropical livestock species

and those of the temperate climate demand a critical review and
consideration by learners and practitioners of animal production. A
foundation course in animal production, such as this, requires students to
be acquainted with the existence of the performance gap which has often
been attributed to genetic, environmental, and genetic-environment
interaction variables. The essence of familiarisation with this challenge
may stimulate the desire to finding ways of meeting domestic demands
and reducing the performance gap. The identity and measures of
productivity of breeds of livestock in Nigeria compared with some
exotic breed ought to agitate the minds of students as to what motive or
factor underlies the disparity between production capacity of exotic and
local breeds of stock.
55
2.0 OBJECTIVES
· differentiate between the past and current efforts towards tropical

livestock breeding
· explain crossbreeding as a tool for tropical livestock
improvement
· recognise major genetic differences between tropical and
temperate livestock breeds
· describe options for genetic improvement in tropical livestock.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Past Livestock Improvement Efforts
The temperate – zone countries particularly in Northwest Europe earlier

commenced livestock improvement through general improvement of
environment for livestock such that at the beginning of 19th century
improvement efforts were directed towards taking economic advantages
of livestock. Economic advantages were easily achieved as at then by
improving on the housing facilities for livestock to prevent adverse
climatic effects. Advances in livestock breeding started in 19th century
particularly in the United Kingdom. The advances were however based
on limited records, acute observation and trial-and-error efforts
compared to modern genetic theory being used these days. Science of
genetics began to gain recognition in the early 20th century
revolutionising animal breeding with the application of genetic
principles combined with new knowledge on physiology of
reproduction. Today, the pace of progress is tremendous with the advent
of knowledge on molecular structure of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
and location of genes on the chromosomes. Genetic engineering will
soon take animal production to a new stage.
In contrast, these practices are extremely slow to be applied in the

tropical countries. Although livestock owners in the tropic developed
rules or customs towards better breeding of their stock, but these seem to
be haphazardly applied and uncontrolled probably due to inefficient
grasp of the challenge or its solution. As such efforts to improve the
productivity of livestock in the tropics have always moved in a cyclic
manner perhaps for a few reasons. One, the original domestication of
most species probably occurred in the tropics and/or subtropics. Two,
large movement of stock from their origin of domestication to isolated
areas resulted in natural development of characteristics that adapted
them to their new environment. Three, breeding of animals in some
cultures was restricted to cultural, magical or religious rather than
56
economic perspective. Four, importation of improved breeds from

Europe to the Americas thrived in the temperate climate but parallel
importation from Europe to the tropical countries of Africa and Asia was
not successful except for Criollo cattle breed of tropical Central and
South America. After a few attempts to improve the genetic make-up of
stock, a new stream of importation to Africa followed without success,
until it was realised that highly productive European and American
breeds cannot thrive in tropical Africa and Asia unless epizootic
diseases are controlled and nutrition and management are improved.
3.2 Modern Approach to Livestock Breeding
A new direction is to identify tropical breeds and to initiate selection

within them. Yet this has proved to be disappointing. Current efforts are
towards introducing productive temperate-type livestock into the tropics
primarily by cross breeding, which seems to be succeeding although at
very slow rate. This effort is not without its warning on the
consequences of losing the purity of genetic resources of tropical
livestock. Thus improvement of tropical livestock lies in greater
knowledge of their characteristic traits and those of temperate stock as
well. It also involves being better able to control and improve the
tropical environment. The priority will however vary from an area to
another. For example, in areas where epizootic diseases are still
prevalent, disease control will be a priority. Elsewhere in which
considerable control of disease has been achieved, nutrition and
management need to be accorded priority. It is important to note that it
is needless to improve genetic merit if environmental factor remains
unimproved. Also, any improvement in genetic merit implies a major
step up in both feeding and other management aspects of production. It
is important to appreciate the theory that indigenous livestock breeds
adapted to the tropics have achieved some level of adaptation by a
natural selection against productivity. Studies (Payne and Hancock,
1957) have shown that high rates of milk production and rapid growth
rate increase effects of climatic stress by increasing the metabolic heat
output of the animal. In this situation, a number of breeding policy
options is available.
· Husbandry may select for productivity in indigenous stock.

· Upgrade indigenous stock by the introduction of exotic males or
by importation of the semen.
· Introduce a crisscrossing breeding system using exotic and
indigenous males.
· Introduce exotic stock and attempt to select for adaptation.
· Ameliorate the climatic stress in the tropic to such an extent that
exotic stock of high merit can be used (the economic viability of
this option is untenable).
57
The choice of one or a combination of these options varies from country

to country and from region to region within countries. It also depends on
a number of factors such as:
· Type of indigenous livestock available

· Agricultural system prevailing in the area
· Managerial ability of the local farmers
· Type and size of the market for livestock products
In Nigeria some form of crossbreeding using indigenous (White Fulani)

and exotic (Friesian) breed at 50:50 or 25:75 is being carried out at the
National Animal Production Research Institute, Shika -Zaria. An earlier
report (Knudsen and Schael, 1970) has shown that lactation yields of
White Fulani (840 kg) and Friesian 92,550 kg) improved after
crossbreeding in the first generation offspring, Friesian/White Fulani
(1, 688 kg). A complementary option to this is to intensify pure breeding
of the White Fulani and other indigenous breeds to preserve their genetic
resources for the future. This implies that a good safeguard for the
existence of purebred indigenous cattle is by encouraging the selection
of the most productive indigenous stock in special bull breeding herds. It
seems there is no effort in this direction at present. However, it is of
little use to upgrade indigenous cattle or any livestock species if the
managerial abilities of the local farmers are not upgraded
simultaneously.
3.3 Crossbreeding as Tool for Tropical Livestock Improvement
A breeding system in which unrelated livestock are mated is known as

crossbreeding. The offspring (or progenies) of crossbred livestock are
heterozygous for those traits that differ in their parents and the greater
the degree of heterozygosity on the offspring. A crossbred progeny
inherit the totality of parental characteristics and tend to resemble each
other. First-cross generations are usually superior in productive traits to
the mean values of both parents. This phenomenon is known as Hybrid
Vigour or Heterosis. The degree of hybrid vigour depends on the extent
to which the characteristics of the parental stock are complementary.
In general, the greater the differences in the parental genetic make-up

the greater the degree of hybrid vigour which may be expressed in terms
of improved fertility, viability and general thriftiness. The degree of
heterosis depends also upon the level of the environment (Barlow,
1981), such that the more stressful the environment the greater the
heterosis. Hybrid vigour, however, disappears when hybrids are mated
and in the offspring produced. As such new parental stock are
continually required if livestock owner wishes to apply or use hybrid
vigour optimally.
58
Crossbreeding may be useful in three ways to livestock owner in the

tropics. It can be used for breeding replacement stock. The indigenous
and low-producing livestock can be upgraded by continually
backcrossing them to more highly productive exotic/introduced stock.
New synthetic breeds can be produced by cross breeding indigenous
with introduced stock and then selecting the type of animal or trait
required. Both advantages: hybrid vigour and being complementary can
be achieved by using some form of systematic crossbreeding between 2
or more breeds of indigenous and introduced stock.
Genetic engineering or recombinant DNA technology is a new practice

likely to become needful in the near future as it is possible to use it for
modification of the function of animals for better adaptation and
productivity. New generation of animals may be made through this
technology. Presently, the technique is being exploited in production of
vaccines for use against some animal viruses. It is possible to copy
genes or manipulate to increase bulk of genetic materials by introducing
genes into bacteria and inducing the same to multiply or reproduce very
rapidly, attenuated and used for vaccine production. This method is
known as gene cloning. Foot and mouth disease vaccine of cattle is
being prepared by this technology.
3.4 Major Genetic Differences between Tropical and

Temperate Livestock Breeds
Sufficient evidence exist to suggest that more than 50% of the

differences in performance of tropical and temperate-type breeds of
livestock are due to their inherent genetic abilities or merits. In other
words, under fairly conducive environmental conditions, tropical and
temperate stock exhibit clear difference in economic traits as a result of
genetic differences. In cattle for example, traits showing genetic
differences are: age at first calving, calving percentage, milk yields,
length of lactation, birth weight, rate of daily live weight gain and
mature body weight. In addition, McDowell (1972) listed gestation
length, generation interval and carcass killing-out percentage as traits
showing genetic difference between tropical and temperate stock.
Further evidences have emerged to prove that some tropical breeds such
as Bali cattle are not inferior to temperate breeds with respect to some
traits like calving percentage, mature body weight and carcass killing-
out percentage. In the light of genetic differences in traits, tropical
livestock breeders must make efforts to adopt suitable breeds and
breeding system that will address traits of economic advantage in their
stock.
59
3.5 Options for Genetic Improvement in Tropical Livestock
1. Use of Indigenous Breed
As earlier suggested, tropical livestock breeders must depend on the use

of indigenous breeds for utmost advantages since the indigenous breeds
are readily available, well adapted or acclimatise to the immediate
environment and possess matching genetic traits with such environment.
However, a major limitation, to this option, is that selection for increase
productivity is likely to be for a lengthy period due to, previous natural
selection for survival, which was at the expense of productive traits.
Thus, priorities of breeding efforts in the tropical region under the
option of using indigenous breeds are:
(i) Genotype-environment interaction improvement

(ii) Liveweight gain as the most important economic trait and other
adaptive traits such as tolerance to diseases and pests (e.g.
trypanotolerance of N’dama cattle).
2. Upgrading
Another option earlier mentioned is the importation and use of exotic

breeds for purpose of upgrading indigenous breeds. Consideration for
importation of exotic breed should be restricted to exotic stock from
temperate climate. There could be genuine rationale to import exotic
stock from one region of the tropics to another. The use of exotic breed
for upgrading has the unique advantage to hasten improvement of
productivity where suitable exotic breeds are used and the local
environmental conditions are improved. Major limitations have to do
with high cost of upgrading and loss of genetic resources of the local
breeds where upgrading is done indiscriminately. Acclimatization of
exotic breed to the local environment may be time consuming and
expensive. The option of upgrading with exotic breeds should focus on:
(1) Areas with moderate climatic, disease and nutritional stress, or

montane regions in the tropics.
(2) In case of dairy animals, lowland humid areas have sufficient
forage year-round.
(3) Areas where no indigenous breed exists to exploit the specific
peculiarity of the ecological environment. For example it may be
reasonable to import water buffaloes or pigs for the creeks of the
Niger Delta region of Nigeria.
(4) Importation is strongly suggested for livestock species whose
production system can be restricted from the influence of external
environment e.g. intensive poultry or swine production in tropical
countries.
60
3. Crossbreeding
Crossbreeding as option has its own advantage of combining desirable

traits in two or more breeds in one which is usually higher in hybrid
vigour. Expressed hybrid vigour is notably in traits not largely
moderated by genetic or inherited factors but more by the environment
such as vigour and fertility. Heterosis decline with age and its influence
is greater in females than males and in stressful condition than in
moderately good condition. Limitations of crossbreeding option concern
obtaining suitable breeds to combine, expensive and complicated
management system to be evolved to obtain good results. This possibly
explains reasons where crossbreeding practices are limited to poultry,
pigs and ranches in government farms or research centres in the tropics.
Also, planning a crossbreeding scheme for livestock improvement may
be a very difficult exercise. Planned crossbreeding should concern:
(a) Areas or breeds, which research has sufficiently approved to

show tangible value, advantage or merit.
(b) In areas infested with tsetse fly that debar livestock production,
crossbreeding with trypanotolerant breeds.
4. Developing New Synthetic Breeds
Developing a new synthetic breed is an option that seems to streamline

limitations of upgrading and crossbreeding options for genetic
improvement of livestock in the tropics. It explores crossbreeding or
upgrading of indigenous stock using a superior stock and then
systematically selecting the offspring to form a breeding much. It may
be extremely long and expensive as it is also require competent
personnel. It is often undertaken by very large private organisation,
government or international agencies. However, it has an enduring result
and may revolutionise livestock in the entire tropical regions. The option
is highly versatile as it can be applied on dairy cattle, goat, sheep,
poultry and pigs for different enterprises and for diverse production
conditions.
4.0 CONCLUSION
An in-depth understanding of the past and modern approaches to

livestock breeding is fundamental to our understanding of the challenges
in animal production practices in the tropics. Crossbreeding has been
offered as intervention to reduce obvious gap in the genetic merits
existing between temperate and tropical breeds. There are a few other
options (e.g. use of indigenous breeds, developing new synthetic breeds
etc) still available but have not been applied or perhaps reserved for the
61
future. Practitioners and students are required to appreciate the genetic

constraints tropical livestock and be armed with sufficient knowledge
for improvement.
5.0 SUMMARY
The study unit has endeavoured to present a body of knowledge on past

and current approaches and efforts at improving genetic make-up
tropical stock. Crossbreeding as tool for improvement has been widely
applied but certainly not only the tool applicable. Equally important
options are the use of indigenous breeds and upgrading with exotic or
local breeds of proven genetic merits. Developing new synthetic breeds
and the application of genetic engineering techniques are being
advocated for national or regional livestock genetic improvement.
1. Discuss past efforts at improving tropical livestock breeds. List

modern approaches.
2. Explain crossbreeding as a tool for livestock improvement and
highlight its advantages.
3. List options available to livestock breeders for genetic
improvement of tropical stock. Highlight areas of focus, benefits
and merits of two of the options listed.
Barlow, R. (1981). “Experimental Evidence for Interaction between

Heterosis and Environment in Animals.” Animal Breed, Abstr.
49(II): 715-737.
Knudsen, P.B. and Schael, A.S. (1970). “The Vom Herd: A Study of the
Performance of a Mixed Friesian/Zebu Herol in a Tropical
Environment.” Tropical Agriculture Trinidad 47:189-203.
Lerner, I.M. & Donald, H.P. (1966). Modern Development in Animal

Breeding. New York, USA: Academic Press.
Payne, W.J.A. & Hancock, J. (1957). “The Direct Effect of Tropical

Climate on the Performance of European-type Cattle. II
Production.” Emp. J. Exp. Agric., 25:321-338.

Tropics. Fourth Edition. New York, USA: Longman Scientific &
Technical (Publ.)
62
UNIT 2 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CATTLE

PRODUCTION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Breeds of Cattle in Nigeria
3.2 Systems of Cattle Production
3.3 Major Production Constraints
3.4 Strategies for Improving Cattle Production in Nigeria
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Cattle resources in Nigeria are mainly concentrated in the Sudan,

Southern Guinea, Northern Guinea and the Sahel ecological zones in a
descending order of distribution. Cattle production is a major part of the
livestock sub-sector contributing substantially into the national economy
through its supply of animal proteins in form of beef and milk, raw
materials to agro-processing industries in form of commodities such as
hides, beef, milk, bones, horns and hooves; provision of gainful
employment and livelihood to a host of people and families as well as a
source of farm power in animal traction and cow dung for bio fuel and
soil fertility. The valuable contributions of the cattle industry relate to
foreign exchange earnings, instrument for capital accumulation or
saving and a number of socio-cultural roles in different societies.
However, cattle production in Nigeria lags behind meeting all the
expected contributions satisfactorily. The output of cattle is low and this
reflected from less than 2kg of beef and 23g of milk is derivable by an
individual Nigerian annually from local stock. A number of constraints
are involved ranging from nutritional, genetic make-up, to socio-
economic and institutional constraints. This study will endeavour to put
status of cattle production into perspectives that will enable students
appreciate and develop focus to finding lasting solutions.
63
2.0 OBJECTIVES
· identify and describe breeds of cattle in Nigeria in relation to

their adaptation, physical features and productivity as dairy, beef
or dual-purpose breed
· describe systems of cattle management and the underlying factors
determining preference for one to another under different
circumstances
· list some constraints to cattle production in Nigeria
· discuss strategies for improving cattle production using
opportunities lying around us optimally.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Breeds of Cattle in Nigeria
The Nigerian cattle population is dominated by the zebu breeds. Data

from FAO (1980) and Lamorde and Franti (1975) indicate the following
percentage composition of the national herd:
Breed %
· (White Fulani) Bunaji 51.0
· (Red Fulani) Rahaji 14.0
· (Sokoto Gudali) Bokoloji 11.5
· Adamawa Gudali 11.5
· Others 12.0
Total 100.0
In addition to indigenous breeds, various exotic breeds have been

introduced mainly for cross breeding to improve milk and meat
production of the indigenous cattle; these include the Holstein-Friesian,
Brown Swiss and Jersey for milk production, and the South Devon,
Sahiwal, Brahman. Santo Gertrudis, Droughtmaster and Butana for beef
production. Nearly all the exotic introductions are found on government
and institutional ranches and dairies, and they constitute a very small
percentage of the national herd.
The other production coefficients of the national herd are more difficult
to derive. The calving rate has been estimated to be 45 per cent
(Lamorde, 1974, Saka Nuru, 1976). There appears to be general
agreement to an estimate of 15 per cent for calf mortality, whilst the
adult ornon-calf mortality rate has averaged 4 per cent. Off-take is
generally assumed at about 10 per cent, although there is no statistical
64
basis for this as a considerable proportion of the slaughtering is not

recorded. The cow culling rate has been estimated at about 10 per cent,
whilst the replacement rate is about 15 per cent. Pullan working with
traditional herds on the Jos Plateau has given live weight estimates of
cows, heifers, and steers as 250 kg, 175 kg and 235 Kg respectively.
ILCA (1980) studies indicate the possibility that a high proportion of the
animals sold are for reasons of sickness or unthriftiness, and in some
cases this may account for as high as 50 per cent of the sales. Hence an
average carcass weight of 125 kg at 49 per cent killing out has been
suggested. Extrapolating from a national herd of 9.3 million and an
average killing out percentage of 49 per cent, the above model would
give annual sales of around 117,000 tonnes of dressed beef. At
N2.25/kg, this would represent a farm gate value of about N262 million.
The combined value of stock and milk sales at the farm gate is therefore
in excess of N400 million per annum.
There is a need for caution in the use of these data as the absolute basis
for projections, especially when the data cover a relatively short period
of time, which may not entirely reflect the typical cyclic pattern of
weight losses and gain experienced by most traditional herds. The off
take rate has been estimated to be as high as 16.9 per cent among
traditional herds (Lideco, 1980) while live weights observed over a
longer period of time indicate higher average than those of Pullan or
ILCA (1980). Recorded live weights of Sokoto Gudali and Bunaji
yearling bulls and steers purchased from traditional herds on delivery at
the Feed Lot Operations, Mokwa, indicate an average of 230 kg
(Olaloku, 1977). In addition, there are other components of national herd
productivity including manure and draught power. These become
relevant and of great significance in an integrated crop and livestock
farming system. Indeed, the value of the manure is underscored in the
existing symbolic relationship between arable crop farmers and
pastoralists in which the latter is allowed to graze crop residues in
exchange for manure from the stock.
Nigeria has indigenous breeds of cattle from which could be raised

animals of suitable type and productivity, whether for economic
production of beef or milk; but that nutrition must be improved in order
to achieve optimum productivity. Generally speaking, the yield per
animal unit is very low but it is pertinent to remember that this is from
herds subsisting on the savannah lands of the most northerly states,
which provide, during a wet season of from four to five months, a coarse
herbage of only very moderate feeding value, being almost bare of keep
during the seven or eight months of the dry season. Thus the animals
suffer annually, a prolonged period of malnutrition, often of near –
starvation and at no time in the year do they live on what can be
regarded as nutritionally adequate level.
65
3.2 Systems of Cattle Production
The Traditional System
Outline: Cattle production under the traditional system is generally

associated with the pastoralist transhumance which has developed over
the years as an adaptation to environmental and historical factors; it
constitutes the main component of cattle production in the country with
the pastoral Fulani as the centre of focus. The traditional livestock
grazer was faced with the problems of seasonal variations in forage
availability, water, disease, social interactions with the arable crop
farmers, government taxation demands, and the need to cater for his
family. The resulting evolution has led to a range of husbandry practices
geared to overcoming these problems, particularly availability of grazing
and the need to avoid the tsetse fly transmitting trypanosomiasis.
Classification of Pastoralist: Ethnic, ecological and economic factors

all influence ownership and management of cattle, independently and in
combination. As a result, there is an almost infinite number of
permutations, but four groups can be broadly recognised:
1. Nomadic or Fully Mobile Pastoralist
These practice pure transhumance, with no permanent place of residence

and no regular cultivation. They and their families move with the herds,
generally in a southward direction during the dry season and moving
back during the rains. They have average herds of about 80 – 100 head
of cattle together with some sheep and goats (20 – 40). In the search for
grazing and water, areas of tsetse fly infestation and other diseases are
avoided; their movement is also determined by the location of arable
framing communities which provide crop residues for grazing, as well as
markets for sale of produce and purchase of essential needs.
2. Semi-Nomadic or Less – Mobile Pastoralists
In contrast have a permanent place of residence where the elderly

members of the family stay with some of the stock, such as the Lactating
cows. The other stocks are moved away in search of grazing and water
for long periods of time during the dry season. They practice some
cropping (often hiring outside labour) although livestock remains their
most important economic activity. This group generally does not own as
many cattle as the former group, but all their other practices are similar.
Indeed, it is claimed that this is a transition stage to full sedentarisation.
3. The Semi – Settled Pastoralist
66
These have a permanent place of abode and practice some

supplementary cultivation for food production. They keep smaller herds
and usually only move out in search of grazing and water towards the
end of the dry season. They sometimes construct temporary shelters, and
grow and harvest crops at the beginning of the rains before moving back
to their home base.
4. Settled Pastoralists
These live continuously in permanent settlements all year round, and

practice arable cropping in addition to livestock husbandry. Herds are
grazed during the day by children or hired hands and the animals are
tethered at night. Some of these look after stock for owners who live in
the urban areas.
Pastoralist Management: In order to survive in a purely nomadic

system, each unit must control enough livestock to sustain itself. While
many forces have led to the continual process of settlement a key factor
is herd size which, either due to inheritance or disease may cease to be
viable economic unit in its own right so that recourse to cultivation is
necessary for survival. However, with allowance made for a total
dependence on the proceeds of livestock husbandry and the constraints
of perpetual mobility, the husbandry system holds good for both
nomadic and settled Fulani.
The Mobility of Cattle is a Feature of all Extensive Grazing System:

At the extreme the pure nomads may move hundreds of kilometers and
stay nowhere more than a few days while for the permanently settled,
the grazing zone may be within say five kilometers of the camp. For the
latter there are three, albeit indistinct, phases in the year. During the
growing season the herds are kept off the crop lands in large units.
Immediately after harvest the cattle are p ut in is graze crop residues; this
is often, but not always, by arrangement with the farmers. As the dry
season progresses the herds; are progressively subdivided for grazing,
smaller units being better able to seek out and utilise small patches of
grass, crop residues, etc. in some areas there is a separation of the ‘wet’
animals; (cows and calves) and cows that are in an advanced stage of
pregnancy, which are left behind in the ‘Mashekari’ or permanent place
of abode while the rest of the herd is moved out in search of feed. The
wet herd is grazed in areas like the fadamas (the low plains) that have
good dry season supplies of forage and water.
A close examination of the traditional pastoralist system reveals a

stronger emphasis of milk production than beef, and the system of
management that ensures all year round supply of milk from the herd.
67
Milk is a major source of income for the family’s day to day needs, and
women attend markets daily in order to sell the sour milk (nono), butter
(mai) along with millet or sorghum ball (fura); the fura is sold with the
nono mixed by the vendor and is consumed on the spot. Household
heads also attend market regularly and the trading pattern leads to a
natural affinity between herd movement and the location of markets and
population centres.
In conclusion, it should be stressed that the general concept of the

traditional grazier as a nomad who cannot settle is fast disappearing. The
picture that now emerges is that between 40 – 50 per cent of traditional
Fulani graziers are settled, another 20 – 30 per cent are estimated to be
semi-settled, whilst only about 20 per cent now remain in the traditional
nomadic system of production. This is significant for it means that the
often stated constraint that nomadism has on introducing technology to
the cattle industry does not apply to over 50 per cent of cattle owners.
The Modern System
The introduction of semi-intensive and intensive methods, modeled on

those successfully employed for beef and dairy production in
agriculturally advanced countries, is largely confined to government,
parastatals and institutional research farms. They commenced with the
establishment of a number of governments Livestock Improvement and
Breeding Centres (LIBC) in different parts of the country during the late
1940’s and early 1950s. This trend continued into the 1960s and has
attracted the attention of some farmers in the private sector, who, in
corporative groups or as individuals have started mixed farming
enterprises. These mixed farming operations have gained popularity
amongst the educated groups (retired public servants, etc) who are
taking advantage of the Federal Government’s encouragement of
agricultural production through the provision of guaranteed credit
facilities. Though initially influenced by Fulani systems cattle
production on these units has some element of specialization into beef
and milk production whereas in the traditional system, both are
complementary products of the cattle industry.
Beef Production: The establishment of beef cattle ranches has taken

place mainly in the Guinea Savanna zones. The ranches are stocked with
indigenous cattle breeds such as the Gudali (Sokoto and Adamawa), the
Bunaji, and in the ore southerly areas the trypanotolerant N’Dama has
been introduced along with the Ketuku or Borgawa cattle. Management
plans on most ranches have included provision of extensive range
grazing, sometimes undersown with legumes, with allocations of 3 – 4
hectares/animal in the Southern Guinea to 4 – 6 hectares/animal in the
Northern Guinea and Sudan Savanna zones. Some of the ranches
68
provide improved pasture areas of about 0.125 ha/animal for dry season
feeding (Upper Ogun Ranch in Oyo State) or maize and grass silage also
for dry season feeding and feed lot operations (Mokwa Ranch, Niger
State). Mineral salt licks are provided in the paddocks and all year round
watering from dams and bore holes. Deworming and vaccination against
the major cattle diseases are carried out routinely, and cattle dips are
provided for control of ectoparasites, particularly ticks, some recording
has been carried out but because of the inconsistency with which this
has been done, it has not been very easy to utilize these records in a
meaningful evaluation of technical and economic performances.
A ‘Steer Fattening Unit’ scheme was introduced for small-scale

producers in the Derived Savanna areas of the old Western Region in
which, under a system of continuous bush grazing with adequate water
supply, mineral salt licks and facilities for tick control and deworming
possibility of profitable beef production using trypanotolerant breeds
and crosses was investigated. This idea caught on with many farmers in
the area, and has continued with modified aspects of the scheme and
today a good number of them fattern steers for supply to slaughter
houses in Ibadan and other urban areas. A recent apparently successful
development along these lines is the Smallholder Fattening Scheme
introduced by the World Bank Assisted Livestock Project Unit (LPU).
Feed lot fattening of yearling bulls steers on a commercial scale was

introduced into the Nigerian beef industry about a decade ago on the
Mokwa Cattle Ranch. A significant development was the introduction of
sugarcane molasses from the Bacita Sugar Factory into the fattening diet
in late 1972. The fattening programme was planned to coincide with the
end of the sugar cane harvesting season, so that large quantities of
molasses would become available for feeding during the long dry season
period of November to April.
The bulls and steers were purchased from the traditional herds as
yearlings aged 18 – 24 months, predominantly Sokoto Gudalis with
some Bunajis with average weights of 200 – 240 kg. They were
quarantined for 30 days during which they were vaccinated for CBPP,
anthrax, and proplylactic treatment with ‘Berenil’ against
trypanosomiasis, as well as drenching for worms and spraying for
ectoparasites. Therefore, they entered the feedlots with two-week
adaptation period on the molasses based feeding regime. Group fed,
each animal received approximately 3 kg molasses, 3 kg cottonseed, 5
kg grass/maize silage plusad libitum supply of salt licks and water. Over
a- three-month fattening period, the animals average 300 kg live weight
at average, daily gains 682 gm. The dressed carcasses were marketed
through the cold stores and supermarkets in urban centres of Lagos and
Ibadan.
69
Although the records indicate substantial improvements in the physical

performance of the indigenous breeds under the modern as compared to
the traditional system of management, it is pertinent to note that the
different models of the modern sector taken together only account for a
very small percentage of the National Herd and their contributions to the
beef market is therefore correspondingly small.
Milk Production: Milk production under the system of management is

confined almost exclusively to government or institutional experimental
farms. The dairies are generally located within easy marketing distance
of consumption centres, and attempts have been made to organise
dairying countries. Herd size varies from 30 to 50 on the experimental
stations and from 50 to 200 on the ‘urban’ dairies operated by various
State Ministries of Agriculture. The animals are housed, milked by hand
and/or machine, and the milk is usually processed before distribution to
consumers. The animals are maintained on cultivated pastures with
supplementary concentrates, and standard milk recording is practiced on
most farms.
Although milk production per animal under the modern system has been
substantially higher than that obtained by traditional producers, the
results have not been very encouraging when compared with their
counterparts elsewhere. Low performances have been attributed to poor
management resulting in low pregnancy rates due to poor organisation
of the breeding programme especially heat detection for Al, long calving
intervals, short lactations, and little attention to balanced feeding in
terms of concentrate or forage use. In addition, there tended to be very
little selection of stock at the time of purchase.
In terms of increased milk production in their own right, the contribution

of these dairies has been insignificant and they have incurred high costs
and considerable manpower demands. Although it could be argued that
their role is as research and development centres, this could be justified
if their breeding and production objectives are carefully defined and
satisfactorily implemented along with the generation of records from
which objectives evaluation of performance can be made; in most cases
this has been the case.
3.3 Major Production Constraints
Feed Supplies: The provision of feed that is adequate both in quantity

and quality are available all year round countries to be one of the major
problems of cattle production in Nigeria. Communal grazing of the
natural range is the primary source of nutrient supplemented by crop
residues during the dry season. Feed supplies during the latter when
70
natural vegetation becomes rank and unpalatable, are particularly acute

and is aggravated by an imbalance between stocking rate and range
carrying capacity. A consequence of overstocking is a high incidence of
erosion and a reduction in the capacity of such areas to produce feed in
the following growing season. This is the case in many of the country’s
high cattle production areas (e.g. Mambilla and Jos Plateau) and
becomes extremely acute in the Sahelo-Sudanian savannah ecologic
zone, where the dry season is often long and severe.
When it is prolonged for more than a season, as was the case during the
Sahelian drought of 1972 – 74, considerable losses in animals usually
result. Apart from the drastic reductions in productivity of the surviving
stock, some impairment of the reproductive function may result as well
as a general lowering of the animal’s resistance to disease.
Expanding arable cultivation is further limiting the natural range area

that is available to the livestock owners and in 1965 a programme of
establishing grazing reserves was initiated in an attempt to secure a year
round source of forage feeding for the traditional herds. The reserves
were to provide infrastructures – water, access roads, and centres for the
provision of inputs such as feed supplements and minerals licks.
However, the grazing reserve programmes have not provided the
expected solutions to the feed problem of the traditional herds, and
further review of their function and development is required.
A supplementary feed programme was also initiated to prevent the

seasonal weight losses resulting from low quality herbage and from the
long distances trekked by the animals with the attendant risks of disease
transmission and parasitism. It was also seen as an attempt to encourage
settled animal production among the traditional livestock producers. The
first attempt was in 1962/63 by the then Northern Nigeria Government
under the ‘Fulani Amenities Programme’ aimed at introducing
concentrate feeding to cattle to reduce loss in weight especially during
the peak of the dry season. The subsidy element of the programme was
to be phased out over a 6 year period by which time stock owners were
expected to recognise and appreciate the benefits of supplementation.
The supplementary ratio took the form of equal parts of groundnut cake
and cotton seed cake, 2% common salt plus mineral salt licks.
The scope of the programme has since been broadened and redesigned
to demonstrate to the traditional livestock producers the economic
benefits of feeding supplements such as hay, groundnut, cottonseed cake
etc. Observations however indicate that the programme has not had the
desired effect due largely to inadequate and untimely distribution of the
supplements. To some extent poor infrastructural facilities (transport,
storage) and lack of personnel have been responsible for this and has led
71
to poor coverage of the remote areas along with inconsistent supply. An

imbalance between demand and supply has encouraged undesirable
commercial exploitation, and there is evidence of an increasing shortage
of the major ingredients used in the supplementary ratio formulations in
the last few years.
Breeding: Breeding programmes to achieve improved milk and to a

lesser extent meant production, have adopted the following approaches:
a. crossing indigenous cows with bulls (naturally or by Artificial

Insermination (AI) of higher producing exotic breeds, mainly the
Holstein – Friesian and to a lesser extent the Brown Swiss and
South Devon cattle.
b. importation and maintenance of purebred exotic herds.
Achievements in both approaches have so far been impaired due largely

to lack of a properly coordinated national breeding policy programme.
Cross-breeding has not followed clearly outlined objectives; rather some
form of upgrading has been done but there is no definite evidence yet as
to what stage this upgrading should be stopped. . Reproductive
performance of cows is an important consideration when assessing the
achievements of breeding work already carried out, since this trait is
correlated with milk production. Data from both Agege and Vom which
showed large variations in all the traits, indicated that little culling had
been practiced. The long calving intervals recorded may be due more to
management problems, particularly heat detection and prompt service
especially where AI is practiced. Faulty feeding has also been
implicated, as well as the lack of regular pregnancy checks as cases of
ovaries were quite common in some of the herds.
The conclusions from the experiences of the breeding approaches on the

government ranches and dairies so far, are:
a. that there are possible benefits in crossbreeding, but there must be

well-defined national objectives for milk and beef production and
a well organised AI programme. Such objectives will guide the
choice of exotic breeds to use and possibly the source of such
importation
b. the programs should be clearly spelt out so as to ensure continuity
in execution and a continuous evaluation of achievements
c. the pioneer or pilot urban dairy projects have made some
contributions to our knowledge of the problems of commercial
milk production in Nigeria. They therefore remain a useful
component in our attempts to establish an organised dairy
industry in the country
72
d. there is now sufficient technical base on which to formulate

guidelines for the management of existing and proposed stations
for commercial dairy and beef breeding and production
operations
e. given such condition, it should be possible within the next decade
to extend the benefits of these programmes to increase
productivity of the national herd.
Disease: The important epizootic diseases of cattle in Nigeria include

rinderpest, contagious pleuropneumonia, foot and mouth disease,
anaplasmsis, babesiosis and of course trypanosomiasis. These diseases
limit production in cattle wherever they occur. In particular,
trypanosomiasis has rendered millions of hectares of land unsuitable for
cattle production. Dematophilus has become important particularly
among the imported stock on government dairies and amongst the
indigenous breeds, particularly in the higher altitude areas of Jos,
Mambilla and Obudu Plateaux. Foot and mouth disease is also assuming
importance with the increase in importation of exotic cattle. Mastitis is
also known to be assuming significance especially in view of the
increasing emphasis on commercial dairy development. Tick-borne
diseases, such as heartwater, babesiosis, anaplasmisis are especially
important in imported cattle herds.
Although some progress has been made in the diagnosis and control of
some of these diseases, those remaining constitute a potential hazard to
cattle production in Nigeria. Not much headway has been made against
such as coetaneous streptothricosis, heartwater, brucellosis, tuberculosis,
vibrosis, and mastitis, most of which may result mainly from
bacteriological infection. There are also nutritional, toxic, metabolic and
organic diseases. Together these reduce the productivity of the national
herd, although their effects may not be as telling as those of the major
epizootic diseases.
Land Tenure: The trend of increasing settlement by pastoralist cattle

owners, which has occurred over the last decade, can be attributed to a
number of reasons:
· The Sahelian drought of 1972 – 1974 which severely affected the

crop farmers, also indirectly affected pastoralists, for apart from
feed shortages for their stock it also upset the pastoralists ability
to get food in exchange for milk and milk products. This forced
many to cultivate crops for their own consumption.
· The need for a national, state and LGA identity, particularly the
struggle for ethnic recognition was more emphasized during the
last decade than ever before, and has provided an additional
motivation to settle.
73
Despite the trend however, land tenure remains a major obstacle to

development for the grazers do not have secure individual rights to land.
For with very few exceptions, right over a land, whether cultivated or
uncultivated, is already claimed by the traditionally settle communities
practicing crop cultivation. As a result, the presence of settled pastoralist
is accepted as a concession rather than a permanent tenure, and rarely
extends beyond the area of crop cultivation except with regard to the
traditionally recognised rights of communal range grazing. In such
cases, the grazers have neither the opportunity nor incentives to invest in
land improvement so that they are unable to realise the full potential
benefits that settlement should allow. This remains a critical issue in
cattle development in Nigeria, the implications of which are outlined
below.
3.4 Strategies for Improving Cattle Production in Nigeria
The Situation: Communal grazing of the natural range is the primary

source of herd nutrition and there is an inverse relationship between
actual stocking density and range carrying capacity. This is largely due
to the incidence of tsetse fly which requires a certain degree of humidity
to survive so that infested areas have relatively good rainfall and a high
natural forage growing potential. Serious overstocking occurs within
these areas of cattle concentration to the extent that malnutrition is the
single most important disease affecting cattle in Nigeria at the present
time.
The fact that overstocking occurs is a function of both communal land

ownership and the propensity of cattle owners to increase their herd
numbers. Various reasons account for the latter including prestige,
security and the frugal demands of cattle owners for cash income other
than that required for the welfare of their stock. This notwithstanding,
there are two overriding factors which must be borne in mind.
· Provided that mortality is less than inflation and the demand for
cash income is low, it is economically rational to build up herd
numbers rather than increase off-take
· Even if overstocking is a generally recognized problem amongst
cattle producers, no one producer would be encouraged to
destock without the assurance that other producers would not
build up their numbers to fill the vacancy that this destocking has
created.
In consequence of the above, herd numbers, even in areas of serious

overstocking, continue to rise partly as a result of natural herd increase
but possibly, due to in-migration of herds from neighbouring countries.
74
The effects of overstocking are that the carrying capacity of the range
itself declines, herd productivity deteriorates to a level that
counterbalances or exceeds the effect that the increasing herd numbers
would otherwise have on off0takem and nutrition becomes such a
limiting factor that the opportunity for raising herd productivity by
means of other technologies, such as veterinary and genetic
improvements is very limited.
The Options: To a large extent, therefore, production improvements

from increase in the national herd will only materialized if:
a. The areas of cattle distribution are extended either by control of

the tsetse fly, chemotherapy or a wider use of trypanotolerant
breeds
b. Natural range production is supplemented by use of purchased
feeds, or
c. Natural range production is improved either by controlled grazing
(which would generally imply some stratification of the
transhuman pastoralist system) or, more importantly, through
pasture and forage production.
Nutritional Improvements
Extending the Range Area. While significant progress in physical

control of the tsetse fly has been made, eradication is expensive and can
induce undesirable environmental changes when the technique is based
on persistent toxic insecticides.
Control procedures are also becoming increasingly more complex as the

fly free front moves southwards.
Chemotherapy is effective in areas of medium to low tsetse challenge

but correct dosage and regular application are necessities which poses
considerable organizational problems when applied to large numbers;
incorrect or indiscriminate drug usage also runs the risk of certain strains
of trypanosomes becoming resistant to chemotherapy. The alternative of
using trypanotolerant breeds faces a severe and expensive supply
problem since most of the breeding stock would need to be imported.
Although the productivity of trypanotolerant breeds such as the N’Dama
have been shown to be comparable with that of Zebus which have a
much larger body size, their importation is beneficial only in terms of
improving domestic meat supply rather than resolving the problems of
Nigeria’s significant cattle population which is 96% Zebu unless a
crossbreeding programme with N’Dama bulls is carried out over
successive generations. Importation of these breeds also requires a high
75
degree of organization and control for their tolerance does not make
them immune to tsetse challenge.
During the last decade there has been a significant build-up of cattle
numbers in hitherto regarded tsetse infested areas in the Middle Belt due
both to the pressures of overstocking in more northerly areas and to the
natural control of the savannah species brought about by rising
population pressure and expanded settlements. There remains, however,
a considerable risk of severe trypanosomiasis problems if cattle numbers
were substantially increased in these areas without being preceded by a
formal tsetse clearance programme.
Supplementary Feeds: The use of supplementary feeds must be viewed

to a large extent as a short term solution and is in any case constrained
by supply. It does not address the root cause of overstocking and
therefore does not prevent the continual degradation of the range that
overstocking causes. Agro-industrial by-products are in very short
supply in the context of national herd development, and that which is
available is to a large extent already accounted for. The prospects of a
domestic grain and vegetable protein surplus becoming available for
conversion into cattle feeds is extremely doubtful particularly when
account is taken of the demands which the more efficient monogastrics
are also likely to have on feed supplies. For the ruminant group, the
economic and foreign exchange implications of using imported feedstuff
to supplement the national range are highly disadvantageous.
Notwithstanding the above, agro-industrial by-products have a major

role to play in specific development schemes and given the constraints
on national supply it is important that mechanisms are introduced which
will encourage their most effective use.
Thos would include directing available supplies towards those classes of

livestock which will generate the most significant impact on production,
and also ensuring that priority is given to cattle owners who are to
receive an integrated package of technological improvements, the
benefits of which would be severely constrained by inadequate nutrition.
These opportunities are expanded later in the report.
Range Improvement: Various possibilities exist for improving the

carrying capacity of the natural range. These include introducing grazing
practices which are in harmony with the agronomic characteristics of
natural range species, stratifying production into a form which exploits
the comparative advantages of different agro-ecological zones, and
planting improved pastures to replace the natural range species.
Considerable problems however are encountered in the application of
this technology to the pastoralist cattle owner. First and foremost is that
76
to be effective requires control of both stock movements and stock

numbers and the record of success in both of these is particularly not
encouraging. Pasture improvement faces the additional problem of
seasonality of production and the need to either conserve wet season
surpluses to meet the critical shortage of the dry season or to use pasture
species with the ability to produce green foliage in the dry season, the
former, in the context of pastoralist units on the communal range, is
extremely difficult to apply.
Land Reform: While the ability of the pastoralist communities to

exercise traditional control measures on number and movement of cattle
should be fully exploited, the record of success is extremely poor. It
must therefore be anticipated that under a system of communal land
ownership cattle owners will wish to maximize their herd size rather
than optimize returns to land. Without an incentive for the latter, which
would require fundamental land reform, all measures to improve herd
nutrition must be considered partial or short term solutions.
Furthermore, in the absence of individual incentives to invest in land
improvements, rangeland development will depend heavily on public
sector services which will further limit the scope for development from
the standpoint of manpower, finance and logistics constraints.
To date there has been no progress on land reform which offers any
means of resolving this pressing problem for cattle development. This
subject will be further pursued later. But the need for government to
seriously address this issue must be continuously stressed. In any event
however, progress will be a long term undertaking and the scope for
improvement within the existing tenure system must be exploited.
Other Opportunities
Genetic Improvements: Compared with twelve indigenous breeds

under similar management, the Bunaji is above average in main
productive traits.
However, the breeding programme at Shika between 1929 and 1959

which has as its main objective an increase in genetic potential for milk
production of Bunaji, gave an annual increase of only 1 – 1.5 per cent.
Exotic breeds usually have a higher genetic potential than indigenous
breeds: Table 1A and B shows the yields of imported and of cross-breed
cattle at various centres in Nigeria indicating that the first cross of Zebu
with Frisian could potentially double milk yield. The results achieved so
far underline the possibilities of increasing productive performance
through crossbreeding with a well organised A1 programme.
77
Improved genetic potential however will not be realized if other factors

of production are in limited supply and exotic breeds, particularly as
purebreds, are generally more susceptible to disease, climatic and
adverse management practices. Since the lower genetic potential of local
breeds is in most cases not fully utilized because of inadequate nutrition,
genetic improvement will only be applicable to areas where these more
fundamental problems of production have already been successfully
resolved.
Veterinary Improvements: While nutrition may be regarded the most

important livestock problem in Nigeria today, it is essential that
development package is implemented within the framework of a
comprehensive veterinary health programme. Veterinary services are
also in high demand and have affected a higher proportion of livestock
owners than any other development component; veterinary technology is
far more advanced than production technology and its benefits are more
immediately visible to the livestock owners.
Production technology must therefore be extended within an integrated

package in which disease prophylaxis and treatment is a key component.
Pregnant Cow Recovery
Considerable improvements could also be made in building up the

national herd by culling of unproductive stock and alternative stock and
altering the ratio of adult males: adult females from the current
estimated figure of 1; 1. 25 to about 1: 20. Additional contributions to
the buildup of the herd can also be expected from a successful salvage
programme of pregnant cows bought for slaughter. On the basis of
surveys carried out in Zaria and Kaduna areas. About 300 pregnant cows
are slaughtered monthly in each of these areas. Spread over the country,
such losses constitute a major constraint tot the achievement of a rapid
buildup of herd numbers and the growth of the national herd.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Improvement in cattle productivity lies in identifying the cattle resources

and opportunities available and applying technical know-how to harness
the resources for ameliorating the constraints. This is the import of
learning this unit. For instance, selection of individual animals and
breed, and optimal exploration of feed resources have been combined
with effective implementation of policy and health management to bring
about tremendous improvement on the supply of animal products by
nations like India, and recently Kenya is heading for similar feat.
Nigeria seems to have the potentials to attain higher level of productivity
faster compared to many developing nations.
78
5.0 SUMMARY
The study unit focused on cattle resources of Nigeria as an important

segment of the livestock sub-sector contributing goods and services to
the national economy. It potentials of industry to attain optimal supply
of these values are being constrained by a number of factors, which can
be improved upon if strategies and efforts are carefully deplored by
individuals, government and institutions that together form the
stakeholders.
1. Identify two breeds of cattle with potential for beef or dairy

production. Describe each breed under the following points:
ecological adaptation, physical features, performance and
productivity characteristics.
2. What factors are underlying the presence of several management
systems of cattle?
3. Give account of distribution of cattle in the ecological zones and
changes in the distribution accompanying the seasons.
4. Enumerate the management systems for cattle production and
discuss one you considered amenable to adoption for quick and
far reaching improvements.
5. Recommend a set of production strategies for developing a beef
cow-calf enterprise in one of the North Central States. Give some
economic benefits of your recommendations.
Butterworth, M.H. (1985). Beef Cattle Nutrition and Tropical Pastures.

London, U.K: Longman (Publ.)
FMA & GRNC. Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Green Revolution

National Committee (1981). “The Green Revolution – A
Livestock Production Plan for Nigeria,” Pp. 40 – 47.

Tropics. Fourth Edition. England, UK: Longman Scientific &
Technical (Publ.)
Powell, J.M. & Taiylor-Powell, E. (1984). “Cropping by Fulani Agro-

Pastoralists in Central Nigeria.” ILCA Bulletin (19): 21 – 27.
79
UNIT 3 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SHEEP

MANAGEMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Breeds of Sheep in Nigeria
3.2 Stocking and Production Practices for Sheep
3.3 Systems of Sheep Production
3.4 Feedlot Fattening of Ram
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Recent estimate of sheep production in Nigeria puts number at about 22

million. The production objective for raising sheep is essentially for
meat supply and for some socio-cultural interests. Breeds of sheep found
in Nigeria seem to be more adapted for meat rather than wool. The
socio-economic importance is reflected from a survey which indicated
that out of about 82 per cent households found to keep livestock, 67 per
cent own sheep. Each household has between 3 to 10 sheep. Production
of sheep is mainly forage-dependent and represents an important
segment of the Nigerian national livestock resources. Its numerical
strength implies widespread distribution in all ecological zones of
Nigeria, where sheep demonstrate adaptation to the environment,
hardiness, profligacy. These characteristics enable sheep to generate
diverse animal products, employment and forms a commodity for
internal and sub regional trades in Nigeria and West Africa.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
· describe origin and distribution of sheep

· identify breeds of sheep in Nigeria and their relative productive
performance
· explain principles of sheep production
· describe methods of stocking and other general principles of
sheep production
· explain and possibly apply feedlot fattening of ram as a source of
generating income.
80
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Breeds of Sheep in Nigeria
Breed Characteristics for Selecting Sheep
There are four main breeds of sheep in Nigeria. These are the West
Africa Dwarf, Yankasa, Uda and Balami. All are hairy types.
The West Africa Dwarf sheep is a small, short-legged animal found in

the humid zone of southern Nigeria. Animals vary in coat color but
black predominates. The males have horns while females are hornless. It
is the smallest of the Nigeria breeds, with a mature body weight of 18 to
25 kg. Because the breeds thrive in areas that are heavily infested with
tsetse fly, it is considered to be tolerant to trypanosomiasis.
The Yankasa sheep is the most numerous and is found throughout the
Guinea and Sudan savanna zones. It has a predominantly white coat
colour, with black patches around the eyes, ears, muzzle (nose and
mouth area) and hooves. Mature rams have curved horns and heavy,
hairy white mane. The females are hornless. It is a fine-looking breed,
hardy and of medium body size. The adults reach weights of 30 to 40
kg. It adapts well to intensive production and has a relatively high
growth rate.
The Uda sheep is a large, long-legged breed with a convex facial profile,
found in the Sudan savanna zone, especially in the North-western part of
Nigeria. It has a characteristic pied coat colour pattern of an entirely
black or brown head and fore quarters and white hind-quarters. The ears
are large, long and droopy. Mature males have horns white females are
normally hornless. The breed is particularly abated to extensive grazing
and is renowned for its trekking ability. Mature animals weigh 35 to 45
kg.
The Balami sheep is the biggest of the Nigerian sheep breeds and is
found mainly in the drier Sudan and Sahel Savanna zones. It has an all-
white coat. Mature weights of 40 to 50 kg are common. Experience has
shown that the different breeds of sheep are adapted and perform best in
their specific ecological zones. Because of the variations in the amount
of rainfall, temperature and relative humidity, all of which indirectly
affect performance, farmers are advised to raise those breeds that
predominate in their ecological zones. Thus, while the Yankasa and Uda
are suitable for the Guinea and Sudan zone. The West African Dwarf
and Yankasa breeds should be raised in the humid Forest and Derived
Savanna zones.
81
3.2 Stocking and Production Practices for Sheep
Procuring Foundation Stock for Breeding
Ideally, foundation-breeding stock should be purchased from reputable

sheep breeding farms or government Livestock investigation and
Breeding Centers LIBC so as to be certain of their purity, high genetic
quality and freedom from diseases.
Unfortunately, such sources are too few at present and where they exist,
the number of breeding animal available for sale is limited. This leaves
the open market as the main source of breeder stock for farmers.
In purchasing animals from the market, major consideration must be

given to the animal’s health, age and physical appearance. The behavior
and posture of an animal are reflections of its health status. Age can be
determined from the number and size of teeth. Therefore, the farmer is
advised to:
a. Buy animals that are free from obvious diseases such as catarrh,
diarrhea and skin diseases. Also ensure that, animals are free of
ectoparasites such as fleas and ticks on their bodies.
b. Avoid animals with physical defects such as lameness. Walk the
animal around to find out, blindness and malformations.
c. A lean or stunted animal should be avoided. Buy only alert, fine-
looking and active animals with bright eyes and fine coat.
d. Ewes (female sheep) should be between 1.5 and 3 years of age.
e. A -1.5 to 2 year-old sheep has two broad (big) central teeth, a -2
to 2.5 year-old has 4, while those aged about 3 years have 6 big
teeth.
f. Buy in small batches from many markets in different localities so
as to have animals that are as unrelated as possible and to have
genetic variety in your foundation stock.
Initial Health Precautions
A number of health precautions should be taken before introducing

newly purchased animals into your farm of flock. These precautionary
measures are aimed at preventing the introduction of diseases into the
farm and also to improve the chances of survival of your newly purchase
stock.
It is good husbandry practice to have an isolated area away from your

main flock where newly purchased stock can be quarantined for a month
before introduction into the main flock. Adequate feed, water and shelter
should be provided in the quarantine area.
82
Recommended treatment for a one month quarantine period are as

follows:
· 1st day: Give prophylactic antibiotic treatment for 3 days

· 4th day: Give broad spectrum anthelmintics and coccidiostat
treatments. Coccidiostat treatment should continue for 7 days.
· 7th Day: Give tick-bath against ectoparasites.
· 28 th day: Repeat treatment with anthelmintics and also repeat the
tick-bath. Trim overgrown hooves
· 30 th day: Animals can leave quarantine to join the main flock
In the humid zones of Southern Nigeria where PPR (pests des petit
ruminants, a disease of sheep and goats also known as “kata”) may be a
problem, the following vaccination schedule should be included in the
quarantine procedures outlined above:
Recommended treatment for a one month quarantine period are as
follows:
· 1st Day: Give prophylactic treatment with hyper-immune PPR

antiserum (raised in cattle) subcutaneously (4 ml for full-grown
adult).
· 10 th day: Give TCRV vaccination against PPR (one cattle dose)
subcutaneously in the neck region above the shoulder. Of course
initially, when starting a sheep farm you will certainly require
assistance from a veterinarian or trained personnel to carry out
these procedures but except for the vaccination you will be able
to carry them out routinely yourself from then on.
3.3 System of Sheep Production
Intensive sheep production aims at obtaining two lambing per year and
achieving high growth rates. Breeding and reproduction management
should therefore receive proper attention. This involves the adoption of a
number of simple, yet highly essential practices based on knowledge of
the reproductive physiology of sheep. To start with it is good husbandry
practice to separate male and female lambs after weaning and to raise
them in separate opens or buildings this will prevent indiscriminate
breeding and facilitate breeding during specific periods of the year. Male
lambs attain breeding age at about nine months while female lambs
attain breeding age between five to eight months however rams should
not be used for breeding until one and half year of age when they would
be more efficient in serving more females due to greater development of
their sperm reserves. Likewise, female lambs should also not be bred
until they are nine to twelve months old when they will be big enough to
carry a pregnancy with less difficulty it is good practice to replace
breeding rams with newly selected ones after each breeding season or at
83
the least ewes may however remain in the breeding flock for four to six
years to lambs by older ewes. Rams to be selected for breeding should
preferably have been born as twins (only one member of a twin pair
should be selected to high body weight at weaning and six months. A
minimum of six rams should be used in a flock of one hundred ewes to
minimise inbreeding. Breeding ram should be given better feeding from
at least six lambs by older ewes.
Rams to be selected for breeding should preferably have been born as

twins (only one member of a twin pair should be selected to minimize
inbreeding) and should be from among those that attained high body
weight at weaning and six months. A minimum of six rams should be
used in a flock of one hundred ewes to minimise inbreeding. Breeding
rams should be given better feeding from at least six weeks before they
are intended for use. The estrous cycle in sheep is 16 to 17 days and the
duration of estrus is one to two days. Means that the ewe will accept to
be mated by a ram for only one to two days in each cycle of 17 days this
is the estrus or heat period. Ewe will normally ovulate (that is, produce
an egg) shortly after the onset of oestrus (about 16 hours later) when
breeding the whole flock by introducing rams for a period (flock
mating). The breeding rams should be left with the ewe flock for six to
eight weeks (equivalent to about three oestrous cycles) to ensure that all
ewes are bred. They should be withdrawn after this period. Rams should
be joined to ewes for breeding as from two weeks after lambing the
ewes will still be nursing their lambs at this stage but this does not
prevent them from getting pregnant if lambing extends over several
weeks the ewes can be separated for rebreeding in batches according to
their lambing dates.
Ewes may be synchronised for breeding about two to three weeks after
lambing, using progestagen sponges. Synchronisation helps to reduce
the spread in breeding dates and slightly shortens the rebreeding interval
(period from lambing to subsequent conception) of ewes. The treatment
is simple and consists of vaginal insertion of one progestagen sponge
per ewes for 12 days within two to three weeks after lambing. In order to
improve ovulation rate breeding rams should be introduced to the treated
ewes two-day before the sponges are withdrawn, mating will not
commence until after the sponges. Oestrous is usually spread over four
days after sponge removal. Non –pregnant ewes usually return to oestrus
16 to 21 days after sponge withdrawal.
Gestation period or pregnancy duration in sheep is about five months or

152 days.
84
Ewe failing to lamb on two occasions, those weaning lambs of poor

weight and old ewes (above seven years) should be culled (that is,
removed from the breeding flock).
Nutrition exerts a big influence on reproductive performance in sheep.

Under-nourishment during late pregnancy may cause pregnancy toxemia
(a metabolic disease), low birth weight of lambs and poor lamb survival.
Under-nourishment during lactation and rebreeding may result in
depressed lactation, delayed oestrus, lowered ovulation rate and poor
fertility. Poor nutrition at this period also increases lamb and ewe
mortality rates up to weaning, and in addition, results in lowered
weaning weights in lambs that survive. Under good nutrition and
management, at least 80 per cent of ewes mated should lamb with about
25 per cent of the ewes producing twins.
Identification of individual animals facilitates many breeding operations

such as selection of replacement stock and in the culling of unproductive
animals. Metal or plastic ear tags are ideal for this purpose but where
these are not available, wooden tags with numbers painted on them may
be hung around the animals’ necks. Such identification helps proper
record keeping.
Feeding
Sheep must be adequately fed for optimum performance. Poor feeding is

one of the major factors limiting productivity. Essentially, feeds contain
energy, protein, fibre, minerals, vitamins and water
Energy is present in feedstuffs in the form of carbohydrates, fats and

oils. An animal must have sufficient energy to maintain its body
functions and produce meat and milk. Grains, molasses and brewers
dried grains are good sources of energy.
Proteins are essential for the repair of worn out tissues and the building
of new ones. Young and nursing (milking) animals in particular need
proteins. Oil seed cakes wheat offal and legume hays (harawa) are good
sources of protein.
Fibre is made up of cellulose. High fibre feeds are commonly known as

roughages .Ruminants extract energy from fibrous feeds.
Minerals and vitamins are essential for body functions and health of
animals. Although all feedstuffs contain some amount of minerals and
vitamins nevertheless mineral salt licks, bone meal and local rock salts
are major sources of these nutrients and should be added to locally
compounded feeds.
85
Water is essential for the maintenance of body temperature and

functions therefore water must always be available to animals.
The most commonly available feedstuffs for livestock in Nigeria are

roughages (grasses legumes, browse plants and crop residues), oil seed
cakes (cottonseed cake, groundnut cake and palm kernel cake), molasses
wheat offal rice bran, dust (local bran) and brewers dried grains.
Roughage is the cheapest feed for sheep being ruminants this can be
derived from rangelands (natural vegetation), sown pastures fallow lands
and crop residues. For an intensive sheep production system, pasture
establishment is a good investment, as a well-established and well-
managed pasture will provide good quality feed (fresh grasses and
legumes or hay). This will considerably reduce the amount of
concentrate supplements and hence the production cost. A well-
established and well-managed pasture can support 25 to 40 sheep per
hectare under grazing in the wet season and 5 to10 sheep per hectare in
the dry season. The quality of pasture deteriorates considerably during
the dry season, often requiring supplementation with concentrate feed.
The amount of concentrate to be utilised will largely depend on the

quality and quantity of roughage available. A rule of thumb guide is to
allow the animals to graze for at least 6 hours daily or be given 1.5 kg of
good quality hay per head per day. In addition, the animals should each
receive 0.2 to o.5 kg concentrate supplement per day. Ewes in late
pregnancy and nursing animals should receive the higher level of
concentrate.
Concentrate feeds for ruminants are now marketed country-wide in 25

or 50 kg bags. It may however be cheaper to compound your own
concentrate feeds. Examples of 3 formulated rations are given in the
section on feedlot fattening of sheep.
Sheep require two to six litres of water per day, depending on age,
physiological status, and type of feed and ambient temperature. Both
water and mineral salt licks should always be available to the animals.
Housing, Equipment and Other Facilities
Housing is an essential requirement for intensive sheep production.

Apart from providing overnight shelter and security for the animals it
also provides protection against rain and cold. Housing also enhances
close supervision of the flock. In short, provision of housing leads to an
overall improvement in the performance of the animals.
86
Sheep houses need not be elaborate and can vary in type from a low
mud-wall building with thatched roof, through corrugated iron walled
building, to brick or block housing. Such housing should be located on
well-drained soil and should be well ventilated to avoid dampness. The
floor can be cemented or made of rammed earth. The floor should be
easy to clean and should be covered with suitable bedding material such
as straw or wood shavings, which can be changed from time to time.
The building may be divided into pens. Floor space requirements for
lambs and adult sheep are about 0.4 and 1.7 m2 respectively. In addition,
floor space should be pro vided for feed and water troughs. There should
be a minimum of three pens, one each for male and female sheep, and a
sick pen. Ideally there should be more pens per building or more than
one building, with separate one for males, females and weaners.
A store and a hay barn could form part of the building. Alternatively, the
hay barn could be a separate structure. A run (enclosure) made of chain-
link wire, waist-high, may be constructed in front of the pens, divided
into at least two sections for males and females if housed in different
pens in a single building.
Water supply can be from a well, tap, and bore hole or river. It should be
clean and in sufficient quantity.
Feed and water troughs should be provided in every pen, either built-in
or moveable type. A rectangular feed trough measuring 4 x 0.3 x 0.15 m
is adequate for 10 adult sheep. Simple feed troughs could be made by
cutting a drum lengthwise into two halves. If cut drums are used, the
edges should be made blunt to avoid injuries to the animals. Large
plastic basins are better as water troughs as age unlike metal drums they
do not corrode.
A foot-bath is required for the prevention and treatment of foot-rot, a

very common problem with sheep on wet grounds. The most common
type is the walk-through type which is a shallow, long receptacle. Where
a small number of sheep is involved, a bucket of basin may be used.
A dip is an essential structure in a sheep farm. The walk-in, short-swim

type is the most common. In this type, the animal enters the vat through
a walk- down ramp into a deep section of the vat which contains the
dipping solution, and swims out. Dip vats are best made with concrete.
A vat measuring 6 x 1.2 x 0.75m has a capacity of about 2000 litres. It is
necessary to put a roof over the vat to prevent rain from diluting the
chemical. In small-sized flocks, a 200-litre drum opened at one end can
be used. The animals are immersed, one at a time, in the dipping
87
solution contained in the drum for about 30 seconds. A knapsack sprayer

can also used.
Routine Health Management
Routine flock health management is very important in an intensive

sheep production system if mortality is to be kept at a reasonably low
level. Advice in this regard should be sought from the nearest veterinary
department of the Ministry of Agriculture.
Significant common diseases of ruminants in different parts of Nigeria

are as follows:
· South-west zone: PPR (or kata), pneumonias (viral and

bacterial), trypanosomiasis, helminthiasis, coccidiosis, bacterial
infections and ectoparasites.
· South-east zone: PPR, pneumonias, trypanosomiasis,
helminthiasis, ectoparasites, bacterial diseases and coccidiosis.
· Northern zone: pneumonias, trypanosomiasis, helminthiasis,
ectoparasites, bacterial diseases, ectoparasites, skin disorders and
coccidiosis.
The most basic health precautions are provision of adequate nutrition

and maintenance of pen hygiene. Animals on low plane of nutrition are
more susceptible to diseases than well-fed ones. Sheep pens should be
cleaned at least once a month and periodically disinfected.
Overcrowding should be avoided. Sick animals should be transferred to
a sick or isolation pen for proper veterinary care to reduce chances of
infecting other animals. Newly purchased animals should be properly
quarantined before introduction into the main flock.
PPR, which is a major disease especially in the southern parts of the

country can effectively be controlled though vaccination.
Helminthiasis and ectoparasites can be controlled by routine de-

worming and tick baths. Their importance varies from farm to farm
depending on grazing management as well as between seasons. These
diseases are more prevalent in the rainy season. Routine deworming
with anthelmintics and tick-baths with acaricides should be carried out
once in three months during the dry season depending on the severity of
the problem.
The farmer should ensure that lambs receive colostrums from their dams
after birth. The navels of newly born lambs should be swabbed with
iodine tincture. Coccidiosis tends to become a problem in newly weaned
lambs and should be treated against as advised by a veterinarian.
88
In general, it is good practice to do the following:
1. Maintain environment sanitation especially in pens

2. Adopt good internal and external parasites control measures.
3. Observe the flock closely early in the morning and at other times
for early detection of sick animals
4. Isolate sick animal and seek prompt veterinary attention for
diagnosis and treatment.
5. Keep proper health records and have animals that died autopsied.
6. Keep newly purchased animal under for 30 days if possible
before introduction into the main flock
7. Provide mineral salt licks and clean water in pens always.
8. Ensure that animals are receiving adequate and balanced ration.
9. Where pastures have been established rotational system of
grazing between paddocks should be enforced to avoid build up
of parasites on pastures.
10. Trim hooves and horns when necessary.
3.4 Feed Lot Fattening of Rams
A major attraction of intensive sheep production is the opportunity it

offers for large scale production of rams especially for sale during
festivals when they can be sold at very high prices. Before ‘rushing into
the business however, there is need for careful planning if the venture is
not to fail. Important points to consider include source of rams,
healthcare, housing, feeding and the market. All these must be properly
taken care of.
Rams for fattening can come from the farm flock or may be purchased
on the open market at a time when prices are relatively low. For best
results rams should be fattened for 3 to 4 months before sale. The
buying periods can be timed accordingly. When buying rams from the
open market the relevant precautions listed in section 2 should be
observed. In particular a festival ram should have well grown horns and
be free from any deformities which may affect its subsequent market
value. The rams should be between 1 and 4 years old. There is generally
a good market for large grown animal. Avoid very young and very old
animals.
After purchases, the rams should be quarantined during which time they
should be de-wormed, given tick bath and treated against coccidiosis.
Feed supplies and feeding practice considerably influence the weight

gains of animals and consequently the profit margin. Therefore it is
essential to feed animals adequately both in terms of quality. Feedlot
rams should be fed good quality grass or legume hay at daily rates of 1
89
to 2.5 kg, depending on size of ram and type of hay, plus 0.2 to 0.5 kg of
a concentrate mixture. Three examples of suitable fattening concentrate
rations for sheep are as follows:
A. Maize 25%
Cottonseed cake 25%
Wheat offal 30%
Brewers dried grains 20%
B. Wheat offal 40%

Cottonseed cake 25%
Molasses 10%
C. Wheat offal 35%

Palm kernel cake 30%
Molasses 10%
Where labour costs are low rations may be given in equal installments
two or three times daily otherwise the rations can be fed ad libitum.
Where rams for fattening are to come from the farm flock weaned lambs
should be kept in groups and fed high quality chopped hay (preferably
legume) ad labium until they weigh above 20 kg each thereafter they
should be transferred to the feedlot pen and fed as described above.
Feedlot rams should be washed with soap and groomed to make them
more attractive to buyers, about four days before sale.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The study content has shown that different breeds of sheep are adapted
and perform best in their native ecological zones. Production therefore
must need to follow the dictates of the climatic environment. In the
alternative, sufficient provisions in terms of adoption of appropriate
stocking and production procedures must be in place to raise a profitable
flock. These procedures have been stated and packaged to offer
theoretical and practical knowledge required in this level of animal
production course.
7.0 SUMMARY
Sheep in Nigeria are categorized into four, namely the West African
Dwarf, Uda, Balami and Yankasa. The body features, native ecological
zone, body size, height at withers, shape and size of certain body parts
are their distinguishing characteristics. Production performances vary
with their genetic inheritance, management system, feeding and other
90
production practices applied to harmonize genetic potential and

performance. Principles underlying the production practices are
mentioned in course of stating the procedures to enable student grasp the
study content and apply appropriately.
1. Explain factors underlying the distribution of sheep in Nigeria.

2. Distinguish between sheep breeds.
3. Describe systems of sheep production.
4. State the general procedures and methods for stocking and
managing a sheep flock.
Bayer, W. (1986). “Traditional Small Ruminant Production in the Sub-

Humid Zone of Nigeria.” In: R. Von Kaufmann, S. Charter and
R. Blench (eds.) Livestock Systems Research in Nigeria Sub-
humid zone. Proceedings Second ILCA/NAPRI Symposium,
Kaduna, Nigeria, Pp. 141-166.
Church, D.E. (1991). Livestock Feeds and Feeding. Third Edition. New
York, USA: Prentice Hall (Publ.),
Osinowo, O.A. & Adu, I.F. (1985). “Guide on Intensive Sheep

Production.” Animal Production Series. No. 2 23 pg Zaria,
Nigeria: NAPRI (Publ.).
91
UNIT 4 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF GOAT

PRODUCTION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 History and Distribution of Goats
3.2 Breeds of Goat
3.3 Systems of Goat Production
3.4 Principles of Goat Production
3.5 Feeding and Grazing Behaviour of Goats
3.6 Reproduction and Kid Rearing
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Goats were probably the first ruminant animal to be domesticated some

8000 years ago. In the ancient civilisations along the rivers of Nile (in
Africa), Tigris and Euphrates (in Asia) and Indus (in India) when
populations migrated from these areas, the domesticated goats spread
through the continents of Europe and America. There are several good
reasons for keeping goats even in preference to larger animals such as
cattle.
These include:
(a) low purchase price

(b) goats reproduce at an early age and have younger ones per litter
than cattle.
(c) they have innate ability to survive on low quality feed or in
difficult conditions or on relatively small amount of feed. In
Nigeria goat keeping is a major form of investment which
keepers in rural area easily use to meet urgent financial needs. A
lot of social and religious functions demand the use of goat for
exchange of goodwill, marital gifts, sacrifices and ceremonies.
Goat meat is a highly cherished delicacy in drinking places and
hotels because of its favourable attributes of low fat, flavour and
relatively low fibre. For these and other peculiarities of goat
keeping, its production is popular by its contribution to the
national economy through the earning of foreign exchange from
export of goat skin also known as “Morocco Leather” as well as
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providing employment for a host of individual being a major

commodity for trade between regions.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
· describe the origin, distribution and breeds of goats

· explain the various systems of goat production and factors
influencing their adoption
· explain the basic principles of goat production
· apply the knowledge of feeding and grazing habits of goat for
production purpose.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 History and Distribution of Goats
1. Origins and History
Goats and sheep are small ruminant belonging to the tribe, called
caprini. This tribe is divided into two parts or genera, Capra and
Hemitragus. The Hemitragus, also called Tahrs, are wild goats found in
Arabia, the Himalayas and south India. They have short stout horns, no
beards, and long shaggy coats. They have only 48 chromosomes in their
cells and do not cross breed with the Capra, which has 60. The
domesticated goat originates from the Capra genus and this includes five
groups or species predominating in regions indicated as follows:
· Capra hircus (Bezoar) West Asia

· Capra ibex (Ibex) Central Asia, Near East, Alps
· Capra caucasia (Tur) West Asia
· Capra pyrenaica (Spanish Ibex) Pyrenees
· Capra fakciberi (Markhor) Afghanistan, Pakistan
The Bezoar is thought to the main ancestor of today’s domesticated

goat, but the Markhor has had a strong influence in Central Asia where
many goats show the long coarse hair and scimitar type horns which are
characteristic of both species. The influence of the Ibex is seen in the
prominent ‘Roman nose of breeds such as the Nubian, Jamnapari and
Beetal.
Distinguishing the origin of goats is not an easy task. It is practically

difficult to tell the difference between a goat and a sheep. The most
effective and simple away is to look at the tail. In good health and not
93
under stress, a goat’s tail points upwards, that of a sheep hangs down.
Goats can also have beards and the male have tail glands, which sheep
do not. Horn shapes and tail or fibre covering may help classify goats,
but this can be an unreliable method.
2. Goat Population and Distribution
There are some 639 million goats in the world, of which nearly 80 per
cent are found in the tropic and subtropics. This compares with world
population of 1,067 million for sheep and 1,306 million for cattle. All of
these figures are estimates.
Table 4.1 Goat Populations of the Tropics and Sub- tropics

Millions %
Africa 145 41
W. Asia 53 15
S.E. Asia 14 4
Indian sub – continent 110 32
Central America / Caribbean 11 3
Other Areas 18 5
The largest populations of goat are found in Africa and on the Indian sub
– continent. In the tropics, 20 per cent of the ruminants are goats. It is
also known that the population of goats has been growing at a faster rate
than other ruminants. Goats are found in all types of environments, from
arid to humid zones. They do very well in the drier tropics, where their
ability to withstand dehydration and their browsing habit enable them to
survive where cattle or sheep cannot. This means that they can exist in
fragile ecosystems such as the Sahel where, consequently, they are often
blamed, sometime unfairly, for degrading the natural resource base.
3.2 Breeds of Goat
There are some 300 breeds of goat, many of them located in the tropics
and subtropics. They have developed not only in response to a particular
environment but also because man has selected animals for specific
characteristics. These characteristics include temperament, productivity
and ease of management. There has also been a great deal of crossing
between breeds to produce animals that have the characteristic that are
genetically controlled. Goat breeds are not well recorded in the tropics
and are often defined only by the geographical area in which they live.
Goats can be characterised by:
· Origin
· Function
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milk, meat, fibre

· Appearance
Ear shape and length
Body size
Height
Colour
Horned or polled shape of face
No one particular method of identification is satisfactory when taken by

itself. Details of some of the most interesting and important breeds in
Africa are presented in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Goat Breeds in Africa
Breed Type Location Height at Function

Withers (cm)
Large goat
Benadir S. Somalia 70 - 78 Meat
Boer S And E Africa 75 – 80 Meat
Landim Mozambiqure 65 Meat
Maabite Algerial 70 - 83 Milk
Mudugh N. Somalia 65 – 75 Meat and Milk
SahelLong legged) W. Africa 70 - 85 Meat
Sudan Desert Sudan 65 – 80 Milk
Sudanese Nubian N. Sudan 71 – 80 Milk
Sukria W. Ethiopia 70 – 80 70 - 85 Meat
Tswana S. Africa 60 - 75 Meat
Small/medium goats
Angora
Boran S. Africa 61 – 65 Fibre
Kigezi E. Africa 60 Meat
Maradi red Sokoto Uganda 60 Meat and hair
Masai Niger, N. 62 – 72 Meat and skins
Nigeria
Somali E. African 64 Meat
Dwarf Goats Somalia 62 Milk
Congo Dwarf
E. African Uganda, Zaire 45 – 50 Meat
Kosi E Africa 50 Meat
S. Sudan Cameroon 45 - 50 Meat
W. African Dwarf Sudan 40 – 50 Meat
Ghana 40 – 50 Meat
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Description of Goat Breeds in Nigeria
Sahel Goat (W. African Long- legged goat)
This is also known as the Arab goat in Chad and the Maure in
Mauritania. It is similar to other breeds in North Africa, being very long
legged (70-85cm), and is found in the semi-arid areas in the north of W.
Africa. Many goats of Sahel breed are kept by pastoralists in mixed
flocks with sheep. Not being trypano-tolerant the breed does not survive
in forest and dense savanna where the tsetse fly, the carrier of
trypanosomiasis, is found.
Males weigh 40 kg and females 27 kg when mature. They have small

triangular heads, usually with horns. Their coats are short and very fine.
Sahel goats are primarily kept for their meat, and little milk (less than 80
litres/lactation) is produced. Around 40 per cent of births give twins, and
under pastoral conditions the kids grow very slowly. A carcass dressing
percentage of 48-50 per cent is common in adult goat. Like many desert
breeds, Sahel goats have the ability to maintain their weight long periods
under adverse conditions.
Maradi
This distinctive re-coloured goat lives in Nigeria and Niger where it is

kept in small flocks by Hausa-speaking tribes. Animal are confined
away from growing crops and may be stall-fed. The breed is well
adapted to arid conditions and grows to 25 kg for females and 27 kg for
males. Both sexes have similar shaped horns and males have beards.
Because of the importance of the breed for their skins, the ratio of males
to females in flocks is higher than in many other breeds. The skins are of
the highest quality in the tannery trade and are known as Morocco. Their
ease of tanning makes them very popular for shoes and gloves.
Twining is very common and a litre size of 1.8 is the average. Milk
yields of 0.5-1.0 litre per day have been recorded in experimental
stations over three-month periods. Nannies with twins out-yield those
with singles by some 20 per cent. When killed for meat the carcass yield
is 45-50 per cent of live weight.
West African Dwarf Breed (Fouta Djallon Dwarf)
This breed is very short-legged and measure 50 cm or less in height.

They are usually also in the 18-25 kg weight range. Dwarfs can be
proportionately small all over or just short in the leg.
96
This dwarf breed is found in west and central Africa, along the Atlantic
coast. It is trypanosome- tolerant and is adapted to the humid forest
zone. Goats are kept in small groups and left to roam about homesteads
as scavengers. In Nigeria, few bucks are kept. In Senegal, flocks are
owned by women and numbers rarely exceed five. When crops are
growing goats will be tethered.
Bucks weigh 25 kg and nannies 22 kg when mature. Their height is 30-

50 cm. Both sexes have horns and toggles whilst bucks have beards.
Colours vary from dark brown to white and red. Twinning is very
common, so average litter size ranges from 1.4 to 1.85kids. Milk yields
reach 0.3 litre per day.
3.3 Systems of Goat Production
A number of different of goat production systems exist, including

subsistence, extensive and intensive. The number of goats kept is often a
helpful factor that indicates the type of system.
Subsistence
Subsistent farmer usually keep small number of animal and manage to

use whatever feed resource are available at village level. This may
involve feeding crop or household residues to stall-fed goats, tethering
individual animals to verges or allowing goats to scavenge.
Tethering is common in parts of South East Asia, South America and

the Caribbean where crops are grown and the goat must be prevented
from damaging feed or cash crops. Goats are tied with ropes or chains to
pegs, trees or post to constrain their movement. They are moved to a
fresh area of grazing once the current patch is eaten down.
Supplementary feeding with crop residues or household waste may be
given, but not usually concentrate. Water is provided at night, when the
goat is returned to its home. Goat may be tethered in small groups or
even led by ropes held by children or woman.
In the middle East, where there is little groundcover for goat to graze,
especially in the summer, small groups of goat owned by farmers
growing dates and catching fish are kept in tiny shaded corrals. There
they exist on a combination of cut grass legumes and leftovers from the
house meals.
Also in the same region are to be found small flock of scavenging goats
that, during hours, forage in dustbins, on rubbish dumps, in urban
building sites, unguarded gardens and on low growing trees. Only at
night do they make their own way back to their owner’s home.
97
Extensive
Under extensive production systems, goats graze and browse large areas
of land that are usually of a marginal nature, and unsuitable for other
agricultural use. This is usually because rainfall is low or unreliable.
Goats can make good use of these areas provided the number of animals
is controlled to match the carrying capacity of the land. The carrying
capacity is the amount of forage available to sustain a set number of
animals in a given area. The size of flock within this system is often
large, and other species, such as sheep, may also be grazed at the same
time.
Under sedentary systems the grazing available to a flock is limited by

the distance it can travel daily to reach water, shelter at night and the
pastures themselves. A sedentary system is one with a fixed homestead
and set grazing area. Some flocks may be moved to grazing area in
different part of the country to utilize seasonal grazing or crop residues
that are available only for limited period of the year. This is a migratory
system which in some part of the tropics has developed over many
centuries to become a very efficient way of using marginal agricultural
hands.
In parts of African, Asia and India there are two traditional systems of
extensive production which have utilized marginal area very
successfully over long periods. These are nomadism and transhumance.
Nomadism was widespread in the Sahel region of Africa and in the
middle and near East but it is now becoming less common. Nomads
have camps which they move depending upon the amount of water and
pasture available within an area. As traditional livestock keepers they
follow set routes within what are considered tribal lands. Modern day
national boundaries are often ignored.
Transhumance involves the movement of flocks between permanent

settlement and temporary and seasonal pastures as well as between
settlement and temporary and seasonal pastures as well as between
different regional areas. In Europe the flocks are kept in the lower plains
during a winter period and moved to higher mountainous area when the
climate is warm enough to allow vegetation to grow and be accessed.
Apart from altitude, transhumance also occurs between different areas
with the change of season, as in the north- south movement in the Sahel.
Transhumance is found in Africa, S.E. Asia; the near and Middle East
and also in the Mediterranean, Europe and S. America. Animal from
different families may be grouped together for the summer as one large
flock and goat keepers may be hired if the families have other duties.
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Goats are often moved to pastures at higher altitudes than cattle because
they are more agile and can better use the sparser vegetable that grows at
these heights.
Intensive
Intensive systems of goat production are those where the goats are
confined and so not allowed to forage for themselves. In Oman, large
numbers of goats are reared for meat production in small group of 10-15
animals of similar ages and separated into males and female. Two
hundred goats may be kept on one hectare of land with no access to
grazing. These feed lot or zero grazing systems involve feeding cut
grasses (Rhodes, Buffel, and Signal) and cut legumes (leucaena,
gliricidia, stylos) as well as concentrates, mineral and vitamins.
Other system include grazing improved pastures where may be used to

boost yield, supplementary feeding of agricultural by products and
supervise grazing of animal on limited areas. In South India and parts of
S.E Asia stall feeding of goats in crop growing areas is a very efficient
method of converting poor value crop residues and tree leaves into
useful feed production for humans. It also avoids damage by the goats to
growing crops.
Most intensive management involves high cost resulting from high

labour cost, expensive feed, or a large investment in the inputs such as
land or animals. It may be a combination of several factors to which
there must be a high priced product.
Keeping number of goats confined in a limited area requires meticulous

health care if disease, particularly parasite problems, are to be avoided.
Care must also be taken to see that all animal are properly fed, have
access to clean water and are regularly cleaned out.
Many methods of goat keeping combine the different systems of

management as described here. It is, for example, common in parts of
Africa to use children, on returning from school, to shepherd goats that
are confined to stall during the day.
3.4 Principles of Goat Production
Feed and Feeding
Goats are animals known to convert low quality fibrous vegetation into
useful products for man. These include meat, milk, skin and manure.
Goats prefer a varied diet and to be able to wander and browse a broad
range of plants. In traditional systems they make good use of the
99
available vegetation. Because of their browsing habit they are often able
to exist in areas of low rainfall and poor growth, where cattle and even
sheep would not prosper. If their numbers do not become excessive, a
good ecological balance can be maintained.
Goats, being inquisitive eaters, will eat all types of vegetation as well as
articles which have little feed value, such as cardboard and human hairs.
However, given the opportunity, they seek good pasture where they can
select the grasses they prefer. They will often reject the legume clover
which is favoured by sheep and cattle. This means that combining sheep
and goats to graze in a single flock does not necessarily lead to
competition between the two species. Where a wide range of plants is
available it is possible to keep more animals on a given area of land
because each species grazes on a different type of vegetation.
Goats are ruminants. This means they have four – stomach digestive
system which comprises rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum in
the adult goat with which they extract nutrients from fibrous materials
using bacteria and protozoa that live in the rumen and reticulum. Feed is
initially chewed in the mouth and mixed with saliva before it passes to
rumen. This material is returned to mouth for further chewing so that the
particle size is reduced, speeding up subsequent digestion. This
regurgitation is called chewing the cud. Like all ruminants goats can be
seen chewing and re- chewing this material between grazing periods.
They chew the cud more at night than during the day. After thoroughly
chewing cud the feed passes to rumen and reticulum, where micro-
organism break it into simple chemicals which are either absorbed into
the body or are used by the micro –organism to reproduce.
The populations of micro-organisms break it into simple chemicals

which are either absorbed into the body or are used by micro –organism
found in the gut. Digestive microbes are specific to particular diets and
gradually change in response to changes in the types of feed being eaten.
If a sudden change of diet occurs the system is upset because the micro-
organisms cannot digest the new feeds. It takes days for the appropriate
micro-organism populations to build up to cope with the new diet. The
sudden introduction of a new feed can lead to scouring and loss of
condition or even death in severe cases. For goat keepers, this means
that any change in diet must be very gradual. A new feed should be
given in very small amounts at first, with the quantity being increased
progressively over a period of days.
The liquid mixture of rumen and reticulum passes to the omasum, where
most of the water removed, and then to the abomasums. This stomach is
very acidic and any micro-organism reaching it is killed. Digestion from
100
this point progresses with the addition of enzymes which are secreted
from the gut wall. The digestive contents are now broken down into
nutrients that are useful to the body. These are absorbed by the small
intestine. This part of the gut is very long but is accommodated as a
series of coils so it takes up as little room as possible. More of the water
is removed in the large intestine before the very dry dung pellets are
expelled from the rectum through the anus. Goats are able to extract
almost all of the water from the contents of the digestive system, which
means they can make very efficient use of whatever water is available.
This is one of the reasons why goats can survive in arid regions. It is
considered a sign of good health if the dung is reasonable dry.
Feed Intake
In the tropics, dairy goats will eat up to the equivalent of 4-5 per cent of
their own body weight in dry matter daily. Meat goats will consume
about three per cent. In cooler parts of the world dairy goats have been
known to eat up to eight per cent. Goats have a much better capacity for
forage than sheep of a similar size. How much a goat eats depends on
its:
· Age
· Breed
· Production capacity, or
· Whether it is pregnant or lactating.
Younger goats eat more than older ones because they are growing.
Pregnant and lactating animals consume more than non-pregnant and
non-lactating ones because they need more feed to produce milk and to
enable the foetus to grow.
Goats with free access to feed will vary their intake depending on the
energy available from the feed. One average bigger goats eat more than
smaller ones. All goats will eat more if the feed is in a fine rather than
coarse form. The goat keeper can influence how much goats eat by:
· How finely ground the feed is; and

· How much useful energy the feed has (measure in ME per kg
DM)
If hay or straw is chopped, more will be eaten than if fed without

chopping. Finely chopped straw is often fed as part of a concentrate
ration. More feed is eaten if the feed has a high energy density. So if a
high-energy feed such as or molasses is mixed with a fibrous feed such
as straw, goats will eat more.
101
Feed intake is generally measured in dry matter terms. Dry matter (DM)
is the amount of feed remaining when all the water has been removed. It
is used as a guide to how much fresh or moist feed can be fed.
Feeding example 30 kg goat
A 30 kg goat requires:
1. For maintenance 1.6% DM as % live weight = 0.5 kg

2. For production 3.0% DM as % live weight = 0.9 kg
1.4 kg
If DM of feed is 25% four times as much is needed to achieve a set

target figure, therefore:
· 1.4 x 4 = 6.4 kg fresh material daily
Nutrients
Much of the information used to calculate nutrient requirements for

goats is based on research with sheep and cattle.
For goats you need a balance of five basic components.
1. energy
2. protein
3. vitamins
4. minerals
5. water
All goats have a basic need (maintenance) for energy nutrients but some
will also require additional (production) nutrients at particular times, for
example, nannies in the final stages of pregnancy or when lactating or
kids when they are growing.
The energy from feed is used by the goat for maintenance. Maintenance
energy is that amount needed to maintain the animal in a stable body
condition and provide enough energy for walking. Production is that
required for growing and for producing milk or a foetus. It is required
over and above the energy for maintenance. Not all energy in feed can
be used by the goat and so only the part that, the metabolisable energy
(ME) part, is used to calculate how much energy is needed for a goat’s
maintenance and production.
Energy is measure in Mega joules (MJ) or calories. (One calories = 4.2

joules). An average diet contains about 8.5 Mega joules (MJ) of
102
Metabolisable Energy (ME) per kilogram of dry matter (DM). However,

the amount may range from 6 to 13 MJ/ME/kg DM.
To estimate the amount of ME in a feed it is necessary to undertake a

feeding trail to find out the digestibility measures of that part of the feed
which is absorbed from the digestive tract into the body. There is direct
relationship with ME, shown as:
· ME = 0.15 X DOMD
ME is in mega joules per kilogram of dry matter (Mj/kg DM). DOMD is

digestibility of organic matter in the dry matter.
Alternatively, small amounts of feed can be placed in an animal’s rumen

in a small bag and the amount absorbed recorded over a period of time.
Very few of either of these measurements have been undertaken with

goats in the tropics, so the amount of information specifically applicable
to goats is limited. In consequence, calculations for nutrition often have
and also often based on data from the temperate regions of the world
rather than the tropic.
Table below has been derived from experiments undertaken in the

tropics and gives a guide to daily amounts of energy required by goats of
different weights kept under different husbandry systems.
For pregnant or lactating females or growing kids energy is required

over and above the amount needed to maintain body condition given in
Table 4.3
Table 4.3 Energy Requirement of Goats

Goats live weight (kg) Requirement (MJ/ME)
Confined Intensive
10 2.32 3.25
20 3.91 5.47
30 5.30 7.42
40 6.58 9.21
50 7.78 10.89
60 8.92 12.49
Source: Devendra, 1982
For lactation the energy (ME) required relates to the energy content and
composition of the milk produced. A typical energy requirement is
shown below:
103
Table 4.4 Nutrient Requirements for Lactation (per kg of milk)

Fat content of milk ME (MJ) DP’ CALCIUM PHOSPHORUS
(%)
3.5 4.5 47 0.8 0.7
4.5 5.2 59 O.9 0.7
5.5 5.7 73 1.1 0.7
Source: Devendra and Mc Leroy, 1982
*grammes per kg of milk
DP = digestible protein
Pregnant goat requires sufficient energy to feed the growing foetus or

fetuses. In the last part of pregnancy the female’s requirement rises
substantially and particularly if she is carrying two or three kids. Other
nutrients follow a similar demand curve. The quality of feed and its
energy density must rise in this part of the pregnancy if the kids are to be
born at a reasonable weight. If the nanny receives too little energy she
will become thin as her own body reserves are used to grow the kids.
She may develop pregnancy toxemia (ketosis) and die if the situation
gets worse. Levels of energy intake are also required to achieve sexual
maturity and for successful conception.
For growth the level of energy available to growing kids depends on the
rate at which they grow. Research in East Africa suggests 0.035 MJ/ME
is required per gram of growth. A 20 kg animal gaining 50g daily
requires 1.75 MJ/ME for growth.
All goats should have a minimal level of crude protein each day. Crude
protein (CP) is calculated from the nitrogen content of a feed.
1. CP = nitrogen x 6.25
(It is expressed as a percentage (%))
Protein can also be synthesized from non-protein nitrogen such as urea.

The crude protein content of a feed is calculated in the laboratory and, in
temperate countries, tables are available showing values for many
feeding materials. This is infuriately, not the case with most tropical
feedstuffs. Much less is known about specific protein requirements for
goats in the tropics. Figures that relate to sheep are commonly used
instead (Table 4.5).
104
Table 4.5 Crude Protein Levels of Typical Feedstuffs

Typical feedstuffs Crude protein content in DM %
Straw 2-4.4
Cereals 10-12
Grass 10-22
Oils seed by-products 22-55
Green legumes 17-20
Fish meal 65-70
So if a very high fibrous diet (e.g. straw) is fed it may be low in protein.
Additional crude protein, such as fish or oilseed meals, should then be
added to the feed as a supplement.
A 35-40 kg doe requires about 30g/day DCP (Digestible crude protein)

for maintenance. For pregnancy and lactation this rises to 70g/day. For
growing kids the requirements vary with size of kid and daily rate of
growth. A 10 kg kid gaining 100g/day would need some 30g DCP
whilst one at 30g would need 50g/day.
Vitamins
Little research has been done on the vitamin requirements of goats and
on vitamin deficiencies in tropical diets. In many situations goats do not
suffer from a lack of vitamins where they have access to pasture or
rangeland. Most diets have sufficient vitamin A (carotene), Vitamins D
and K if green vegetation is available. If vitamin B12 is deficient, as
characterised by anemia, loss of appetite and poor growth goats should
be given cobalt, which will assist intestinal micro flora to synthesis the
vitamin. Vitamin C does not need to be added to the diet as the goat is
able to synthesize sufficient for its needs.
Minerals
Minerals are important in the diet to keep goats healthy. There are two
groups of minerals. Macro mineral nutrients (major) are in relatively
large amounts while micro minerals (minor) are needed in very small
quantities. The minerals needed in goat diets are given below:
Macro Mineral Micro Mineral
Calcium Iodine Fluorine

Phosphorus Copper Iron
Potassium Cobalt Manganese
Sodium Selenium Zinc
Chlorine Molybdenum Nickel
Magnesium Sulphur
105
Table 4.6: Typical Mineral Deficiency Symptoms

Cobalt Poor appetite, dull coat, anaemia, reduced
Copper/molybdenum milk swayback, scouring, stiff legs, dull
Iodine coat
Selenium Goitre, weak legs, low milk yield
Iron Infertility
Magnesium Anaemia
Calcium Grass staggers
Phosphorus Poor bone growth
Arthritis
Some soils suffer from mineral deficiencies or have minerals that are not
available to plants and so are not ingested by goats. Copper, cobalt and
selenium are good examples. If goats receive insufficient copper they
grow slowly and kids may be born unable to walk on their back legs.
Giving copper to the nanny can prevent this condition, but care must be
taken not to overdose, since this may lead to death from copper
poisoning. The only exact way of knowing whether a goat is short of
copper is to take a blood sample and have it analyzed.
One method of giving copper is by an injection under the skin twice

yearly. Alternatively, boluses can be given to the goat to swallow. These
remain in the stomach and slowly release copper over a six-month
easiest solution to most minor mineral deficiency problems is for goats
to have access to a composite mineral lick. These can be purchased from
feed companies or sometimes local rocks or salt blocks are available. In
intensive systems minerals can be added to the concentrates feed.
Selenium and cobalt can be added to the concentrates feed. Selenium
and cobalt can be given as a liquid drench to counter any deficiency of
these mineral.
Calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) are important minerals in milk

production and a lack of calcium in the diet may lead to milk fever in
newly-kidded nannies. This condition can be fatal. As a guide 0.9g of Ca
and P should be available per 1kg of milk produced.
Mineral toxicity or deficiencies are less commonly seen in an acute form

than a chronic one. Copper deficiency, when most severe, will produce
swayback in kids. Where the deficiency or toxicity is less severs, more
chronic symptoms include:
· scouring
· poor fertility
· hair loss
· Poor appetite and growth.
106
Because these are also normal indications of poor nutrition and parasite
infestation, identifying mineral deficiencies is difficult and best
confirmed by the analysis of blood samples.
Water
All animal require access to water to enable them to perform normal

body functions. This should ideally be fresh and clean. The more
continuous the access the better the animal’s metabolism performs and
the higher its production. In practical terms, however, watering animals
usually takes place once or twice daily or even very other day. The
amount of water needed by a goat depends upon:
· Amount of dry matter eaten

· Whether the goat is lactating
· Air temperature
· Drinking frequency
· Water temperature.
If goats eat succulent feeds, which have high moisture content, they
need to drink less than they do when fed on dry feed. In desert
conditions they will lick the dew from the trees. If water is cool or
available at all times goats will drink less. In hot conditions goats keep
cool by seeking shade under trees or rocks and will pant and sit when
the air temperature exceeds 390c. Panting causes loss of heat by
evaporations of water from the lungs. Indigenous goats have a reputation
for being very tolerant to heat stress and having a reduced demand for
water. Long or shiny coats are thought to help protect the skin from the
sun’s heat. Exotic breeds, on the other hand, are less adaptable and tend
to eat less in hotter conditions which leads to body weight losses.
Compared with sheep, goats pant less and lose less water in the faeces
and urine.
To achieve maximum efficiency, goats need to drink 4kg of water for

every 1kg of dry matter they consume.
Water is more critical for growing kids and pregnant or lactating nannies
than it is for other goats. The smaller an animal is the more water it
needs relative to its size. This is because it has a large body surface in
relation to its body size which makes it susceptible to heat stress.
Goats tend to thrive better than sheep under difficult range conditions
because they are able to tolerate brackish or salty water which is often
found in high temperature areas or near the sea. For example, salt
concentrations of 10,000 ppm (parts per million) in the water are well
tolerated.
107
In arid regions or in the dry season the number of watering places

declines and flocks may have to travel long distances to drink and then
wait their turn behind herds of larger camels or cattle. This reduces time
available for grazing as well as causing overgrazing around waterholes.
Supplementation
Most farmers in the tropics cannot afford to give their goats any feed
over and above what the animals can graze. By being able to select
particular plants, goats may be able to increase the quality of their diet,
especially with regard to energy or protein levels. In practice, their diet
consists almost entirely of low-valve roughages. In these situations
feeding a supplement to the diet can have a dramatic effect on
productivity especially during the dry season, during late pregnancy or
where animals are still fed.
Supplement can be given as:
· Concentrates containing extra energy (molasses, cereals)

· Protein source (legumes)
· Non-protein nitrogen (urea)
· Minerals/vitamins (salt licks).
Supplementary feeding is a costly exercise and only worthwhile if the

improvement in performance gained it greater than the cost. If feeding
pregnant nannies in the final month of gestation gives larger kids that
grow well and can be sold for higher prices then supplementation may
be worth doing. This is especially so if the supplementation is cheap to
obtain. Tree fodder is one example and agricultural by-products ma y be
the other.
Practical feeding
In practical terms the following period are important ones to consider

when feeding goats:
· Bucks and nannies 1 month before mating

· Nannies for the 3 weeks after mating
· Nannies the final month before kidding
· First 2 months of lactation
· Growing kids, especially post weaning.
Only in selected situations are concentrates likely to be either available

or given as a supplement. More likely supplements are legumes or crop
residues. These might include leucaena, stylos, pigeon peas, sweet
potato stems/leaves, groundnut haulm and cassava leaves.
108
When not being used for mating, bucks do not normally need
supplementary feed. A small quantity of concentrate in the 3-4 week
period before breeding will help build up body condition of bucks. This
is important if the males have many nannies to mate or if climatic
conditions are harsh. Bucks can lose a great deal of weight during the
mating period.
Feeding nannies immediately before and for three weeks after mating
keeps them in good condition and will help the implantation of fertilized
eggs in the uterus.
By far the most critical period during which correct feeding is important
for the nanny is the last month of pregnancy when the foetuses are
growing very rapidly and causing a severe strain on the mother’s body
reserves. Reducing the ration immediately after kidding and then
building it up again for the first three weeks of the lactation until
weaning, will encourage good milk production.
If nannies are in very poor condition at weaning, supplementary feeding

will enable them to regain body condition and to be in a good state for
mating and conception. It is hard to justify the cost of feeding kids
concentrates. Supplementary feeding of kids after weaning will stop
them losing weight that often occurs when the nannies’ milk is no longer
available to them.
3.5 Feeding and Grazing Behaviour of Goats
Many parts of the tropics have long periods when little or no rain falls
consequently vegetations dies back and surface water disappears. The
quantity of the vegetation also declines, with the best being eaten first.
The longer the dry period lasts the poorer the quality of the roughage
becomes. Goats will then eat less of this material.
If the nutrients in the feed are less than required for an animal’s
maintenance it will begin to lose weight as body reserves are depleted.
As this happens the females will become anoestrus and so not breed.
Nannies that are already pregnant will produce very weak kids. In very
long dry seasons animals will die, with the youngest, weakest and oldest
dying first.
Goat keepers may counter these adverse effects by feeding goats on tree
leaves or legumes. This practice can lead to deforestation problems
when many animals are kept. This has happened in some areas of the
third world such as Nepal and the Sahel region of Africa.
109
Goats are selective and agile feeders. They will walk long way searching
for feed and are happier having a range of vegetation available to them
including trees, shrubs and grasses. Shoots and leaves are preferred to
stem. In intensive unit, if not managed effectively, goats will refuse and
spoil a high percentage of forage offered.
When goats are first let out on to pastures in the mornings they will
initially graze unselectively but then start to wander and become
increasingly selective. Unlike sheep, goats will scatter and graze and
browse individually, climbing trees or standing on their hind legs to
browse at higher levels. They will stop grazing if disturbed, for example,
by rain. In hot conditions goats favour grazing in the early morning and
evening. In Arabia they will graze at night if allowed, preferring to seek
out comfortable shade during the heat of the day.
Where goat keepers can control their animals under extensive system
they may be able to use range better if they allow sheep and goats to
graze together. These two species are complementary in habit which
means more animals may be kept in a set area. The sheep will graze the
lower grasses whilst the goats will browse shrubs and trees.
Good goat keepers will know the browsing habits and movement
patterns of the flock and their favourite watering and sheltering spots.
They will allow natural resting times in the middle of a day and know
when to move the flock. Goats are much more difficult to move during
cold, wet or windy periods.
Goats change their feeding habit between seasons. In the dry season they
will eat bushes and trees which in wetter periods they would ignore,
preferring in this season grasses and legumes. They can distinguish
bitter, sweet, salty and sour tastes and show tolerance to bitter and salty
tastes.
Although goats do not flock together in the way that sheep do, they do
have a good herd instinct and if handled frequently become used to
being moved or herded in large groups. Calling to animals in specific
sound or tonation when feeding, will teach them to move together for
handling. Identifying the dominant females and males whom others will
follow can also be useful.
Agro-industry by-products
Industries that process agricultural produce often leave residues by-

products that can be fed to animals. The feeding value of such by
products varies considerable. Some examples are listed in Table 9.7 but
the same product’s feeding value will change with different samples
110
feeding a product to a small number of goats to observe the effect is one

solution to this problem. Some by-products, such as molasses and
cassava, are high in energy but low in protein whilst others, such as
linseed meal or desiccated cotton seek cake, have good levels of both
protein and energy.
Table 4.7 By-products as a Source of Energy and Protein

Protein Energy
Brewers’ grains √ √
Cassava peelings √
Rice husks √
Sorghum Stover √
Wheat bran √
Coconut cake meal √ √
Cotton cake meal √ √
Cotton seed cake √ √
(decorticated ) √ √
Linseed meal
Soya bean meal
√ = good
3.6 Reproduction and Kid Rearing
1. Terminology
Listed below are some of the most common terms used when referring
to reproduction in goats:
Fertility ability to produce sperm or ova

Prolificacy ability to produce young
Litter size number of kids born to each nanny each birth
Kidding percentage number of kids born or reared in relation to nannies
exposed to buck
Kidding interval number of days between two successive kidding
Service implant of fertilized ova that grows to foetus
Foetus growing kid in uterus
Service mating
Heat oestrus
Fertility is affected by both environmental and genetic factors.
For the farmer, fertility is seen as the ease with which a doe successfully
conceives after kidding. The shorter the period, or the fewer the number
of services, the more profitable the exercise; and the happier the farmer.
The farmer would consider the number of services needed to get the
nanny pregnant to be an indicator of fertility of the buck.
111
Prolificacy improves with age, with most nannies progressively giving

more kids per litter up to their fifth or sixth kidding. Prolificacy is
measured by litter size, kidding interval, kidding percentage or service
period. These figures are usually expressed as per animal or for a group
of animals. Thus the average kidding interval for the West Africa Dwarf
is 258 days. Its litter size is 1-6 kids.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The significance of goat production makes understanding of its

management worthwhile and highly profitable. The adaptive
characteristics and productivity of goats endear goat production to
nearly every household in the rural area of Nigeria. Goats are known as
the poor man’s cow because of their ability to provide sufficient meat,
milk, skin and fibre for smallholders unable to raise cattle. Greater
benefits and expansion of current production status are possible if proper
management is diffused among producers through informed experts
undertaking animal production as a course.
5.0 SUMMARY
This study unit has attempted to provide students with basic

understanding of the origin, distribution and breeds of goats found in
Nigeria. The stockholding size, agricultural production system, level of
investment and environmental factors underlying the system of
production adopted in a place or at a particular session. Like in other
system of production, basic theoretical principles are needed to
effectively and efficiently manage goat production in terms of feeding,
reproduction, health and housing for improved productivity and
profitability.
1. Describe the visual and productive characteristic of three breeds

of goats found in Nigeria.
2(a) Enumerate factors influencing systems of goat production.
(b) Describe two common systems of goat production in Nigeria and
identify their various sub-systems.
3. The National Open University has requested you to provide a
technical proposal for setting up a goat unit in the University
farm, give an outline of your proposal based on the most suitable
production and management system you may consider.
112
Alhassan, W.S. (1985). “Potentials of Agro-Industrial By-products

and Crop Residues for Sheep and Goat Production in Nigeria.”
In: Adu, I.F., Osinowo, O.A., Taiwo B.B.A., Alhassan, W.S.
(eds.) Small Ruminant Production in Nigeria: NAPRI, Zaria
Nigeria, 6-10 Oct. Pp. 184-186.
Bayer, W. (1980). “Traditional Small Ruminant Production in the

Sub-humid Zone of Nigeria.” In: R. VonKaufmann, S. Charter
and R. Blench (Eds.) Livestock Systems Research in Nigeria Sub-
humid Zone. Proceedings of the Second ILCA/NAPRI
Symposium, Kaduna, Nigeria, 29 Oct. – 2nd Nov. 1984, Pp. 141-
166.
Devendra, C. & Burns, M. (1970). Goat Production in the Tropics.

England, U.K: C.A.B. (Publ.).
113
MODULE 3
Unit 1 General Principles of Pig Production

Unit 2 General Principles of Poultry Production
Unit 3 General Principles of Rabbit Production
Unit 4 Livestock Management Tips
UNIT 1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF PIG

PRODUCTION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Distribution Consumption and Constraints to Pig
Production
3.2 Origin and Breeds of Pigs
3.3 Systems of Pig Production
3.4 Principles of Pig production
3.5 Pig Behaviour and Effect of Climate
3.6 Housing and Pen Design
3.7 Disease Prevention and Management
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Estimates of the world pig and human populations equate one pig to six
people in the world. Highest world meat output is derived from pigs
according to FAO (1989) statistics. Similarly, in Nigeria the Central
Bank annual reports for a decade indicated pig production as the fastest
livestock enterprise in generating output. This brief statistics attests to
the significant contributions of swine to human and national needs.
Perhaps pig production would have contributed much more except for
constraints imposed climate and religious belief in addition to usually
constraints known depress livestock productivity. Notwithstanding these
negative factors, pigs are outstanding in the number of offspring it can
produce in a litter and its efficient growth rate that are in comparable to
ruminant animals. The unselected indigenous types are extremely poor
in performance than the proven exotic breeds such as land race, large
white and duroc. The study unit is devoted to basic principles underlying
the management of pigs for the overall good and productivity. The
114
principles cover feed and feeding, growth and development,

reproduction, housing and disease management.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
· outline global distribution, consumption and constraints to pig

production and its potentials
· distinguish between various systems of pig production
· review basic biology and essential principle of pig production as
it relates to feeding, growth and development
· interpret the behaviours of pigs from the stress imposed by
climatic environment and limitation of the body structure and
physiology
· choose out of several remedies housing facilities and designs to
mitigate negative effects of the environment
· apply preventive and control measures against swine diseases and
pests.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Distribution Consumption and Constraints to Pig

Production
The estimated world pig population of 286 million (FAO, 1988) means
that there is approximately one pig to every six people in the world.
Although pigs are numerically fewer than some other domestic species,
more pig meat is produced than other meat (Table1.1). This reflects the
greater productivity of the pig when compared with other domestic
species.
Table 1.1: World Comparison of the Main Livestock Species in

Terms of Number and Meat Production
Numbers Meat output
(million head) (000 metric tons per
year)
Cattle 1,253 50098
Buffalo 137
Sheep 1174 8801
Goats 521
Poultry 10050 11495
Pigs 826 63917
Source: FAO Quarterly Bulletin of Statistics, 1989
115
Distribution and consumption
The distribution of pigs throughout the world is not uniform. Nearly half
the world’s pig population is in Asia, with a further 30 percent in Europe
and the USSR. In contrast, the population in large parts of the tropical
and sub-tropical developing regions (e.g. Africa and Latin America) is
relatively small (figure1. 1). Nevertheless, the increase in the world pig
population over the last decade is largely attributable to increase within
the developing world, which now constitutes some 60 percent of the
world population of pigs. It is noteworthy that the majority of the pigs in
the developing world are located in one Asian country, namely China.
A sia
E u r op e
U SS R
N . an d C . A m er ic a
Figure 1.1: Regional Distribution of the World Pig Population

(FAO 1988)
Similarly, marked differences exist in the consumption patterns of pig

meat throughout the world. In some parts of Europe, annual per capita
consumption of pig meat is over 50 kg, and represents some 60 per cent
of the total meat consumed. At the other end of the scale in areas of the
developing world and particularly in Africa, estimated annual per capital
consumption ranges from 1 to 3kg, and form less than 10 per cent of the
total meat diet.
The reasons for the uneven distribution of pigs throughout the tropical
and sub-tropical world are manifold. In tropical Asia and parts of China,
pork is the predominant component of the diet. On the other hand, in
areas where the Islamic religion prevails, e.g. the Middle East, Pakistan
and part of Africa, Muslims are forbidden to eat any pig meat. Similarly,
believers in the Jewish faith are instructed not to eat pork meat, and
Zionist sects occur throughout the developing world. Social factors also
play a part and these may have a positive or a negative effect on the pig
population. In some Pacific islands, such as Tonga and Papua New
Guinea, pigs are highly regarded as a source of wealth and associated
with marriage customs. On the other hand, in Africa people have
116
traditionally obtained their meat supplies mainly from ruminants,

particularly cattle and this preference persists.
The pig has historically been considered an unclean animal, wallowing

in filth, an object of distaste and a hazard to human health. Clearly, there
is some truth in this assumption if the pig is used as a scavenger but the
exact opposite pertains if the pig is well managed under confined
conditions.
Climate has an influence on distribution. Pigs can be reared almost

anywhere given suitable housing and management. But in situations of
extreme temperatures, humidity or lack of rainfall they cost more to
produce, because of the need for more expensive housing and because
suitable feeds may not be available.
The Potentials and Constraints to Pig Production in Developing

Countries
The world trend is towards the consumption of more white than red
meat. Thus the potential for increased meat production from pigs in the
developing world is enormous. When compared with cattle and other
ruminants, pigs have some major potential advantages, namely:
· They produce meat without contributing to the deterioration of

the natural grazing lands. This is of paramount importance in
relation to the current steady desertification, soil erosion and loss
of productive land in tropical and sub-tropical parts of the world.
Overstocking and consequent overgrazing by ruminant is a
primary cause of this degradation.
· They covert concentrate feed on meat twice as efficiently as
ruminants.
· They possess the potential to be highly productive. Because they
are capable of producing large litters after a relatively short
gestation period, and have a short generation interval and grow
rapidly, their output in terms of yield of meat per tonne of live
weight of breeding females per year is in the region of six times
that of cattle.
· If confined maximum use can be made of their manure and
effluent.
· Their relatively small size, when compared with cattle, provides
for more flexibility in marketing and consumption.
· The meat pigs produce is particularly suitable for processing:
some of the processed products have a longer shelf life than fresh
meat, and can thus be distributed to a wider section of the
population.
117
· Quicker turn-over rate to investment compared with cattle. Apart

from the social and religious constraints mentioned, other
constraints to pig production are:
- As simple-stomached animals, they compete directly with

humans for feed, especially the staple grains and oilseeds. This
can be partly overcome by making maximum use of crop by-
product, waste feeds and grain unsuitable for human
consumption.
- They cannot provide a source of draught power for farming
operations.
- Since they tend to be raised close to human habitation, their
effluent may cause a pollution problem
- Because pigs and man are co-hosts to a number of parasites, if
pigs are not confined they can pose a problem to human health.
3.2 Origin and Breeds of Pigs
Although the actual origins of the domestic pig are obscure, it is

probable that it is mainly derived from the European wild boar (Sus
scrofa). Originally pigs colonised the forest and swamps (as does Sus
scrofa) to this day, and were thus designed to live in a moist, shady
environment. Their short legs and powerful streamlined body were built
for moving through dense undergrowth and the strong head and tusks,
with a cartilaginous disc in the snout, for digging and rooting.
Biblical writings indicate that pigs were first domesticated as early as

200 BC. As man has developed the pig as a meat animal, major changes
in conformation have occurred from the typical, unimproved type. The
relatively large, narrow head, heavily forequarters, tapering light
hindquarters and compact body have been replaced by a smaller head,
lighter forequarters, and a longer and wider body with bigger capacity
and well-developed, meaty hindquarters.
Breed Types
Although some are numerically small in number, there are over 90

recognized breeds and estimated 230 varieties of pig in the world. They
can be broadly classified into indigenous or unimproved type or the
more modern exotic type, which have been selected and developed for
specific purposes.
Indigenous Breeds (Domesticated)
These predominate in the tropical and developing world, and have

evolved a variety of shapes and sizes in order to survive in a range of
118
different environments. In general, they are smaller and have shorter

legs than exotic types, with the typical unimproved conformation of a
large head, well–developed forequarters and relatively light
hindquarters. This renders them more mobile and better able to forage
and root for themselves. They are early sexually maturing and females
may show first oestrus as early as three months of age. There are many
variations of coat colour, but black and brown are most common and
white is frequent. The degree of hairiness also varies, and hairless and
relatively long- haired types are found. Within the major regions of the
tropics, the main breeds and types are as follows.
Africa
In many countries in Africa, pigs have not been characterised into

specific breeds, and are variously referred to as ‘indigenous” “local’ or
“unimproved” pigs. The situation is further confused in some areas by
inter-breeding with imported exotic strains.
Clearly the productivity of these unimproved breeds in Africa is

influenced by their environment, and some typical reproductive
performance figures are shown in Table 10.1. In trials in Zimbabwe,
although litter sizes tended to smaller, total live weight of the litter as a
proportion of the weight of the sow at farrowing was of the same order
as exotic sows (11per cent).
The efficiency of conversion of feed to body weight in indigenous sows

is also equivalent to that of exotic types. Indigenous sows showed
excellent mothering ability, which resulted in very low piglet mortality
without sophisticated housing. However, during the growth phase,
growth rates and feed conversion efficiencies of indigenous pigs are
below their exotic counterparts (Table 1.2).
Table 1.2: Some Fertility and Performance Figures for Indigenous

Sows in Africa
Nigeria Zimbabwe South Ghana
Africa (Ashanti)
(Dwarf)
Litter-size at birth 6.5 7.9 7.2 6.3
Litter-size at weaning 5.5 7.5 _ _
Pre-weaning mortality (%) 15.0 5.0 _ _
Average weaning age 9.0 8.0 8.0 8.0
(weeks) _ 7.6 9.0 7.0
Average weaning mass (kg)
119
Table 1.3: A Comparison of Growth Rate Conversion Efficiency of

Zimbabwe Indigenous and Large White Pigs Fed and Feed a
Commercial Diet from 8 to 32 Weeks
8-16 17-24 25-32
Body weight gain (kg/day)
Indigenous 0.28 0.51 0.45
Large white 0.44 0.58 0.68
FCE (kg feed per kg body weight gain)
Indigenous 3.1 3.6 5.0
Large white 2.7 3.3 4.0
Exotic Breed in the Tropics
The Large White (Yorkshire)
The large white breed was first developed in Yorkshire, England in the
middle of the nineteenth century, and has since become a very popular
breed throughout the world. It is a fast growing; strong- framed pig with
good length and is renowned for its strength of leg. Females are prolific
good mothers and adapt well to confinement conditions.
The breed is widely distributed throughout the tropics, and is used

extensively for cross-breeding. In Africa, for instance, the Large White
X Landrace female is the most popular cross for commercial production.
It is also used as grandparent stock in some of the main hybrids
produced in Europe. In common with the Landrace, unless provided
with adequate shade or wallows, the white skin renders it particularly
susceptible to sun burn under tropical conditions. On the order hand, the
white hair and white skin render the skin on the carcass more acceptable
to the consumer than from the coloured breeds.
The Landrace
This breed originates from Scandinavia and is characterized by its

forward-pointing lop ears. It was specifically developed for the bacon
trade and typically possesses a long, smooth body with light shoulders
and well–developed hams. It is a prolific breeder with excellent
mothering qualities and produces lean, fast-growing progeny. The
landrace has a higher level of susceptibility to stress than some other
breeds. Although not as numerous as the large white, it is also common
throughout the tropics, and is highly favoured for crossbreeding
purposes.
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The Duroc
This breed has been developed in the USA, although there have been
suggestions that the British Tamworth breed was involved in the original
stock. It is characterised by its deep red or rusty colour. The Duroc is a
fast-growing large breed, which has been selected specifically for
overall muscle and meat production. One important characteristic is its
ability to grow to heavier weights without depositing too much fat. In
the female litter–size and mothering ability are only average. It is
claimed that the Duroc possesses a higher proportion of marbling fat in
the meat.
An outstanding trait in the Duroc is its hardiness and resistance to stress,

which results in lower levels of mortality. In tropical zones this is an
important consideration, and the breed is consequently increasing in
popularity. In commercial production in parts of Africa, it is frequently
used as a terminal sire on white crossbred females.
The Hampshire
The Hampshire is a medium-sized, black pig with a distinct white saddle

which encircles the forequarter. Originally a native of England, it has
been developed as a modern breed in the USA. Hampshire sows are
prolific, good mothers and possess above – average milking ability.
They are also better able to cope with more extensive condition than
white breeds. It is meaty, well–muscled breed which shows good
efficiency of feed conversion. The Hampshire is very popular in cross-
breeding programmes, both in order to produce a cross–bred female and
as a terminal sire.
The Berkshire
Although the Berkshire breed is on the decline on a worldwide basis, it

remains popular in cross – breeding programmes in parts of the tropics.
It is smaller, early –maturing pig which was first developed in England
for the pork trade. It has a black coat with characteristic white feet and
nose. In the tropics it has proved very hardy, and crosses well with
indigenous stock. In certain areas, for instance in Burma, it is prized for
its fat content, as pig fat used extensively for cooking purposes.
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Other breeds of interest
The Chester White
This breed was developed in America and has spread particularly into
central and South America. Females are highly prolific, but growth rate
tends to be slow, and carcasses are shorter and fatter than average.
The Large Black
A hardy British breed, sows are very good under extensive conditions.
However, growth rates tend to slow and carcasses are relatively fat.
Although now rare as a pure bred, there is evidence of the influence of
large black throughout the tropics.
The Pietrian
Of Belgian origin, this is a very lean and meaty pig, and is widely used
in the production of modern hybrids. Introductions to the tropics have
largely been unsuccessful due to high level of susceptibility to stress. As
an example, all the pietrain pigs imported into Zimbabwe (then
Rhodesia) in the 1960s died from heart failure as a result of one stress or
another.
The Poland China
This breed of pig was one of the earliest to be developed in USA. It

tends to be large and fat but has been widely used in Central and South
America. Improved strains of the breed are being developed.
The Tamworth
Characterised by its red colour, this is one of the oldest breeds of pig in
England. The breed is exceptionally hardy, but is relatively slow-
maturing. In the past it has been very popular for crossbreeding
purpose in tropical regions.
The British Saddleback
This is another hardy British breed, formed from the combination of the
Essex and Wessex Saddleback breeds, with good milk production and
mothering ability. It is named after its distinctive markings of black
coloration with a white saddle. In the UK it has gained a new lease of
life for the introduction of hardiness and mothering ability into hybrids
used in outdoor production systems.
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From the point of view of genetic improvement of pigs in the tropics it

is important to realise that pigs selected for their superior performance in
one environment will not necessarily be superior in a completely
different environment. This is known as genotype – environment
interaction. An example of this type of interaction is that restricted
feeding regimes will have a greater effect in reducing back fat thickness
in genetically fat pigs than in genetically thin pigs. When selecting
genotypes to help improve pig performance in tropical environments, it
is crucial to understand the fact that such interactions will occur. If
genotypes are selected under intensive conditions in a temperate
environment and then transferred to the tropics, the environment must be
modified, by means of housing, feeding and management, to suit that
genotype. In extreme cases, genotypes are selected under intensive,
temperate conditions. In such situations the animals have difficulty
surviving, let alone growing and reproducing, and local or crossbred
genotypes will be far superior under these conditions.
3.3 Systems of Pig Production
Scavenging or Extensive Small-scale System
This is the traditional system of rearing pigs in most parts of the tropics.
It is also the simplest and cheapest. Each family, kraal or village keeps a
few stocks which are allowed to wander freely and pick up food when
and where they can. If extra food is available, they may receive
supplementary food. This supplementary food will generally consist of
foods of low nutritional quality such as banana, crop residues, water
hyacinth, and rice bran, local herbaceous plants, by products of beer-
making or kitchen wastes. Where pigs are particularly valued for festival
or ritual slaughter, as in parts of Asia and Africa, a few may be confined
and fed for a three-to-six month fattening period prior to important
ceremonies.
Indigenous breeds of pigs predominate on the scavenging system;

because they are adapted to the local environment and their relatively
small size and mobility render them best able to cope with the
conditions. Productivity is normally low with the erratic and often
seasonal food supplies resulting in irregular breeding of female animals,
high rates of offspring mortality and low growth rates. Stocks raised on
this system are particularly susceptible to infestation with parasites, and
invariably carry a heavy burden of intestinal worms and ectoparasites. A
particularly hazard of the scavenging system is that animals have access
to sources of parasites, e.g. human waste, which can then be transmitted
back to man when he eats meat.
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The majorities of scavenging domestic pigs are owned by subsistent

farmers, and are not produced with any particular market in mind.
Rather the animals play an important socio-economic role as a form of
bank, and stock are sold at times of cash shortages or unexpected needs
in the family. The numbers are usually kept small, in the region of 1-10
breeding females per herd.
Semi-Intensive Production
In these systems, often also known as ‘backyard’ systems, animals are

confined and therefore present a commitment on the part of the farmer
to feed his stock. Pens or sites are mainly of very simple construction
and in some countries of south East Asia and West Africa, may be made
of bamboo and elevated. Of the other hand, animals are sometimes
constrained by tethering in larger yards or paddocks.
Feeding is based on kitchen waste, vegetables and by-product foods, and

management is generally minimal. As a consequence, productivity tends
to be relatively low and mortality can be high. Although local and
indigenous breeds of animal predominate, crosses between indigenous
and exotic breeds can be found in this system of production throughout
the developing world. Marketing is largely indiscriminate and is dictated
by the immediate financial needs of the owner. Generally, herd sizes and
productivity tend to be higher in these systems than in the scavenging
systems.
Intensive Production
These systems are characterized by the fact that the small-scale producer
has moved away from subsistence production to the commercial pig
production. Units may comprise up to 50 head, and the producer will
grow and/or purchase food specifically for his pig enterprise. The
system of housing becomes more sophisticated shade and open space,
and appropriate feed and watering facilities. In order to justify the
increased capital cost, the farmer will attempt to manage his stock to
optimize output, including some veterinary protection against parasites
and diseases. The breed of animal raised will tend to be mainly the
higher-performance exotic, or a cross between exotic and indigenous
breeds. Marketing may be informal, through local butchers, or into the
large-scale commercial sector, but in any event it will be planned to
bring in a regular income for the enterprise.
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Large-Scale Systems
Intensive
This is the most common system of large-scale production. Units are

generally capital intensive and may involve a large herd from 40 up to
1000 heads. Modern high-performance breeds of pigs, or hybrids, are
used, and provided as far as possible with optimum conditions of
housing, feeding and management in order to ensure maximum output.
Housing will often be designed specifically for the different classes of
stock and environmental conditions.
These units, especially the larger ones, are particularly amenable to

integration with grain production and stock feed manufacturing
operations on the one hand, and processing and marketing on the other.
The farm animals will invariably be marketed through a processor in
order to maximize returns on the carcass.
Extensive Systems
These are a trend throughout Europe and America towards less intensive
systems of production. These systems, often known as ‘outdoor’
systems, entail keeping animals in paddocks or ranches and providing
individual pens for parturition and shelter. Younger stocks are generally
raised under more intensive conditions. In Europe, hybrid crossbreds,
with a greater ability to withstand climatic vagaries, are produced
specifically for use on this type of system.
Production systems of this type exist in the tropics, and there is clearly
potential for further expansion. The major advantages when compared
with intensive systems are that less capital is required for establishment,
and animals can gain access to bulky foods such as pastures, crop
residues, cassava roots and sweet potatoes. In tropical regions it is
essential that adequate shade and housing be provided. Moreover, there
must be tight control of parasites and adequate fencing to prevent
contact with endemic disease, e.g. in Africa, contact with wild animals
and avoid transfer of diseases.
Integrated Systems
The integration of pig production with other ancillary enterprises has

long been widely practiced in tropical Asia, involving various
combinations, fish farming production of algae, methane gas generation,
duck water hyacinth and vegetable production. Such bi-or tri-commodity
operations enhance the efficiency of resource use and increase output for
the overall operation.
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For instance fertilizing fish ponds with pig manure and effluent, algae
are generated which can then be utilised by fish. As long as sufficient
water is available for suitable fish ponds, pig sties can either be
constructed above the ponds so that the manure can drop straight into
the water, or close by so that the effluent can be channeled into the
ponds. The various species of Tilapia spp are the most commonly used
fish, often mixed with small populations of carp (cyprinus spp) and
catfish (clarias spp) or other predators. Fifty to sixty pigs produce
sufficient effluent for one hectare, fishpond, which, if stocked at
between 20 000 and 50 000 fish per hectare, can produce annual edible
fish yields or 3.5 to 5 tonnes per hectare.
In some countries, water hyacinths used to harvest nutrients from the

fishponds, and this is then fed back to the pigs. Alternatively, the
nutrient-rich water can be used for irrigating vegetables, or in other
systems. Ponds can be dried in rotation and vegetables grown in the dry
pond beds. In another alternative system, where other food is available,
the pig effluent is used to produce algae, which is then harvested and
dried and fed back to pigs or other livestock. If the pig effluent is
insufficient for any particular system, ducks can be used to augment the
fertilization of the ponds with their manure.
The solid fraction of animal, especially poultry, manure can be used as

an effective fertilizer for crops, particularly if it is properly composted,
and this may prove to be the most cost-effective use of the by-product.
A further important development has been the anaerobic fermentation of
farm animal effluent for the production of methane gas. Relatively
simple digesters can produce a steady source of methane which can be
used as a means of energy for domestic or agricultural use. These
digesters are now in use in rural areas throughout the developing
countries of Asia, and it is estimated that seven heads o f pig for example
will provide enough dung to ensure the supply of sufficient methane for
house fuel for a family of five.
3.4 Principles of Pig Production
Feeding and Digestion
The first 72 hours after birth are very critical for the baby pig. During
this period the colostrums of the sow has a high content of antibodies
and the piglet intestine is able to absorb intact proteins. As the piglet has
very little of its own resistance to disease, it is essential that it gets a
good suck of colostrums and acquires passive immunity from the sow.
Failure to take in sufficient colostrums will invariably result in the pig

succumbing to infection before it can develop active immunity of its
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own. Once the piglet has established a teat position, which normally
occurs in the first 24 hours after farrowing, it will retain this position for
the remainder of the suckling period. As long as milk production
continues the dam suckles her litter every 60 to 90 minutes.
Alimentary Canal
Although pigs in tropical regions may eat a lot of fibre they are simple-
stomached animals and not ruminants which possess a complex stomach
with a large microbial population which enables them to digest large
quantities of fibrous material. Thus, their ability to digest and utilize
fibre is restricted to that digested by the microbial population in the
caecum which is of relatively small volume when compared with the
rumen. It has been claimed that unimproved breeds found in Africa have
an enhanced ability to utilize fibrous feeds compared with exotic breeds.
While this may be so to a small extent, there are no anatomical
differences of the digestive tract between the two types. Accordingly,
with all pigs, high-fibre diets will have the effect of diluting the amount
of nutrients available to the animal. In contrast to ruminants, pigs are
unable to utilise non-protein sources of nitrogen for the production of
microbial protein in the rumen. This makes them dependent on both the
amount and quantity of protein in their diet.
The alimentary tract of the pig is designed to digest and absorb

concentrate feeds. Feed taken in at the mouth is ground into a pulp by
mastication. At the same time it is moistened and mixed with saliva.
Saliva contains the enzyme ptyalin which initiates the breakdown of
starch to simpler carbohydrates. The feed then passes on into the
stomach, which provides an acid environment due to the presence of
hydrochloric acid. The gastric juice contains the enzyme pepsin which
begins the breakdown of protein.
The small intestine is the major site where feed absorption occurs and
digestive juices from the pancreas, liver and the small intestine complete
the process of digestion as follows.
Starch is hydrolyzed to maltose by amylase from the pancreatic juice.

Specific enzymes break down maltose and other disaccharide sugars in
the intestinal juice, e.g. maltase, lactase and sucrose into
monosaccharides such as glucose and fructose. These are then absorbed
through the gut wall.
Trypsin in the pancreatic juice acts on protein to produce polypeptides,

which are then broken down to amino acids by various peptidases in the
intestinal juice and subsequently absorbed.
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Bile, which is secreted by the liver, serves to emulsify fats into smaller
globules, which are then broken down by the enzymes lipase into fatty
acids and glycerol ready for absorption. Lipase is present in both the
pancreatic and intestinal juices.
Pigs are omnivores and will consume a wide range of feeds from both
plant and animal sources. The natural inclination of the pig is to eat on a
‘little and often’ basis, and this is likely to maximize both total feed
intake and the efficiency of feed utilisation.
Growth and Development
In practical terms, growth is measured as the increase in body weight

with time, and is largely dependent on the amount of feed or total
nutrient intake. However, there are major differences between the feed
intake of different breeds of pig and this affects their growth response
per unit of feed ingested. Because man has selected pigs for high growth
rates in order to improve biological efficiency, he has selected for a
large mature size. In consequence, unimproved types of pig common in
developing parts of the world which have not been selected for increased
growth rates will tend to grow more slowly to a smaller mature size
when compared with improved breeds. It follows that if unimproved
pigs are slaughtered at the same weight as their exotic counterparts, they
will be relatively more mature and therefore at a different stage of
development.
Equally important as rate of growth is how the pig develops. Selection

has resulted in a greater propensity to lay down protein tissue in
improved breeds. Thus the plateau for maximum growth potential in an
improved breed can be 600g compared with 400 g for an unimproved
pig. As the level of feed intake increase, the unimproved pigs will
deposit more fat in comparison with improved types. Because too much
fat is neither a consumer desirable, nor is it cheap to produce
(approximately five times the nutrient cost of lean tissue deposition), it
is critical that pigs are fed according to their ability to grow and lay
down lean tissue.
Entire male pigs grow faster; have leaner bodies and convert feed more
efficiently than females. If males are castrated the case is exactly
opposite. Traditionally, pigs have been castrated in order to improve
carcass quality and to prevent boar ‘taint’ or odour in the meat, which
tends to occur as boars approach puberty. Nowadays, modern pigs grow
faster and are slaughtered at younger ages and the problem of taint is
considerably reduced. Unless pigs are grown slowly or are required for a
highly sophisticated market, there would appear to be no justification for
castration in pigs destined for meat production.
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Baby pigs are born with less than two per cent of fat in their bodies,
which makes them particularly susceptible to cold stress. Thereafter they
deposit fat rapidly, and will usually have a body fat level of over 15 per
cent by the time they are three weeks old. This serves as a reserve of
energy as they adapt to a reduction in milk intake and to overcome the
stress associated with weaning.
Reproduction
Males
The male reproductive system is characterised by a pair of relatively

large testes, which can weigh over 300 g each in some exotic breeds.
Together with the secretions from the accessory sex glands, the testes
can produce up to a liter of semen in a single ejaculate.
To facilitate the transfer of these large quantities of semen at coitus, the

end of the penis of the boar is spiral in shape which enables it to lock,
into the cervix of the sow. The duration of coitus varies but may last for
20 minutes.
Puberty, or the ability of the boar to serve a sow, generally occurs

around four months of age, but may be earlier in unimproved breeds.
However, boars should not normally be used until seven months old.
Young boars are susceptible to bullying by mature sows. And this may
adversely affect their subsequently mating performance.
Females
The female reproductive tract is distinguished from other farm species

by the long, convoluted uterine horns (700 to 800 mm in length), which
are designed to accommodate large numbers of foetus. The sow will
ovulate simultaneously from both ovaries, normally shedding between
11 and 24 eggs.
Puberty, marked by the onset of oestrous cycles, occurs between five

and seven months, but may be as early as three months in unimproved
breeds. The number of eggs shed at ovulation, and therefore potential
litter-size, increases gradually over the first few oestrous cycles.
The sow will cycle and show heat every 21 days (range 18 –24). She
will not cycle when she is either pregnant or lactating, although sows
will sometimes show heat during lactation when run in groups. A heat
last from one to three days, and ovulation occurs by the second day of
estrous or any time thereafter.
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After coitus and fertilization have occurred, the embryos space

themselves evenly throughout the entire uterus before implantation.
Competition for space, nutrients and other unknown factors results in
uneven growth rates in utero, which gives rise to variation in piglet birth
weight. The lighter pigs then suffer a disadvantage in the competition of
early post-natal life. This problem tends to be accentuated in older sows,
due to the effects of wear and tear on the uterus.
Pregnancy lasts for 114 days but will tend to be extended slightly with
smaller litters. Farrowing may vary in duration from 2 to 24 hours and
will tend to be longer the more piglets that are produced. However, due
to the relative difference in size between piglets and the dam, and the
type of placentation in sows, farrowing is normally a straightforward
process. The incidence of stillborn piglets, which may be due either to
death in utero or during the birth process, is greater in large than in
smaller litters.
Overall, reproduction in the sow results from a complex hormonal

interplay between the brain, the pituitary gland, the ovaries and the
uterus. These complex relationships must be borne in mind by the pig
keepers when management strategies are designed, otherwise optimum
reproductive performance by the sow will not be achieved.
3.5 Pig Behaviour and Effect of Climate
Pigs are not solitary animals and will generally benefit from social
contact with each other, even if only by sight or smell. At the same time,
groups of pigs will always establish a social hierarchy and this starts at
birth when the piglet struggles to commandeer a teat position. If strange
pigs are penned together later in life, fighting invariably ensues, and this
can lead to considerable stress and physical damage to individual pigs.
Once settled, however, pigs will huddle together in order to retain body
heat in cold weather.
In common with the female of those species, sows are notably more
docile during pregnancy than they have just produced young. Just prior
to farrowing, the sow will prepare a nest from her bedding. She is often
irritable during this period, and if she is confined without access to
bedding material, this can lead to stress during the farrowing process.
Contrary to popular belief the pig is not a dirty animal and will normally
defecate and urinate away from its resting or lying areas. However, this
pattern tends to break down if pigs are overcrowded or stressed in other
ways. Also, when temperatures are high they will often roll in their own
faeces and urine in an attempt to increase evaporation and keep cool.
130
Recent studies have highlighted the importance of the interaction

between pigs and humans in relation to productivity. If pigs live in fear
of their stockman, both growth and reproductively performance are
likely to be depressed.
In order to cope with forest conditions, the pig has better mechanisms
for retaining heat, especially a well-developed subcutaneous fat cover,
than for losing heat from the body. Because the pig possesses sweat
glands only on the snout, it is unable to dissipate large amounts of heat
by sweating. Furthermore, the skin of certain breeds of pigs, e.g. Large
White and Landrace, has no protection against the sun, and unless they
have access to shade, or mud in which they can wallow, they can
become badly sun burnt.
Like man, the pig is a homeotherm, and needs to maintain its deep body
temperature constant. Nature has designed the metabolism of the pig to
operate most effectively at 39oC. For a certain range of environmental
temperature, known as the zone of thermal neutrality the pig finds this
easy and can maintain the correct body temperature by varying blood
flow to and from the skin. The extent of this zone changes quite
markedly according to the weight of the pig.
At the bottom end of this zone a lower critical temperature is reached

when the pig required diverting feed energy to increase heat production
in order to maintain body temperature. The lower critical temperature
will vary between pigs according to a number of factors, for instance
how fat (well-insulated) the pig is, how much feed it is eating and
therefore how fast it is growing. Whether it has bedding to help prevent
heat loss, whether it is in huddle with pen mates, and whether it can
make postural changes to minimize heat losses. Eventually, with
decreasing ambient temperature the pig can no longer maintain its body
temperature in spite of high heat production, and hypothermia and death
ensues.
Of greater interest in the tropics is the effect on the pig as ambient

temperature rises. When the environmental temperature approaches
body temperature, the pig will attempt to increase evaporative heat loss
by sweating (through its limited sweat glands), panting, postural and
positional changes, and wallowing in water, mud or excrement. In
addition, it will reduce its energy output by decreasing its feed intake.
However, as the means of dissipating heat in the pig are not very
efficient, particularly in the absence of the opportunity to wallow, it will
soon reach an upper critical temperature. This is associated with
hyperthermia and heat stress and the pig will die if the situation cannot
be reversed.
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At the other end of the scale, the piglet at birth is particularly sensitive to
low ambient temperatures. Pigs are born with virtually no subcutaneous
fat cover and limited carbohydrate reserves and therefore at birth they
will suffer an immediate drop in body temperature. In the case of weaker
piglets they may battle to obtain an adequate milk suppl y; if they require
energy to keep warm they very quickly develop the condition of low
blood sugar (hypoglycaemia), and die of cold.
Stress
From the foregoing it is clear that stress factors can take many forms,
and in fact can involve fear, pain, temperature, direct sunlight, restraint,
fatigue and interference with natural behaviour patterns. Stress will
quickly lead to reduced performance and productivity, and specifically
to gastric ulcers (just as in humans), greater susceptibility to infectious
diseases and higher mortality rates. It is therefore paramount that we
understand what constitutes the major stress factors in pigs in different
circumstances so that production systems can be designed to minimize
these effects.
3.6 Housing
The most productive pigs are likely to be those contained in a thermally

neutral environment; that is, when the environmental temperature
around the pig is insistently between the pig’s lower critical temperature
(LCT) and upper critical temperature (UCT). The pig’s metabolic heat
production is then at a minimum, and it is neither using feed energy to
keep warm, nor reducing feed intake to keep cool.
Other considerations for pig comfort and well–being in addition to

temperature are:
· Protection from other climatic extremes such as direct sun, wind

and rain
· Provision of dry conditions which are hygienic and do not
predispose the pig to disease
· Allowing, as far as possible, for inherent behavior patterns of the
pig, and minimizing the effect of social dominance
· Provision of accessible feed and clean water
· Providing conditions so that good stockman can practice
· Effective disposal of effluent.
General Considerations of Design
Any buildings, whether simple or complex, cost money, both to build

and to maintain. This makes it imperative that careful thought is given to
132
the right design, so that the investment is justified by improved

productivity. Moreover, considerations that affect design of houses in
the tropics can be very different from those in more temperate parts of
the world.
Under tropical conditions, the paramount consideration is generally to

ameliorate the effects of excess heat. At the same time, it is important to
minimise temperature variations, keeping as close as possible to the
pig’s zone of thermal neutrality. This often involves keeping pig cool
by even under tropical conditions; a separate creep area for the piglets
which is warmer than the ambient temperature is generally an
advantage, especially at night. This is because the optimum
environmental temperature for the sow is between 16 and 18 oC, whereas
that of the newborn pig is 33-350C. A simple, enclosed creep box is
perfectly adequate for the piglets to creep into and generate their own
warmth by huddling together. If electricity or a paraffin source is
available a light or simple heater can be provided in the creep box. This
not only provides extra warmth, but attracts the piglets into the box and
away from the danger of being crushed by the sow.
If separate arrangements are not made for the piglets and the whole
furrowing room is warm, this reduces sow productivity. American work
has shown that for every oC rise in temperature from 25o-30oC, daily
feed-intake by the sow declines by 400grams.
Multi-Purpose Pig Pens
These are liable to be more appropriate to the tropics and the developing
world, as they are cheaper and more flexible. Removable structures,
such as creep barriers and furrowing rails, provide protection for the
piglets and make the pen suitable for furrowing. At weaning, these are
removed, leaving a fattening pen in which the winners can be fattened
through to slaughter.
Follow-on Pens
If specialised farrowing houses are used, sows can normally be removed

into cheaper housing after 10-14 days when all danger of sow-related
piglet deaths is past. Piglets then requ ire a separate creep area, similar to
that provided by a multi-purpose pen. This has the advantage of
allowing the sow to exercise and move around freely.
Weaner Cages
The combined trauma of weaning from the sow and change in diet
makes the young pig very susceptible to disease, particularly digestive
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diseases. This can result in fairly heavy mortality of weaners. The

weaner cage was originally designed in Europe with the idea of
providing conditions for the weaner which would help overcome these
problems. Weaner cages have since been adapted for hotter climates and
basically consist of a covered solid-floor sleeping and eating area and a
dunging area floored by either wooden slats or metal mesh during cold
periods, pigs can huddle and generate enough heat for their comfort
inside the covered kennel section. Ventilation is provided by the
centrally-hinged roof of the kennel. In hot weather, pigs can keep cool
by lying out on the meshed floors, and are protected from the sun by an
umbrella roof over all the cages. As dung and urine falls through the
wire mesh or slats, this can be cleaned from below and there is therefore
no need for stockmen to enter the cage with contaminated boots, brooms
or shovels.
Pigs normally remain in the cages for three to four weeks before being
transferred to fattening accommodation. The feed hoppers can be moved
to allow additional space as the weaners grow.
Weaner Pools
The traditional system of housing weaners is to take litters of similar age

and move them into large pens holding up to 50 weaners. After three-
four weeks, pigs are batched into groups of equal sizes for transfer into
growing / fatttening pens
Ample watering and feed trough space must be provided, and some form
of bedding is preferable. Kennel area, which can be insulated by a
ceiling of hay bales or wood, can provide for added warmth.
Growing/Fattening Accommodation
The basic needs for good fattening pens are relatively simple, namely, a
dry lying area and a demarcated dunging area the building should
provide shade, some protection and adequate ventilation. Solid walls are
not required between pens, as they will decrease ventilation and flow
within the building. Pens designed to hold 8-10 pigs through to
slaughters are the ideal size.
Extensive Systems
Extensive systems are particularly appropriate for sows. Sows are run in
paddocks and have access to ark or huts in which to farrow. In trials in
Zimbabwe, sows were allowed a choice of different designs of arks at
farrowing time, and it was found that they preferred a design similar to
those found in the UK. The major difference is that under tropical
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conditions, the roof should be insulated with a 5 cm layer of grass or

similar material. Arks can be constructed from cheaper materials, but it
is difficult to make them sufficiently robust to avoid destruction by the
sow. Ample deep shade and wallows should also be provided for sows
run under this system. As mentioned previously, tethers can be used as a
means of restricting sows within a paddock. They can then be rotated
around a given area of pasture or other forage.
3.7 Disease Prevention
Once disease affects a pig herd the impact on the economics of pig
production in terms of the cost of control and decreased productivity can
be enormous. The first priority must therefore always be to try to
prevent the occurrence of disease. Thus, many of the management
procedures considered here are aimed at disease prevention or at
mitigating the effects of those diseases that cannot be prevented. With
skilled management, combined with well-designed housing and sound
nutrition, an overall strategy to minimise the possibility of disease attack
can be formulated.
At the same time a basic knowledge of the main diseases which may
affect a pig herd is necessary so that a producer can diagnose the
condition and implement control measures as quickly as possible. This
is of particular significance under tropical conditions where the regular
services of a veterinarian are often not available. The major disease
problems are parasites, infectious disease and a few non-specific
diseases. Nutritional deficiency conditions are also common causes of
health problems.
Parasites
Parasites are defined as organisms which live on and obtain feed from
the body of another, known as the host. They may live on the exterior of
the pig when they are known as external parasites, or within the internal
tissues and organs when they are known as internal parasites. Parasite
will seldom result in the death of the host except in the case of massive
infestations or if the host is also stressed in other ways.
External Parasites
These mainly cause irritation to the skin surface, often leading to

wounds and an increased susceptibility to other infections. The most
common external parasites are mange-mites, ticks, lice, fleas and flies.
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Mange-Mites
Mites, which are scarcely visible to the naked eyes, spend their entire
lifecycle under the skin of the pig, but they can survive off the host for
as long as eight days. The most common species is sarcoptes scabiei
which cause sarcoptic mange.
First signs of infection are a crusty, dry-looking skin around the eyes,
ears and snout. The mites then spread and multiply over the body, and
their burrowing causes the skin to become inflamed and swollen. The
pig will be seen to be constantly rubbing itself and performance is
depressed.
Control is best affected by regular treatment, either dipping or spraying

with an anti-mange medication, including spraying of pens. Chronically
infected animals should be culled. There are also some recent systemic
drugs on the market which are very effective against the mite.
Ticks
Ticks are only a problem in scavenging or more extensive systems of

pig production. There are a number of different species which suck
blood and can transmit serious disease (e.g. Babesiosis or redwater).
They generally require more than one host to complete their life cycle.
Ticks are easily controlled by spraying or dipping with suitable
acaricides.
Lice and Fleas
Both lice and fleas can become a problem in dirty and unhygienic
conditions, as they live on the skin surface, suck blood and cause
irritation. Spraying of the pigs and pig quarters with suitable insecticides
are effective ways of controlling the pests. In the case of lice, particular
attention should be paid to the ears.
Flies
Flies have a major nuisance-value around pigs as they cause annoyance,

can bite, and carry infectious diseases. They are always attracted to any
fresh abrasion or wound on the animal.
Control measures should involve spraying of insecticides on suitable

fly-breeding areas, e.g. manure heaps, refuse areas and ponds, pig-
buildings and the pigs. Baits which attract the flies and are poisonous to
them but not the pigs can also be effective.
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Internal Parasites
Round Worms
These are a particular hazard when pigs are free-ranging or not kept on
concrete floors. The large roundworm (Ascaris lumbricoides) is very
common and can cause a lot of damage in pig herds. Adults live in the
small intestine and can grow up to 300 mm long a 6mm thick. The
female is capable of laying thousand of eggs per day, which pass out in
the dung and become infective, if ingested by other pigs, after 21 days.
These eggs are extremely resistant and can remain infective for many
years. As part of the life-cycle, eggs hatch out in the pig after ingestion
and the larva migrate through the liver and lung. Irritation in the lungs
causes coughing and ill thrift, particularly in younger pigs. Damage is
also done to the liver which renders it liable for condemnation at
slaughter (‘milk-spot liver’). Moreover, if infection is heavy the adult
worms can partly obstruct the small intestine, causing weakness and loss
of weight by the pigs.
Contaminated feed and water are the usual source of infection with
internal parasites. Control can be effected by breaking the life-cycle,
which means regularly moving ranges pigs on the fresh ground and
frequent cleaning and removal of faeces in housed pigs. At the same
time, unless there is good evidence that there is no worm infection in the
herb; breeding pigs should be routinely dosed with broad spectrum
anthelminthics and young stock dosed soon after weaning.
Tapeworms
The common tapeworm is Taenia solium. The pig is its intermediate

host and the adult worm lives in man. Pigs become infected by picking
up eggs from human faeces and the larvae then encysted in the pig’s
muscle, particularly in the region of the heart and tongue.
If the pig meat is then eaten by man, the larvae hatch out and the cycle is
completed. As a consequence, bodies which are affected (measly pork)
are condemned at slaughter. By preventing pigs having access to human
faeces, the parasites can be eliminated. In some countries live pigs are
checked at the market place by trusted experts for the presence of
tapeworm’s cysts in the tongue. The result of the examination influence
the price paid to the producer.
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Infectious Diseases
The following diseases are notable in most countries.
African swine fever
This is a highly contagious virus disease which in the acute form can
cause 100 per cent mortality. Typical symptoms are loss of appetite, pigs
huddling together, small purplish blotches on the skin, incoordination
and laboured breathing.
In Africa, both bush pigs and warthogs are carriers of the virus but are
immune to the disease, and it is therefore very important to prevent
direct contact between domestic pigs and wild species. This contact can
be prevented by double penning and the control of animal movements.
Moreover a soft tick (ornithodoros moubata) which infests the warthog
is a biological carrier. Otherwise infection occurs by contact with other
sick pigs, or through contaminated feed or water. There is no effective
vaccine or treatment an infected pig should be isolated from healthy
ones. Although the disease originated in East Africa, it is gradually
spreading west through Africa.
Foot-and-mouth disease
Regarded as the most contagious of all known viral diseases, infection

causes blisters on the feet, snout, and udder and in the mouth and throat.
It is very painful to the pig, which cannot eat and often has to be
destroyed.
The disease is endemic in parts of Africa and the virus is carried by the
buffalo. Infection can occur by feeding infected bones or cooked meat.
There is no cure. If an outbreak occurs in adjacent area, pigs can be

vaccinated, but as there are many different strains of the virus it is
important to ensure that vaccination is against the right virus.
Other Infectious Diseases
Brucellosis
This disease, which is caused by a bacterium, is also known as

contagious abortion. Brucellosis can result in temporary or permanent
sterility in females. Abortion is the most common symptom and can
occur at any stage of gestation, depending upon the time of exposure to
infection with the bacterium. In boars, testicles may become inflamed
and permanent sterility may result.
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The disease is transmitted at mating or by contaminated feed or water.

There is no treatment and infected animals should be culled, particularly
as brucellosis is transmissible to humans, and the risks of transmission
are relatively high under some traditional systems of pig management.
Brucellosis appears to be widespread in pig herds in south East Asia and
the pacific Islands.
Coccidiosis
This is caused by organisms known as coccidia, of which are 13 known

infective species in swine throughout the world. They cause damage to
the intestinal wall, and are believed to be an increasing cause of diarrhea
in piglets, particularly in confined housing. Piglets show a grey-green
diarrhea, lose weight and rapidly become dehydrated.
Coccidiosis is spread by contaminated faeces and thus good

management and regular cleaning of buildings will prevent the disease.
Drugs, known as coccidiostats, are available for prophylaxis and
treatment.
Salmonellosis
Salmonellosis is another enteric disease, caused by the salmonella spp.

of bacteria. Pigs generally are affected around two months of age, and
become gaunt, with a high temperature and a foul-smelling diarrhea.
There are usually some deaths in a group of infected pigs.
An outbreak is often triggered- off by a stress condition, particularly

heavy worm-infestation. The disease can therefore be prevented by good
management and sanitation. Antibiotics and sulpha drugs will aid in the
control of the disease.
SMEDI
SMEDI is an acronym for reproductive failure conditions involving

stillbirth (S), mummification (M), embryo death (ED) and infertility (I).
It is caused by viruses, mainly porcine parvovirus and the enteroviruses.
The symptoms will vary according to when the sow or gilt becomes
infected. If infection occurs during the oestrous cycle and at service, the
sow will show a regular or irregular return to oestrus, or if only some
embryo die she will produce a very small litter. If infection occurs after
35 days of pregnancy, the foetus die and dry up and are presented at
farrowing as “mummified” foetus. The condition can cause a serious
decrease in sow productivity within a herd.
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There is no treatment but effective preventative vaccination programmes

are now available. If vaccines cannot be obtained, all gilts and new
animals entering the herd should be given access to farrowing house
waste 30 days before breeding. This exposes them to the viruses and
stimulates immunity.
Swine Dysentery
This disease is caused by a large spirochaete, and is manifested by a

severe diarrhea producing reddish – black faeces. Infected pigs rapidly
lose weight. The disease is spread by infected dung and can largely be
controlled by good hygiene. There are effective antibiotic medications
on the market.
Swine Influenza
Swine influenza is a highly contagious respiratory disease caused by an

influenza virus. It is normally triggered off by a stress, particularly rapid
changes in temperature. Although mortality is low, the disease has
important economic consequences due to stunting and reduced
liveweight gains. The first sign of the disease is normally a cough, with
a high temperature and loss of appetite. The disease spreads rapidly,
breathing becomes jerky and the hair coat develops a rough appearance.
Secondary infection with bacteria may complicate the condition.
There is no treatment or preventive vaccine available. Infection can be

prevented by good management and the avoidance of stress.
Swine Pox
Swine pox is a virus disease, and is transmitted either by direct contact

or by ecto –parasites such as lice. Small red areas (about 1.25cm in
diameter) appear on the skin around the head, ears and ventral surface
which eventually form scabs.
There is no treatment for swine pox, but although unsightly it rarely

causes serious loss and clears up after a short time.
Transmissible Gastroenteritis (TGE)
TGE is a virus disease which causes acute diarrhea; vomiting and early
death in young piglets. It also affects older pigs causing diarrhea and
vomiting, but rarely death. There is no treatment. Infected pigs can be
isolated, or killed and buried. After infection, the whole herd is likely to
be immune.
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Non – Specific Diseases
Abscesses
Abscesses can occur as the result of any irritation, inflammation or

wound which allows access to bacteria, normally strains of
Staphylococcus or Streptococcus. The body of the pig reacts to the
invasion of the bacteria, and a pocket of pus is walled off from the body.
Abscesses are seen as swellings or lumps, often hot to touch and they
will in time develop a soft area which can be lanced and drained. They
may be superficial or they may form deep within the body, where they
can cause lameness, interfere with breathing or swallowing, or may not
be discovered until slaughter. As abscesses are painful and can markedly
depress performance and reduce carcass value, every effort should be
made to minimise the possible causes in a piggery. Preventative
measures include the removal of any sharp or rough object from pig
pens, ensuring the floors are not too rough, especially for baby pigs,
making sure that injection equipment is sterilized and providing overall
good sanitation. Abscesses can be treated with antibiotics, but this is not
always effective.
Gastric Ulcers
Ulcers tend to occur as a response to stress in pigs of all ages, and are
particularly prevalent in genetic strains bred for fast growth and a thin
covering of back fat. The nature of the ration is also important with a
higher incidence of ulcers occurring on finely ground, highly –energy
concentrate diets.
There may be no specific external symptoms, unless haemorrhaging

occurs. Otherwise pigs show lack of appetite, will huddle together and
become thin. Mortality varies according to the extent of the ulceration.
There is no specific treatment apart from reducing stress. Changes in the

ration, involving an increase in fibre levels is often useful in
ameliorating the condition.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Pig production is one of the most profitable livestock enterprises to

engage in where environmental condition, feed resource and attitude
favour it production. The physical characteristics of the meat output
make the product amenable for industrial production valuable meat
products. Thus it is quickest means of raising meat consumption in a
country where religious bias against pork consumption is not present.
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5.0 SUMMARY
The study unit covers basic biology that forms the basis for various
principles enthused, and it further points students to simple application
of the principles. Notably the system of production is related to climatic
effects that dictate feeds and feeding, growth and reproductive activities
as well as disease occurrence and management. Many have made
fortunes from mere keeping of pigs in their backyard. Profitability is
also at the root of expansion and growth being witnessed in modern pig
farming. It is desirable that students who have gone through this study
should consider himself an entrepreneur that would seize every
opportunity to be at the top of his colleagues.
1. Write a brief action note to your Local Government Chairman to

adopt pig production enterprise as a socio-economic intervention.
2. Distinguish between systems of pig production highlighting their
unique advantages.
3. Relate the tropical climatic environment and body physiology of
pig with feeding, housing, behaviour and growth of pig.
4. Highlight routine health management practices for a piglet at day-
old up to weaning.
Devendra, C. & Fuller, M.F. (1979). Pig Production in the Tropics.

Oxford. England: Oxford Univ. Press (Publ.)
Eusebio, J.A. (1980). Pig Production in the Tropics. England, U.K:

Longman (Publ.)
Holness, D.H. & Chabeuf, N. (1991). “Pigs.” The Tropical

Agriculturelist. London, U.K: CTA-Macmillian (Publ.)
Pathiraja, N. (1986). “Improvement of Pig Meat Production in

Developing Countries 1. Exploitation of Hybrid Vigour
(Heterosis).” World Animal Review, 60:18-25.
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UNIT 2 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY

PRODUCTION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Types of Strains of Poultry
3.2 Production Practices for Poultry Operations
3.3 Systems of Poultry Production
3.4 Measures for Combating Heat Stress
3.6 Record Keeping and Performance Evaluation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The term poultry refers to the class of animals called Aves. There are
several members of this class that have been domesticated but the most
popular families are the Phasianade, Meleagridae, Anatidae and
Numididae. Of these, the genus and species Gallus domesticus
(chicken), Meleagris (gallopavo (turkeys), Anas platyrhynchos (ducks)
and Numida meleogris (guinea fowl) are well known in Nigeria. In
terms of commercial production however, the chicken has been the most
extensively exploited. Most the discussion in this study unit will be
centred on the chicken.
Poultry meat and ages are amongst the most nutritious products for
human consumption. The nutritional quality of the egg is so good that it
has often been used as the standard for assessing the quality of other
food protein sources. Compared with other forms of livestock farming,
poultry farming has the following well-known advantages:
1. Short generation interval and rapid fecundity

2. Rapid turnover of invested capital. Broilers can be invested in 8
weeks while pullets begin laying eggs at five month of age
3. Small space requirement and low initial capital investment
requirement.
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These advantages no doubt account for the fact that commercial and
backyard poultry rearing is very popular in this country. In addition to
these advantages, the chicken is an outstanding laboratory animal that
has been exploited for teaching biology, demonstrating the principles of
animal husbandry, investigating the nutritional requirements of animals
and extensive physiological and biochemical studies in other biological
and medical sciences.
The wealth of knowledge that has been accumulated about the biological
needs of the chicken for optimum productivity forms the basis for the
management practices for successful poultry production. This unit
summarises the basic management practices essential for the efficient
and profitable production of poultry eggs and meat products.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
· distinguish between the two types or strains of poultry

· engage in practical production of any of the poultry operation
· identify and choose systems of poultry production most suitable
· enumerate preventive measures against heat stress and diseases
· list useful records for good farm management.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Types or Stains of Poultry
Poultry are kept primarily for egg or meat production. Many years of
scientific breeding and selection has produced specialized breeds of
birds that are either capable of growing very fast and are heavy (meat
type) or are prolific egg producers (egg type). In both cases, it is
possible to rear parent stock that will produce fertile eggs from which
the commercial broiler or pullets are obtained. The prospective farmer’s
first major assignment is to decide on a suitable poultry production
enterprise that can be established within the limits of available resources
and which is also relevant to the market demands for poultry products in
his locality.
3.2 Production Practices for Poultry Operations
There are three primary farming enterprises. These are breeding and
hatchery operations, commercial egg production and broiler production.
Other enterprises that provide supportive services are specialised
breeding farms for production of pure lines, grandparent and parent
stock, feed milling and processing and marketing of poultry products. In
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addition products and services are also closely associated with the
primary enterprises.
Breeding and Hatching of Commercial Day Old Chicks
This enterprise involves the rearing of parent stock hens and cocks in the
correct ratio to produce fertile eggs, which are then hatched with the use
of incubators and hatchers. The chicks so hatched are then sold out to
poultry producers who are engaged in the production of table eggs or
commercial broilers.
The primary products of this enterprise are day-old chicks. Eggs that are
not good for hatching and the old hens and cocks are secondary
products. Breeder’s flocks may be egg types or broilers.
Table Egg Production: For table egg product, pullets are purchased
from a hatchery and these are then brooded and reared to the age of
about five months before they begin laying eggs. The chicks purchased
must have been separated (sexed) into male and females prior to sale.
The primary products of this enterprise are eggs, which are sold for
consumption. The hens are sold out as spent hens at the end of their
laying cycle, which is usually about one year.
Broiler Production: broiler production has the fastest rate of return of

all the poultry enterprises. Commercial day old broiler chicks are
purchased from the hatchery and reared to market between seven to ten
weeks old, when they should be ready for market between 1. 6 – 2. kg
each. The broilers may be sold live or processed (fresh or frozen).
Integration Projects: The three primary enterprises are often integrated

on large-scale farms. Integration often includes feed milling and product
processing as well as other ancillary enterprises. The major advantage of
such integrated projects is the reliability of sources and supply of
primary inputs. It also promotes the enforcement of quality control
measures in the production of feed and poultry products.
Feed Milling: Because feed accounted for between 60 – 80% of the

cost of producing meat and eggs and the crucial need for quality
controls, most large-scale poultry producers often make their own feed.
Feed milling involves the procurement of ingredients needed to produce
feed, grinding, mixing and enclosing in bags.
Line Breeding and Grandparent Stock Production: The production

of pure lines and the different types of parent stocks are highly
specialised fields of poultry production that rely on the expertise of well
trained and tested poultry breeders. It is extremely critical since in the
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long run commercial egg and broiler production would phase out if such
breeding work is not maintained. Furthermore, it is at that level that the
initial selection and breeding for desirable economic traits occurs.
Brooding Management
Brooding is the art of caring for young chicks after hatching. It involves
the provision of those factors that are necessary for the survival and
rapid growth of the chick. Such factors include heat, light, humidity,
ventilation, feed, water and disease control. In Nigeria and indeed most
tropical countries, humidity and ventilation can be taken care of by
means of properly designed housing, but heat light, feed and water have
to be provided as necessary.
During the first few weeks of the bird’s life (between 0 – 6 weeks) it is
usually necessary to provide supplementary heat to keep the birds
comfortable. This period is referred to as the brooding period. Basically
there are two methods of brooding:
1. Natural Brooding: This is the method whereby a broody hen

takes care of the chicks she hatches, although she can also be
made to adopt purchased day-old chicks. The local fowls are
suitable for this purpose and some Rhode Island Red birds may
occasionally be reliable. A good-sized broody hen can be given
as many as 12 chicks in cool weather and up to 15 in the hot
season. Natural brooding is only practiced when small numbers
of chicks are reared. It is quite unsuitable for a commercial scale
operation.
2. Artificial Brooding: This is brooding without the mother hen. It

necessitates the use of equipment which provides conditions
similar to those of the broody hen, such as adequate warmth,
protection against harsh weather and predators. It also makes for
proper feeding, watering and disease control. Artificial brooding
is the best method for the commercial producer. It is advisable for
the beginning poultry man to try his luck at brooding a small
number of chicks. If he is successful, i.e. with less than four per
cent mortality up to eight weeks of age then he can go on to
brood larger numbers.
Facilities Required for Brooding and Rearing
A. Housing: Houses for brooding should be such that they conserve

heat to keep the room warm. Houses meant for young chicks
should be located at least 50m (150ft) away from houses
containing older birds in order to minimise the risk of transferring
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diseases from old to young stock. In constructing a house, it is

important to note the following:
a. Foundation and Wall: A solid and strong foundation is

necessary. Digging should be done to a depth of between
0.5 – 0.7m (1.5 – 2ft) or more depending on the nature of
the soil. After digging, a layer of concrete should be
poured in to a depth of about 10cm (4”). This will form the
basement upon which the blocks will be laid. To minimize
the effect of termites, an anti-termite chemical can be
poured on top of this basement. For growers and broilers
the wall should be half-open sided but for layers the solid
wall may be anything between 1/3 – 1/2. If cages are to be
used, the solid wall should only be 1/3 of total height to
the caves. It is essential to plaster the inner walls. The
open sided portion of the wall has to be screed with 1/2 –
3/4” chicken wire mesh. The total height of the wall need
not exceed 1.9m (6’) from the floor to the caves.
b. Roof: Roofing materials such as zinc and aluminum

roofing sheets are good for poultry houses. Asbestos is
best because it doesn’t absorb as much heat but it is very
expensive. Thatch roofing should be discouraged because
of maintenance problems, difficulty of clearing parasites
from the house and fire hazards. It is important to provide
a good roof overhang of about 0.9 (3ft). This is necessary
to prevent rain draft from entering the house through the
open sides of the wall. The roof overhang may be longer
than this on the side of the building facing the rain bearing
wind.
c. Doors: Doors should be wide enough not less than 0.9m

(3ft). This is to facilitate easy movement of staff,
equipment, birds and manure in and out of the house. A
footbath of disinfectant is needed at the foot of each door.
This may be built in at the doorstep or it may be a movable
container.
d. Storage Space: Provision should be made in the house for

storage space for equipment, feeds and other items that
have to be kept in the house. The size of such a space
should be about one-tenth of the total size of the house.
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B. Equipment: A number of equipment is needed for the supply of

heat and light, feeding and watering, manure handling and egg
handling. These can be made locally, or purchased from a poultry
equipment dealer. Factors to consider when buying equipment are
cost, durability and ease of handling.
a. Brooder Boxes: The use of brooder boxes is necessary to

conserve heat within a limited area when lamps (kerosene or
electric) are used as source of heat for brooding. Brooder boxes
can be made from wood or metal or may be improvised from
thick cardboard paper or wooden boxes. All brooder boxes
should be constructed with holes at the top to provide for the
escape of fumes especially when kerosene lamps are used. A
space allowance of 7sq cm per chick under the brooder bow is
adequate, i.e. a bow measuring 1.25 x 1.25m (4 x 4ft) is adequate
for up to 400 chicks.
b. Source of heat: Warmth is the most important requirement for

the day old chicks once the environment becomes too cold they
can easily die especially when reared in large numbers. Heat for
brooding may be supplied through kerosene lanterns, electricity
lamps, charcoal, gas brooders or hot water pipes. Whatever
source is used for heating, it is essential to prevent it from direct
contact with chicks, litter material and brooder boxes. Two to
three kerosene lamps placed on the floor or two 100 watts bulbs
hung at about 20 cm (8 – 10 inches) above the floor is sufficient
to provide heat and light for up to 75 – 100 chicks. A recent
report indicates that under Nigerian conditions brooding with
kerosene lamps as heat source is much cheaper than other sources
although it requires more care (Federal Ministry of Agriculture
and Rural Development, 1985).
c. Feeding and Watering Troughs: These are used for feeding and
watering the chicks. Feeders maybe longitudinal or conical in
shape. A linear feeding space of 2.5 meters (8ft) is adequate for
up to 100 chicks from 0 – 4 weeks of age for broilers and from 0
– 6 weeks for pullets. Such a feeder should be shallow, not more
than 7.5cm (3 inches) deep and be placed on the floor. The
feeding space should be doubled for broiler chicks from four – 10
weeks and for pullet chick six – 14 weeks. For this age and
beyond, the feeder should be about 1.5cm (six inches) deep. This
means that 100 chicks would require one 1.25cm (4ft) long feeder
up to four – six weeks of age use three of such feeders up to 10 or
14 weeks of age. Beyond 14 weeks of age use three of such
feeders per 100 pullets or layers. Feeders should be constructed
with lips to minimize feed wastage and fitted with rollers at the
148
open end to prevent chicks from jumping in and contaminating

the feed with their faeces. Feeders may be metallic or wooden.
Most waterers are conical in shape. Two, four-litre capacity
waterers are adequate for up to 100 birds from day old to six
weeks of age. They should be used.
Two waterers of 10 – 15 litre capacity may be used for 100 chickens up

to 200 weeks and three of such waterers should be provided for 100
birds during the laying period. Waterers should not be too large since
they will be too heavy and tend to waste water. Waterers usually made
of metal, glass or plastic materials. In general feeders and waterers are
often constructed in two standard sizes, one for chicks and the other for
older chicken, the chick feeders and drinkers are used during the
brooding period while the bigger sizes should replace these as soon as
the birds outgrow them, usually between four – eight weeks of age,
depending on whether they are broilers or pullets. The poultry keeper
may find it convenient to improvise his own feeders and waterers. The
points to observe in such a case is that the feeders and waterers should
be designed to minimise feed or water wastage and to prevent chicks
from jumping in to feed or water wastage and to prevent the chicks from
jumping into feed or water and contaminating it. For waterers there
should be no leakage and it should be easy to wash.
d. Litter Materials: It is necessary to cover the floor of the brooder

house with some dry, clean, coarse and absorbent material before
putting in the chicks. Such materials is meant to absorb the
moisture from water as spillage and chick droppings in such a
way that the house is kept dry all the time. The most popularly
used litter material is wood shavings, available from sawmills
and carpenters’ sheds and usually given free. Other litter material
include: chopped maize cobs, guinea-corn and millet husks,
chopped rice straw, chopped fry grass, crushed groundnut shells
and rice husks.
e. Miscellaneous Equipment: In addition to the list enumerated

above, the poultry keeper would need things like buckets,
brooms, shovels, wheelbarrow, feed scoops, chicken crates, ropes
for hanging feeders, water tanks for water storage, egg laying
nests, egg trays, weighing scale and for big operations, office
space and equipment would also be needed. Other equipment
may also be purchased depending on availability and need.
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Preparation for the arrival of chicks
A. Buying Chicks
Day old chicks should be purchased from a reliable hatchery in order to

obtain quality chicks, which are very healthy and have the genetic
production potential. Place your order well in advance (about six
months) and remember to indicate the sex, strain and quantity required.
Seek the advice of your nearest poultry/livestock extension officer on
the choice of breed and the hatchery.
Some poultry keepers might prefer to buy only starter pullets so that
they do not have to brood the birds themselves. Starter pullets at point of
lay chicken are not b eing produced commercially in this country but it is
one form of poultry business that can be very profitable if there is good
co-operation between the pullet rearer and the egg producer. Before
buying starter pullets, be very such that the producer had done a good
job of rearing by going through the records and by physical examination
and weighing a sample of the birds to see whether they have attained
recommended weights for the breed or variety at that age.
It is very important to be fully prepared before you collect day old

chicks. This will ensure that they are properly transported and received
at the farm. This increases their survival rate during the brooding period.
B. Brooder House
Get the brooder house ready about three weeks before the chicks arrive.
Work to be done include:
1. Making necessary repairs to mend leaking roofs, repairing doors

and plastering cracks in the walls.
2. Removal of old litter from the house already in use sweeping,
thoroughly washing and disinfections of the house using a
suitable disinfectant such as Izal, Dettol, Sanities or Milton.
3. Feeding troughs and drinkers already in use should also be
thoroughly washed and disinfected.
4. Making sure that all the necessary equipment have been
purchased and are in good working condition.
C. Two Days to Arrival
1. Sweep the house and clean the equipment

2. Put litter on the floor. If the floor is not cemented, put a layer of
dry clean sand before putting the litter. Put the litter to a depth of
about 7.5cm (three inches)
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3. Cover the litter material with rough brown paper or old

newspapers. This is to prevent the chicks from eating fibrous
materials while learning to eat. The paper may be removed after
four days.
4. Assemble all equipment with the brooder box in the middle and
the feeders radiating from the source of heat should be distributed
evenly under the brooder box. The water fountain may be set
between the feeders but near the edge of the hover. The whole
arrangement is then enclosed by a chick guard of cardboard per
about 45cm (30 inches) high and about 1.5m (5ft) away from the
brooder box. Blocks or any other suitable material can also be
used. The purpose of the chick guard is to prevent the chicks
from drifting too far away from the source of heat. The guard
may be removed back a little every day and then completely
removed after 10 days.
5. Test all equipment to make sure that they are in proper working
condition.
6. If a half-open sided house is to be used, cover the open sides with
plastic sheets, thick cardboard paper, native mats, empty feed
bags or any other suitable material.
Brooding Management Practices
Arrival of Chicks
1. About 6 hours before the chicks arrive, fill the drinkers with
medicated water, put on the heat source to warm up the room and
place feed in the feeders. Some feed may also be sprinkled on the
used as feeders during the first week.
2. Transport the chicks as fast as possible from the hatchery to the
farm with minimum disturbance and preferably during the cooler
part of the day. Ensure that the chicks are adequately ventilated
while in transit, e.g. the chicks should not be up inside the boot of
a car while in transit.
3. Collect all relevant information about the chicks from the
hatchery of purpose. Have they been vaccinated? Are there any
special management practices to be observed? What is the
anticipated growth or production potential?
4. As soon as the chicks arrive, count and put them immediately
under the hover. Remove all deformed chicks. Teach the weak
chicks to drink if chicks are transported over long distances by
road, the addition of glucose (or sugar if glucose is not available)
to the drinking water may help to increase their survival rate.
5. After putting down the chicks stay and watch them for the next
one hour and observe how comfortable they are. If they spread
under the hover, they are comfortable. If they huddle in the center
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close to the source of heat they are cold. If the room is too hot,
they will move from the source of heat and be pushing up against
the chick guard. The heat supply should then be adjusted
accordingly.
6. Chicks have a tendency to crowd around corners of the building
especially when frightened or if they feel cold. Piling can lead to
mortality. It is therefore advisable to round off any sharp or
square corners of the house with boards, bricks or jute sacks in
order to prevent piling.
Daily Activities
1. During the first week, inspect your flock as early as possible in

the morning, as late as possible in the evenings and occasionally
at other times to ensure that the birds are comfortable.
2. Remove any dead birds and dispose properly by burial o ruse of a
disposal pit
3. Remove mould or contaminated feed and add fresh supply.
Feeders should only be filled about half to two-thirds capacity in
order to minimise feed wastage. They should also be placed in
such a way that no bird has to walk more than 3.05m (10ft) to get
feed or water.
4. Remove waterers and wash properly before refilling with fresh
clean water that is fit for human consumption. Use medicated
water throughout the first week. The water should be changed
again in the afternoon, if it becomes dirty or refilled any time it is
empty. Waterers may be raised on blocks to minimize
contamination.
5. Remove wet litter and replace with fresh and dry litter materials.
6. When kerosene lanterns are used
a) Fill them up only two-thirds full every morning and evening

b) Remove any accumulated soot
c) Trim the wick periodically in order to obtain uniform flame.
7. Fill in the records. For small holders a hard covered notebook is

adequate but for large units a number of forms with the
appropriate columns is usually kept for each pan.
8. All corridors and storage spaces should be swept clean and all
equipment not in use should be neatly packed in such storage
spaces.
9. If abnormal signs are observed, such as decreased feed
consumption, bloody faeces, descried activity or droopiness
report immediately to your nearest livestock or veterinary officer.
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Periodic Activities
1. Cull birds that are deformed, stunted or are manifesting lack of

growth and poor productivity. This cuts down on the cost of feed
and also increases the space allowance for the healthy birds.
2. Debeak the birds at three – five weeks old and between 15 – 17
weeks of age by cutting off about 1/3 of the upper and lower
beaks. Electric debeaking at about three weeks of age give a more
permanent debeaking than old scissors debeaking.
3. Deworm at eight weeks and thereafter as necessary depending on
the incidence of re-infestation of the flock by worms.
4. Following the routine vaccination programme recommended for
your area.
Broiler Management
Broiler production should be an attractive enterprise for school projects

and backyard poultry producers because of its fast rate of return. Within
a school term of ten weeks, broiler can be raised from day old to market
weight. For the beginning poultry farmer it offers the unique opportunity
to acquire basic poultry management skills, which can then be extended
to larger flocks and other forms of livestock farming enterprises. Well-
managed good quality broilers should be ready for market by eight
weeks at which time they should be averaging 1.7 – 2 kg each.
Housing and Equipment
Housing
The most practical system for broiler management is the “All in” and
“All out” method whereby chicks are brought into one house at day old
and reared to slaughter weight. They are then removed at once; the
house is cleansed, washed, disinfected and allowed to rest for not less
than two weeks before a new set is brought in. housing designed for
brooding only can be use during the cold months in the North but at
other times the conventional open-sided houses can be used so long as
the recommendation for optimum brooding conditions are observed.
Equipment
The equipment for broiler production are as described under brooding

management because the watering chore takes more time than other
routines, it is advisable to install and automatic water system. Automatic
watering only requires an overhead tank, a pump to deliver water into
the tank and the automatic waterers. Once the tank is full, water fills the
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waterers naturally by the force of gravity. However, it is important to

check the watering lines everyday to ensure that there are no blockages.
Feeds and Feeding
Broiler feeds are high energy, high protein-containing feeds designed to

promote rapid growth. There are two types of broiler feeds available
commercially. The broiler starter which should be fed for the first one –
five weeks and the broiler finisher should be fed from five weeks to
finish. Although both feeds can have the same energy level (300 ME
Kcals/kg of diet), the broiler starter should have a higher protein (23 per
cent) than the finisher (20 per cent). Studies by Olomu and Offiong
(1980) have shown that good quality vegetation protein can be used as
the sole source of protein in finishers but not in starters. Hence there is
the need to ensure that broiler feeds contain a good quality to meet the
indispensable amino acid requirements. Good quality feed is an absolute
necessity for the successful production of broilers and other poultry.
Broilers are usually fed at libitum. The use of artificial lights to

stimulate feeding day and night can increase feed intake and promote a
more rapid growth. To make feed available all the time means that care
must be taken to minimise feed wastage as this tends to increase with
such liberal feeding practices.
The amount of feed required to raise a set of broiler would depend on

the quality of feed, the duration for which the broilers are kept and the
amount of feed wastage. The consumption of starter mash should be
between 1.5 – 2.0 kg/bird from 0 – five weeks, while the amount of
broiler finisher should be between 3 – 4kg/bird. Table 2.1 summarises
the requirement per 100 broilers.
Table 2.1: Broiler and Requirements per 100 Birds
Feed Name Age to Feed Quantity/100 birds
Kg No. of 25kg bags
Broiler Starter 0 – 5 weeks 200 8
Broiler Finisher 5 – 9 weeks 300 12
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Table 2.2: Broiler Management Guide
Week Age of birds Activity

(weeks)
0–2 - · Sweep, wash and disinfect house.
Assemble all equipment and check to
ensure they are in working order. Carry
out house repairs if needed.
1–2 0 · Allow house to rest
2–3 0 · Set brooder house ready for arrival of
chicks.
3–4 0 -1 · Arrival of chicks
· Provide optimum brooding care
· Vaccinate birds against Newscastle
disease, marcks and Gumboro before 10
days of age.
4–5 1–2 · Continue Brooding care
· Complete vaccinations as above
5–6 2 -3 · Gradually reduce supplementary heat.
6–7 3–4 · Gradually reduce supplementary heat.
7–9 4–6 · Discontinue supplementary heat
· Vaccination against Newscastle disease,
Gumboro and Fowl pox
· Change feed to broiler finisher
· Change to adult feeders and drinkers.
9 – 10 6–7 · Activate the machinery for marketing
10 – 11 7–8 · Complete arrangements for marketing
11 – 13 8 – 10 · Sell off broilers
· Sweep, wash and disinfect house and get
ready for new set
Management Routines: Daily and periodic routines during brooding

have already been described. However, broiler production had the
following peculiarities: No de-worming is necessary. Check weights
weekly by sampling about five per cent of the birds.
Pullet Management
Pullets are young chickens that are grown to start laying eggs by the
time they are 20 – 24 weeks old. The primary goal of the pullet grower
is to produce a lean, large-framed pullet that will become an economical
and profitable layer.
155
Housing: Pullets like broilers are most often reared on deep litter floors.
The discussion on housing under brooding is therefore relevant to pullet
housing. However, it is important for the farmer to decide whether to
have separate brooding and pullet rearing houses or use the same facility
to brood, grow and lay. For ease of management, it is better to have a
separate house for brooding and rearing. Since it takes four – five
months to brood and grow pullets to point of lay, one brood and grow
house can be used to produce pullets that will occupy three or four
laying houses. For a farm that plans to produce eggs year round, the first
set of pullets would be brought in January and be transferred into a
laying house in April; the second set begins in April/May which would
be transferred into a second laying house in August. The third would be
started in August/September, which would be transferred into a third
laying house December.
Brooding-grow pullet rearing houses should be designed to give a space

allowance of 0.14sq m/bird (1.5 sq. ft). The floor space
requirements/bird for chickens of varying ages is given in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3: Floor Space Requirements/Bird for Chickens of

Varying Ages
Age of Broiler Chickens Pullets (brown eggers)
Birds Sq. ft. Sq. ft. Floor rearing Cage rearing
(weeks) Sq. ft. Sq. m Sq. ins. Sq. cm
0- 6 0.5 .046 0.5 .046 28 181
6 – 10 0.8 .074 0.8 .074 48 310
10 – 15 - - 1.0 .093 55 355
15 – 20 - - 1.5 .140 55 355
20 – 72 - - 2.0 .186 70 452
In order to produce pullets that will be economical and profitable layers,

great care must be taken to provide the management that will enhance
good body development without accumulating fat. It is therefore
necessary for the pullet grower to periodically (two weeks intervals)
monitors their growth and compares with acceptable growth standards
for his breed. It is desirable that 80 per cent of birds weighed must
weigh within 10 per cent of the mean weight of the sample because the
uniformity of individual weights is just as important as the average flock
weight. The sample should be a random selection of about 100 birds per
house.
Delaying sexual maturity is often a desirable goal because this helps to

reduce the number of small eggs/bird.
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Mortality rate from day old to 20 weeks should not exceed five – six per
cent.
Feeds and Feeding
Feeds: There is a tendency to think that pullet feeding is not critical

since rapid growth is not a priority; more so that delay in sexual maturity
is often a desirable goal. This is an erroneous concept because a badly
reared pullet can never be a good layer.
Commercially, growers’ mash is the available feed for pullets from

about eight weeks old to between 18 – 20 weeks of age. Chick mash
would have been fed from 0 – eight weeks. However, the present trend
worldwide is to have two types of pullet developer ratios, one to be fed
from eight up to about 14 weeks and second from 14 weeks to point of
lay. Table 2.4 gives the feed names and quantities per 100 birds based
on the two feeding regimes with no feed restriction.
Table 2.4: Pullet Growing Feeds and Feed Requirements per 100
Birds
Feed % Age to Quantities Required

Protein Feed
kg 25kg bags
Programme 1
Chick mash 20 0 – 8 weeks 200 8
Grower mash 16 8 – 20 weeks 550 22
Programme 2
Chick mash 20 0 – 8 weeks 200 8
Pullet mash 1 16 8 – 14 weeks 250 10
Pullet mash 14 14 – 20 weeks 300 12
Feeding Restriction: When pullets are full fed, they tend to mature
early and may begin to lay from 18 weeks of age. Most of these eggs
would be too small to fetch good prices. It has therefore become a
common practice to restrict feeds for growing pullets the advantages of
feed restriction are:
a) It reduces the number of small eggs because the birds produce

larger eggs soon after the commencement of lay
b) Trends to reduce laying house mortality
c) It often produces a bird with a larger frame and capacity at point
of lay
d) May result in increased egg production
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e) May produce significant savings in feed cost/pullet. Feed

restriction however, should be practiced only when sample
weighing indicates that the birds are growing too rapidly. One of
three methods can be used:
1. Skip-a-day: Full feed for two days and then skip a day without
feed. This is the easiest method and it also tends to be less harsh
on the birds.
2. Restrict total feed intake: Feed only about 80 per cent of the
regular feed intake on a daily basis
3. Restrict the intake of protein or energy: This method can be
applied if the farmer mixes his own feeds or is custom mixed.
Although feed restriction is a good management practice for pullets it

must be applied only if a definite need for it has been established. The
fact is that most commercial grower mashes are already restricted in
energy and protein, this means that further physical restriction of feed
intake would lead to excessive feed restriction that will be harmful to the
birds.
Precautionary measures necessary for effective application of feed

restriction procedures include the following:
a) Be sure to have adequate feeder space, especially if daily physical

feed restriction is adopted.
b) Birds must be properly debeaked as there is a tendency towards
increased incidence of cannibalism could be a serious threat.
Table 2.5: Pullet Management Guide
Age of Birds Management Practices

Weeks
0 · 2 – 3 weeks before arrival of chicks thoroughly wash
and disinfect house. Allow house to rest for at least
two weeks.
0 · 2 – 3 days before chick arrival, set up facilities for
brooding (see brooding management)
0–1 · Receive chicks and produce optimum brooding care
· Vaccinate chicks against Newcastle, Marck’s and
Gumboro before 10 days of age
· Feed chick mash.
1–2 · Continue brooding care
· Complete vaccination as above.
2–4 · Debeak if not done at day old
· Continue brooding care
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· Gradually phase out supplementary heating

4–6 · Continue brooding care
· Discontinue supplementary heating
· Vaccinate against Newscastle disease, Gumboro and
Fowl pox
6–8 · Separate cockerels from the pullets if straight run
chicks were brooded
· Continue with routine management practices.
8 – 10 · Change feed to grower mash
· Change to adult size feeders and drinkers
· Deworm the birds if possible
10 – 12 · Initiate feed restriction if necessary
· Continue with routine management
12 – 14 · Continue feed restriction feed restriction if necessary
· Continue with routine management practices.
14 – 16 · Continue feed restriction if necessary
· Debeak if necessary (Be sure to have ample feed and
water on days after debeaking).
16 – 18 · Full feeding
· Vaccinate against Newscastle
· Vaccine breeder flocks against Gumboro at 18 weeks
18 – 19 · Move birds into laying house. (Be sure to leave about
one week between vaccination and movement of
laying house).
Introduce layers mash after 19 weeks but before 21
weeks.
Debeaking: This is very important pullet management practice which

if properly done have the following advantages:
a) Reduces mortality due to feather and vent pecking

b) Decreases egg pecking
c) Improves feed efficiency by decreasing feed wastage
Early debeaking at six – 10 days is the most preferred because chicks are
easier to handle than pullets, it prevents the cannibalistic habit at an
early age, there is less interference with later vaccinations and there will
be greater bird uniformity in the flock. Debeaking may also be done at
four – six weeks and from 14 – 16 weeks.
The debeaking process is a major stress factor regardless of the age of

birds on which it is done. It is therefore important that it is done with
cold scissors but this often leads to excessive bleeding and high
mortality. The best method is to use an electric debeaker. The procedure
for debeaking is summarised as follows:
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1. Mobilise a sufficient numner of staff for holding the birds and

trained personnel for debeaking
2. Work during the cooler periods of the day. If possible avoid
debeaking during the hotter periods of the year
3. Work out a system for the most efficient and rapid handling of
birds during the process
4. Cut between 1/2 to 1/3 of the upper and lower beaks. Cut sharply
and cauterise properly to avoid excessive bleeding
5. Provide plenty of feed and water after debeaking
6. Use anti-stress feed or water additives for about three days after
debeaking
7. Do not debeak birds that are already under some kind of stress
e.g. vaccinations.
Moving Pullets into laying Houses: The movement of pullets from a

rearing house into laying facilities is a significant stress factor. Care
must therefore be taken to ensure that the effect of such a stress is
minimal. Movement should take place between 18 – 20 weeks old i.e.
before the birds begin laying. This procedure should be followed:
1. Move birds during the cooler periods of the day, best of all in the
evening
2. Get the laying facility fully supplied with feed and water prior to
stocking. Use anti-stress feed or water additives
3. Eliminating feed 12 hours before moving may be helpful in
decreasing pullet dehydration
4. Birds should be handled gently. Scratches or bruises can produce
cage layer fatigue
5. Avoid overcrowding. Provide a minimum of 150 sq m. (2sq ft.)
of space per bird in the laying house if deep litter is to be used.
Management of Layers
Pullets fed liberally under good management conditions may begin to

lay eggs anytime after 18 weeks of age. However, delaying sexual
maturity is a common management practice, which often leads to hens
coming into lay after twenty weeks of age. Good layers should attain
50% hen-day egg production by 26 weeks of age.
Egg Production Goals
The profitability of any egg production enterprise depends largely on the

number of eggs produced per laying hen. The primary goal of this
enterprise is therefore to produce the maximum number of eggs at
minimum cost. Under Nigerian conditions a good laying hen (medium
sized brown eggers) should be able to produce about 220 eggs/yr and
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consume an average of 120g of feed/day. Mortality rates should not

exceed about one per cent every month. The financial analysis of cage
versus deep litter egg production systems is given in Table 11. 6.
The farmer is often faced with the dilemma of raising layers on deep
litter floor or in cages. In both cases solid structures have to be erected,
but if cages are to be installed additional expenses must be incurred in
the flooring construction to provide for heavier concreting with deep pit.
Both the deep litter floor and cage systems have their advantages and
disadvantages.
Table 2.6: Financial Analysis of Cage vs Deep Litter Egg

Production Systems -Based on a 1983 Case Study
Parameter Cage System Deep Litter

1. Investment per bird (N) 23.31 15.01
2. Return on Investment 7.8% 21.5%
3. Cost of producing one egg (N) 0.15 0.14
4. Payback period (years) 12.9 4.6
Source: Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Water Resources and Rural

Development, 1985. A comparative analysis of the deep litter vis-à-vis
battery cage.
3.3 Systems of Poultry Production
A. Battery Cage System: Most of the commercial layers today are

kept in cages. This is particularly true in countries where the
production processes are highly automated. The birds are easier
to manage in cages.
Cage Types: Many types of cages exist but the stair-step double decker
type has become popular because unlike the vertical multi-stacked
system, it does not require dropping boards or cleaning belts below the
upper decks of cages. However, bird density per given volume house is
lower for the stair-step cages compared to the stacked types. Cages
should be placed in open-sided houses with dwarf walls. Under very hot
conditions, the house may be no more than a roof over the cages.
Stocking Density: It has been proved that when caged birds are fewer in
number, they tend to waste more feed. Results of many researchers
conducted in the last decade with regards to how much we can crowd
layers in cages have, however, indicated that crowding is more
profitable only when egg prices are high and feed costs are low.
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Attaining high egg prices without corresponding increase in feed cost is

very unlikely in this country.
Manure Disposal: Where small (backyard) or medium size farms are

involved, manure accumulation may not pose much problems. The
manure produced can be collected and spread on farmlands. This
method is easy and less expensive. However, in large-scale operations
consisting of thousands or millions of layers, and with land becoming
scarce, manure disposal may become a serious problem. Lagoons,
oxidation ditches, drying (dehydrating) and besides these methods being
expensive, there is still the odour problem and / or the need for final
disposal of the treated manure. Poultry manure can also be fed to
animals, particularly ruminants, after it had been treated. Proper disposal
of manure is necessary so that offensive odour do not accumulate and
pollute the neighbourhood. Apart from constituting a nuisance to the
birds themselves by attracting many flies, these odours and the flies
make the working environment uncomfortable for the attendants.
Cage-Related Problems: Layers kept in cages sometimes develop some

problem whose specific causes have not been ascertained. Such
problems are not common among layers managed on the floor. The main
cage-related problems most commonly encountered are cage layer
fatigue (birds are unable to stand due to weakened bones), fatty liver
syndrome (lots of the oviduct to retract after laying) and egg drop
syndrome. Stress may be involved in cage layer fatigue. However, it
does not seem to have any adverse effect on egg production. The proper
maintenance of automatic waterers and feeders are critical. A block in
the water line for example can lead to a sharp drop in egg production.
B. Deep Litter Floor System: Install nests and fresh nesting

material such as wood shavings, rice hulls or sawdust. Well-
designed nests should be provided to reduce time needed for
caring for the laying flock and the eggs. Nests may be made of
wood or metal and of varying arrangements, but should provide
for convenience in egg collection. They may be placed in the
middle of the pen or along the walls inside the building. Provide
one nest measuring 30cm (12”) wide, 35cm (14”) high and about
30cm (12”) deep per 4 hens. For community nests should be
cleaned regularly and new nesting materials added as needed to
produce clean eggs.
The litter should be stirred frequently and new materials added. Wet and
“caked-over” spots should be removed and replaced with fresh, dry
litter.
A common problem with hens on deep litter is floor eggs. Eggs laid on
the floor easily become dirty and are susceptible to breakage. The
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following management practices will help to ensure that the birds lay
inside the nests rather than on the floor:
1. Have nests in the laying house before the pullets are housed or
introduced the nests before the pullets commence laying
2. Provide adequate, well-ventilated nests to prevent overcrowding
3. Round off corners of the house, which serve as nesting places
4. Close nests at nights
5. Provide nests with clean nesting materials
6. Use darkened nests and place them in darker sections of the
house.
Feeds and Feeding
Layers mash may contain between 2400 – 2800 Kcals of ME/kg of diet
and 16 – 17 per cent protein. The peculiarity of layer’s feed, however, is
its high calcium content, which may be up to 3.5 per cent. The high
calcium is necessary for laying down the eggshell.
In recent years, phase feeding of layers has been advocated to be in line

with the different phases of an egg production profile. The first phase
start at point of lay to the period of peak production i.e. between 20 – 35
weeks, the second phase begins at 35 weeks and ends at about 55 weeks
while the third lasts to the end of lay. Under such a system the ration for
phase one should have 17 per cent protein, phase two 16 per cent and
phase three 15 per cent protein. This takes cognizance of the differences
in egg production during the three phases. The calcium level however,
should be slightly increased from phase one to phase three to minimise
egg breakage which normally increases with age of the hen. Feed and
water should be given liberally.
Management Guide for Layers
The following is a summary of management routines for laying hens:
1. Provide optimum space per bird. A space requirement of .186m

(2sq ft) is adequate at point of lay
2. Introduce the pullets to layer’s mash preferably after the first
eggs have been dropped (a production level of 2-5% )
3. Inspect birds daily for any signs of disease or abnormal behavior
4. Maintain accurate records of feed consumption, egg production
and disease control measures. A sharp drop in feed consumption
is often the first indicator of a pending disease outbreak or
response to a major environmental stress.
5. Under hot weather conditions, provide plenty of cool drinking
water, if possible, use artificial lights in the early mornings (from
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about 3:00 am) to stimulate feed consumption during the cooler

times of the day.
6. Always enter the house courteously, rude entrance can create
hysteria
7. Regularly cull unproductive birds. Removal of such hens creates
more space for the remaining birds and saves on the feed cost that
would have been expended on them. These birds may also fetch a
better price at th e time of culling than if they were left to be older
before sale. All layers should be sold off after about one year of
lay unless they are still economically productive
8. At the first signs of disease or any other problem, set up the
preventive or corrective measures promptly
9. Prevent feed wastage.
Egg Collection and Handling: The chicken egg is one of God’s most
wonderful creations. Inside it is a warehouse of nutrients in such a way
that they can form a chick if the egg is fertile. This concoction of
nutrients is held inside the shell, built in such a way that it is strong to
bear the weight of a brooding hen but weak enough for the completely
developed chick to break through at hatching time. The shell is also
porous enough to allow gaseous exchange between the inside contents
and the external atmosphere.
This delicately designed bag of nutrients manufactured by the laying hen

must be properly cared for if its original quality is to be retained during
handling and storage. The conditions for handling and marketing of
good quality eggs are as follows:
1. Provide adequate nests for hens of deep litter. The nest may have
a hinged door at the top to facilitate easy collection of eggs
2. Keep litter dry. The egg is at its best at the point of oviposition.
To prevent it from picking up dirt, the litter should be kept fresh
by regular turning of the older litter, removal of wet spots and
topping up with fresh dry litter when older litter becomes “caky”
or too moist.
3. Collect eggs at least three times a day. Frequently egg collection
prevents the unnecessary accumulation and trampling of eggs by
hens. The use of paper or plastic egg trays is best for egg
collection because they make it possible to collect and stack eggs
with minimum breakage.
4. Store eggs in a cool place. Egg quality deteriorates very rapidly
in a hot environment. The optimum temperature for storing eggs
0
is about 13 C (55.40F) at 75 – 80 per cent relative humidity.
5. Use the egg room only for eggs. Eggs should be kept away from
onions, kerosene and other products with pungent odour that eggs
might absorb.
164
6. During periods of egg glut, spraying or dipping eggs in minerals

oil (groundnut oil, cotton seed oil or palm oil, etc.) for one minute
will preserve egg quality under normal room storage conditions
for about four weeks.
Selection and Culling
The selection and culling of unproductive hens from the flock has the
following advantages:
1. More floor space will be created for the good producers.

2. Saves on the feed cost of maintaining unproductive birds
3. Culling at an earlier age may fetch a better market price for the
bird
4. May lead to a reduced incidence of diseases
5. It results in an improvement of feed efficiency for the entire
flock.
Culling is a process that should actually begin at day old. Weak,

diseased and unthrifty birds should continuously be culled out during the
growing period.
In laying flocks culling should commence soon after the hens attain peak
production. The characteristics used to distinguish between good and
bad layers are summarised in table below:
Table 2.7: Culling Chart for Separating Good from Poor Layers
Character Good layer Poor Non-layer

Comb Large, smooth, bright Dull, dry shriveled, scaly
red, glossy
Beak White Yellow
Vent Large, oval, smooth, Shrunken, puckered, dry
moist and bluish-white yellow of flesh colour
Public bones Thin, pliable, spread Blunt, rigid, close together
apart
Abdomen Full, soft, pliable. Contracted, hard
Skin Soft, loose Thick under-laid with fat
Plumage Worn, soiled feathers Not much worn, appear
broken or roughened glossy months after reaching
maturity.
The best time to cull is in the evening just after dark using a flashlight,
but culling can also be done during the day.
165
The age at which to dispose of old layers is the point at which the cost of
egg production exceeds income from sale of eggs. Layers can be
recycled by using a force molting programme.
Management of Breeders
Breeders are essentially managed like layers except that management

procedures must be more strictly adhered to. The following management
practices must be given special attention.
· Selection and Culling: Must be routinely and vigorously

practiced.
· Vaccinations: There may be need for some vaccinations at point
of lay which can serve to transfer immunity from hen to chicks
e.g. IBD vaccine.
· Feeding: Feeding breeder mash, which usually contains a higher
level of vitamins and some minerals than the regular layers mash.
Feed restriction is often necessary for broiler breeder. A common
practice is to limit feeding to only about 80 per cent of daily feed
intake. Such diets must, however, be optimally fortified with
minor nutrients.
· Egg Collection: Collection is at least five times a day.
3.4 Measures for Combating Heat Stress
Having outlined the consequences of heat stress to poultry, it is

appropriate to discuss what can be done to combat heat stress. Both
short and long term measures that have to be done immediately to cool
down birds that are visibly suffering from heat stress. As may be
expected, the subject has been of interest to researchers from all over the
world. For example, in 1977, a group of researchers from the University
of Ibadan compared the effects of forced ventilation, night feeding +
light, drinking or dunking in cold water and dunking in normal water
once a day in the afternoons on heat stress the researchers reported that
night feeding + light resulted in best egg production and egg weight.
However, forced ventilation, day feeding + light, drinking cold water
and dunking in normal water also produced favourable results. In
another study, the same workers found that the feeding of ascorbic acid
at 100mg/kg of diet or aspirin at up to 0.2 per cent of the diets were also
effective in alleviating heat stress. The beneficial effects of ascorbic acid
feeding for counteracting the effects of heat stress on broilers, was
recently confirmed.
These researches demonstrate the array of short-term measures that can

be taken to combat heat stress. From a practical and economical
166
standpoint, the use of artificial lights to stimulate nighttime feeding is

perhaps the most advantageous method for combating heat stress.
The minimum temperatures, which are usually recorded in the early

morning, are within the range of ideal temperatures for laying hens
throughout the year. Therefore if light is available, the birds will be able
to maintain a high level of feed intake during the cool parts of the day.
However, during the hot afternoons when the risk of death from heat
prostration is high, the provision of ice cooled water or spraying the
birds with water from a garden hose are also practical considerations for
alleviating heat stress.
The installation of electrically operated mechanical gadgets to improve

ventilation or spray water in and around the poultry houses, are
extensively used in many parts of the world. The most common of these
gadgets is the fan. When placed on the windward side of the house, fans
tend to increase the air speed as it blows through the building. At
exceptionally high temperatures, it may be better to place the fans inside
the house to blow the air lengthwise of the building. In some parts of the
world, circulating micro jet sprinklers are installed at the point of the
roof. Such sprinklers are used to spray the roof or the ground area
around the poultry house with water. This aids in cooling the house and
its surroundings. The installation of foggers which emit a fine mist of
water that keep the chickens wet to aid in cooling the birds have also
been utilised.
A short term measure to combat the effect of heat stress that is little
known to poultry farmers is the manipulation of poultry feed formulas to
provide feeds with lower energy content but adequately fortified with
other essential nutrients. This practice is based on the principle that the
amount of feed consumed by a bird depends on the energy requirement.
For the poultry man who has control over his feed formula, it is
recommended that during the hotter months of the year, feeds should be
formulated to contain lower than usual energy levels but optimally
fortified with other essential nutrients. Such diets should stimulate an
increase in feed intake and consequently an increase in egg production
for layers or growth rate for broilers. Related to this is the use of feed
ingredients that contain fat. Where fats are economically available, they
should be used as the preferred energy source for feed formulation
because they are known to produce less specific heat than other sources
of energy.
Whatever methods are used for combating heat stress must be weighed
against the economics of such a practice. The farmer should be free to
try any methods accessible to him and select the most economical
management practice in his situation.
167
Good housing design and construction is the most important long-term

measure for combating heat stress. Nigeria is fortunate to be in a
geographical region in which good poultry housing can be constructed at
minimum costs. A good poultry house must provide the following
necessities: protection from rain, sun, and pest, adequate ventilation,
minimise ammonia build up and reduction in humidity. The design that
best satisfies these requirements in most of the tropical world is an open
sided house with a suitable roofing material. A house constructed with
about two-thirds of its sidewalls open but screed with chicken wire mesh
and less than 11m in width in most cases will have adequate natural
ventilation for most of the year. Adequate ventilation is the most
important factor for the control of ammonia build up, humidity and
poultry house temperatures. The ideal poultry house should have an
East-West orientation to prevent sunrays from entering the house and
should be located on a well-drained site selected to take advantage of
topographical features that favour free air movement in and out of the
open-sided poultry houses. Other construction details of the ideal
poultry house include the selection of economically suitable roofing
materials that will produce a cooling effect in the house and floors and
sidewalls that can easily be cleaned and disinfected. The use of gable
roofing with ridges is increasingly being used as further means of
enhancing adequate ventilation in poultry houses. The presence of trees
around the houses can result in shades that will produce a cooling effect
in the house environment.
As has often been said, prevention is better than cure. This is

particularly necessary in poultry production where an outbreak of a
disease can wipe out a whole flock. A much better and more practical
way of dealing with disease is by prevention. It does not mean
vaccination alone but constitutes a host of other practices, which must
be followed regularly.
Cleanliness: This means that whatever the bird is given or made to

come in contact with should always be clean. Regular use of
disinfectants is important in controlling pathogenic microorganisms. The
farm and its premises should be kept clean. It is also important that
employees be provided with showers and clean clothing on the farm.
Pollution Control: Keep dust and offensive odour off the poultry house.
Often, dusty air and bad odour are as a result of poor ventilation. Poor
ventilation promotes rapid spread of respiratory diseases.
168
Dead Birds and Waste Disposal: Avoid throwing dead birds and refuse
all over the farm premises. Dead birds should be properly disposed off.
There are many ways of achieving this:
a. Incinerate (burn) in specially constructed facilities (incinerators)

which when well operated are nearly odourless
b. Use plastic bags to hold the dead birds, seal and remove from the
farm
c. Construct disposal pits in the ground into which dead birds are
deposited for bacterial decomposition
d. Bury dead birds, deep enough to avoid being dug up by dogs, rats
or other animals.
Consultation with other farmers and poultry experts
The “Lone Ranger” approach to poultry farming should be discouraged

because more often than not, it is farmer who refuses to seek the advice
and/or opinions of poultry experts and experienced and successful
poultry farmers that runs into serious disease problems. Experts (poultry
specialists, poultry pathologists and veterinarians) should be consulted
at the beginning and regularly thereafter, for information on good source
of day-old chicks, suitable housing designs, good management practices
and recommendations that will ensure good performance from the birds.
Consulting is a necessity for a beginner and should be important to those
who have been in the business for a long time as is often the case, two
heads are better than one.
Good Water and Feed Supply: Most sources of water (pipe borne,
borehole or well water) often contain some impurities. Ideally, water
supply to the farm should be tested for chemical contamination and
purity. Avoid using nearby streams as source of water as chemical
fishing upstream may render the water poisonous to birds. Adequate
feeding is important for good health and productivity. Feeds fed should
be well balanced so as to prevent occurrence of nutritional problems and
to enable the bird withstand stress and disease attacks. Always inspect
feeds for possible presence of decayed material, moldy grains,
poisonous weeds and other possible sources of trouble.
Vaccination: Any poultry disease prevention strategy should involve a

vaccination programme because the spread of some disease, particularly
those of bacterial and viral origin is difficult to control even under the
best management practices. Such diseases are therefore prevented by
routinely vaccinating the birds. Just as there are many vaccines, so are
there many vaccination programme.
169
A suggested programme is given in table 11.8 for layers and broilers.

This suggested programme is based on experiences in the Zaria area and
can only be used as a guide. You should consult your local veterinarian
for the best programme for your area.
Post Mortem Examination: This means finding out the cause of death
of the bird. It involves physical examination and laboratory tests, and
should be conducted by a trained person. Information from this exercise
is important in changing or modifying your management practices in
order to avert future occurrence of similar or other disease problems.
Control of external Parasites and Predators: The presence of external

parasites on birds and rodents in poultry houses is a sign of poor
management. These parasites irritate the birds and heavy infestation may
cause heavy reduction in performance. The three main external parasites
of poultry are lice, ticks and mites. They live within the feathers in all
parts of the body and feed on the feathers or scales, while others bite or
suck the blood of the host. Chemicals such as Malathion, carbaryl
(Sevrin), Coumaphos, Rabon and Vetox can be used to control external
parasites. Rodents (rats and mice) eat and destroy feeds and feed bags,
transmit diseases and constitute a nuisance. Best control of rodents
require general clean up and the use of baits such as warfarin, zinc
phosphide, Epi Block and Havoc.
Other Preventive Measures: State with good quality chicks, do not

mix birds of different ages and from different farms; restrict or prevent
visitors into the poultry house; isolate sick birds as soon as discovered
and seek veterinary attention; keep birds as comfortable as possible and
avoid sudden changes in their environment which may cause stress.
3.6 Record- Keeping and Performance Evaluation
Beside other uses, one of the purposes for keeping records on the farm is
the information it provides on the health and health history of the flock.
Veterinarians are often invited whenever there is a disease problem on
the farm and they are expected to find the causes and correct them. To
do this successfully, background information or the history of the flock
is necessary. Certainly, it is difficult to provide such information
correctly without records. There are different types of records,
depending on the type of poultry enterprise. Irrespective of the type of
production, farm records should provide information on medications,
types of vaccines and how administered, feed consumption, mortality
and cause.
Records are essential as profit and loss indicators. They also help to
identify disease problems at the very early stage when they can be more
170
readily controlled. There are three records that must be kept by all
poultry farmers.
1. Inventory: A list of all equipment, drugs feeds and other items

in u se on the farm; date of purchase, cost and quantity of items
should be appropriately kept.
2. Production Records: Should show date, status of birds;
numbers, mortality, feed consumption, culls and in the case of
layers egg production. It is usual to maintain a record sheet for
each house of flock for daily recording. Weekly and monthly
summaries should be made and used as a basis for evolving the
appropriate operational management decisions.
3. Sales Records: Show total product sales (chicks, broilers, culls
and eggs) and revenue collected. It is absolutely essential to use
different people for maintaining the production and sales records.
It is the responsibility of management to ensure that all eggs
collected or birds produced are properly accounted for from day
to day. The theft of birds, eggs, and other farm supplies by farm
workers are commonplace so it is extremely important to have
proper accountability.
Sample record forms may be used but it is best to evolve one based on
field experience and the needs of the particular farm. Records should be
few but comprehensive enough to supply needed information.
Performance Evaluation
Poultry keeping like any other business demands that the producer must
be able to assess from time to time whether he is gaining or losing
money in the enterprise. It is therefore important that the poultry keeper
should periodically go through his records and compare with established
performance standards in order to determine how well the birds are
growing or laying eggs. The major parameters used in measuring
productivity from chickens are: weight gain, mortality, hen-day and hen-
housed egg production rates, and efficiency of feed utilisation.
1. Mortality: Keeping the mortality rate as low as possible in any

flock should be the ambition of every poultry keeper. It is usually
expressed in percentages:
Mortality:
For broilers a mortality rate of less than four per cent is

considered normal rates. For pullets from day one to point of lay
171
(about 20 weeks) is five – six per cent. For laying birds the
mortality rate should not be more than 10 per cent throughout the
laying period. An unusual increase in mortality is often the
symptom of a major disease outbreak and should be promptly and
thoroughly investigated by a veterinarian.
Weight Gain: In broiler production, the rate of live weight gain

is a very important parameter. It is good practice to weigh a
sample of the broiler flock at two–week intervals. These weights
should be compared with established standards in order to
determine whether the birds are growing well; if the birds are not
growing well, the quality of the feed is often a major contributing
factors. Disease conditions, poor quality birds and bad
management are other possible factors.
2. Live weight: In pullet production, weight gain is not an important

parameter but the weights need to be checked periodically (four
week – intervals) in order to make sure that the pullets are
developing properly.
In commercial production it is standard practice to control the

growth rate of pullets in order to produce pullets of uniform size
at point of lay as well as delay sexual maturity.
3. Hen-day and hen – housed egg production: The rate of egg

production in a flock is often expressed in terms of the percentage
of birds laying eggs relative to the total number of the birds in the
flock at any given time.
Hen-day egg production = Average daily egg production x 100

Average daily number of laying hens
Hen-housed egg production = Average daily egg production x 100

No. of laying hens house at the
Beginning of the laying period
The difference between hen-day and housed egg production lies in the
fact that while hen-day is concerned only with the production from the
birds that are alive, hen-housed production of the cost of production of
poultry meat and eggs, it is important to use good quality feed. The
better the quality of the feed, the better its rate of conversion into meat
and eggs. Feed efficiency is a measure of how efficiently a given feed is
being converted into products.
172
In broiler production, there are three ways of expressing feed efficiency.
a. Feed efficiency = Weight gain

Feed Intake
Feed efficiency is always less than 1.
b. Efficiency of feed utilisation = Feed intake

Weight gain
c. Feed conversion = Feed intake

Body weight
In commercial production feed conversion is commonly used but the

term feed efficiency is a more common terminology in scientific
literature.
A desirable goal for commercial broiler production is a feed conversion

of 2.0 at market weight.
In egg production, feed efficiency may be expressed in terms of

feed/dozen eggs or feed per kg of eggs.
Feed/dozen eggs = Feed consumed

No of eggs production in dozens
Efficiency of feed = Feed consumed kg

Kg of eggs produced
Table 2.8: A Suggested Vaccination Programme for Poultry
Age Vaccination Required

1 day old 1. 1st dose of Newcastle disease vaccine
0 – 2 weeks 2. A dose of mark’s disease vaccine
3 – 5 weeks 3. 1st dose of Gomboro disease vaccine
4. 2nd dose of Gomboro disease vaccine
(vaccine usually given 3 weeks after
the first dose
6 – 8 weeks 5. A dose of fowl pox vaccine
6. 2nd does of Newcastle disease vaccine
16 – 18 weeks 7. 3rd does of Newcastle disease vaccine
8. 3rd dose of Gomoboro disease vaccine
for breeder flocks
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4.0 CONCLUSION
Poultry are kept essentially for egg or meat production. The duration and
management practices required for egg and meat type of production
differ, though the two may be integrated naturally as in backyard poultry
production or by sharing the same poultry equipment and appliances or
facilities. In either of the two enterprises (broilers or pullet production),
production operations are undertaken in phases – brooding and rearing,
starter and finisher phases (for broiler management), pullet and layer
phases (for pullet management). Productivity and/or profitability is
dependent on the appropriateness in time and effectiveness with which
routine management practices are applied. Understanding of the
principles of poultry presupposes their application which this study unit
endeavours to provide to students in this course.
7.0 SUMMARY
The study unit has attempted to touch on essential areas of poultry,

especially domestic chicken, management in order to cultivate in the
minds of students both theoretical and practical understanding of the
subject matter. It is organised to expose learners to the two major
enterprises in poultry production, routine practices in the various
production operations associated with the intensive and extensive
systems of management. Ancillary management practices such as heat
stress and diseases management, record keep and performance
evaluation are also discussed from practical point of view to enable
student develop can do attitude towards animal agriculture.
1. Describe production practices for a specific poultry enterprise

under a named management system. What advantages has your
chosen management system over others
2. Describe long and short term measures from combating heat
stress in broiler raised in a deep litter system
3. Outline vaccination regimes for pullets up till the point of lay.
Enumerate economic importance of name poultry disease.
4. List types of records you need to take in a layer farm. What
parameters will you measure to properly assess the performance
of the layer farm?
174
Dafwang I.I. & Odiba, J.Y. (1993). Poultry Management Handbook.

NAERLS Extension Bull. No 63 Livestock Series No. 15.
Federal Ministry of Agriculture & Rural Development, (1985).

Appraisal and Extraction of Research Findings of Immediate
Application (Livestock sub sector.) Third Progress Report.
Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Water Resources and Rural
Development, Lagos.
North, M.O. (1984). Commercial Chicken Production Manual. Third

Edition. AVI Publishers.
Olomu, J.M. (1980). “Practical Hints for Backyard Poultry Producers.”

NAPRI Bulletin. 2: 23 – 42.
175
UNIT 3 GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR RABBIT

MANAGEMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Breed Characteristics of Rabbit
3.2 Selecting and Improving Desirable Traits
3.3 Principles of Reproduction in Rabbits
3.4 Rabbit Feeds and Feeding
3.5 Basic Principles of Housing and Sanitation for Rabbits
3.6 Principles of Disease Prevention and Health Management
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Rabbit is one of the latest domesticated livestock in Nigeria. While in

the wild, rabbit is commonly referred to as hare. Rabbit production in
Nigeria became popular following its earlier introduction in the Western
States of Nigeria by the United States Department of Agriculture and the
subsequent creation of awareness for its popularization by the
Directorate of Food, Roads and Rural Infrastructure (DFRRI) in
1988/1989. Rapid spread of rabbit production arises from its large scale
advantages over many other species of livestock. The feeding habit of
rabbit confers the ability to utilise forage and concentrate diets
efficiently as sources of needed nutrients. This ability further assists to
reduce feed scarcity and cost for rabbit production. While the growth
rate is comparable with chicken in terms of meat production, it costs far
much less to feed rabbit than broiler chicks. Its high reproductive
efficiency measured by number of young ones per birth, fertility and
short generation interval makes rearing of rabbits a highly attractive and
profitable enterprise. The quality of rabbit meat product is nutritious and
it is relished in social gatherings and drinking places as “bush meat”.
Rabbit production above all is environment friendly; rabbits are not
known for noise making, fierce fighting, attack on the husbandman or
poor defecating habit that may result in stench environmental pollution.
Thus, new entrants into livestock production often commence building
up their skills through backyard rabbit production because of its
attractiveness.
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2.0 OBJECTIVES
· identify breed characteristics and select for desirable traits

· explain the principles of reproduction in rabbits
· mention feed ingredients available for rabbit and their nutritive
values
· describe the basic principles underlying housing designs for
rabbits
· explain principles of health management in rabbitery.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Breed Characteristics of Rabbit
There are several breeds and strains of rabbit that have been introduced
into Nigeria. The breeds vary in the pattern of coat colours, sizes and
productive characteristics. Most common coat colours are of dark, white
brown, gray or ox-blood or a combination of two of these colours
exhibited in a characteristic pattern for a given breed or strain of rabbit.
However, much greater interest to the producers relates to the productive
characters inherent in a breed. In terms of size, there are medium-sized
or heavy breeds of rabbits which vary in their relative suitability for
home and commercial meat or fur production. For fast growth, rapid
attainment of mature body weight at 4.1-5.5 kg and 5.9-7.3 kg
respectively for medium and heavy breeds is more desirable compared
to small-sized breeds weighing 1.4-1.8 kg at maturity.
Table 3.1: Some of the Medium and Heavy Breeds of Rabbits

Commonly Found in Nigeria.
Breed Weight at No. of Kittens Coat Colour

Maturity (Kg) Per Doe/Year
Flemish giant 5.9-7.3 36 Light grey
American
Chinchilla 4.1-5.5 38 Fur grey, blue grey,
Belly White
New Zealand 4.1-5.4 50 White, Red or black
Californian 3.6-5.0 48 White, black
patches on Nose,
ear, feet or tail
Dutch 2.5-3.5 45/48 Black, with belted
white
English Spot 4.1-5.4 40 White black or
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chocolate spots
Champagne 4.1-5.4 40 Dark under fur slate
d’argent white
The objective of the producer most importantly dictates the choice of

breed or direction of selection.
Breed selection is commonly based on healthcare and vigour which is

evidenced by alertness, brightness of eyes, coat colour, smooth and
glossy coat, reproduction performance, type and conformation. Light
coloured skins are often preferred to dark coat coloured rabbits. A good
age to start production is at weaning or maturity. Selection for breeding
and rearing must be decided on the basis of rabbit performance records
on the farm. However, such records are hardly available. Rabbit breeds
commonly found in the locality with proven assurance of good health
and productivity from the producers nearby may suffice for a beginner.
For example the New Zealand white and American Chinchilla are the
most adapted exotic rabbit breeds in Nigeria, and they thrive very well
in most ecological zones. Among the local types the light and dark
brown are most preferred. Note that a breed name depends on location
or place of origin, coat colours, breeder nomenclature or size.
Rabbits that have white coat colour are preferred and sell faster in
Nigeria than those with dark coat colour. For wool production, the
English Angora and French Angora have higher preference. For new
starter, rabbits at maturity are easier to manage than newly weaned
stock. However, matured rabbits are more expensive than weaners but
they hasten to attain the breeding age of 5 or 6 months. It is important to
rely on the health status and records of performance in selecting rabbits
for breeding. The adaptability of a breeding stock may be easily
accessed from the breed most populous in the community, this will also
guarantee early disposal of stock whenever the producer desires.
3.2 Selecting and Improving Desirable Traits
Breeding stocks are selected predominantly from past records of a rabbit

or its parents. Selecting on the basis of coat or eye colour is secondary.
Quantitative traits such as fertility, growth and feed efficiency, milk
production, disease resistance and carcass quality are more desirable
basis for selection. High heritability percentage of most quantitive traits
in rabbit further ensures that larger proportion of the characters can be
passed from parents to offspring, and makes parent’s records a
dependable tool for the selection of good traits. Besides selecting desired
characteristics in the animal, other techniques for improving such traits
in the flock are given in the Table below:
178
Table 3.2: Techniques for Improving Some Traits in Flocks.
Line Breeding This is a continuous mating of subsequent

generation to an identified male or its offspring.
Out crossing Mating of unrelated individuals or lines of different
breed. This often increases heterozygosity of
the genotype
Cross breeding Mating of individuals of two different breeds
Inbreeding Mating of individuals that are more closely related
than the average population e.g. mating sire-
offspring, brother-sister or offspring-Dam
3.3 Principles of Reproduction in Rabbits
Rabbits are known to be highly active in sexual activities, as such, if

undesirable mating (including mating prior to maturity, mating between
closely related members of a family or mating between wrong partners)
are to be avoided, rabbits should not be allowed to live communally.
Males (Bucks) and females (Does) prior to age of maturity must be
separated into single cages or hutches. Mature female rabbit (also known
as Doe) normally comes into ‘season’ or ‘heat’ periodically by
demonstrating signs of high receptiveness to male for purpose of mating.
Such sign may include restlessness in the cage; making frantic efforts to
leave the cage to join other rabbits in the next cage, rubbing her chin on
the hutch, water or feed troughs. Other signs observable are physical
changes or discharge from the vulva such as redness or swollen genital.
When these occur, the producer is encouraged to transfer the doe to the
cage where the buck is housed without any further delay. Some bucks
may be timid to mount on the doe if such bucks are taken from their
cages to where the doe is housed. A delay in introducing a doe on heat
to a buck immediately may result in loss of the experience to be
receptive to the male. The act of mating or copulation also stimulates the
release of eggs (oval) in the does for fertilization and conception within
the reproductive organ of the female rabbit, usually 10 hours after
mating. For this reason i.e. release of eggs only after the act of mating
has taken place makes rabbit to be described as a “silent or included
ovulator’.
It is important to regulate the mating ratio in a large stock of rabbits.

Mating ratio refer to the number of male allotted to a group of female
for purpose of mating for efficient reproduction and without over
tasking the sexual stamina of the male. Recommended mating ratio is
modestly put at one buck (male) to two-five does (females) daily.
179
A successful mating results in fertilization and pregnancy which extends

between 28 and 32 days. Often kindling or parturition occurs between
31 and 32 days or an average of 30 days gestation period. Young rabbits
(or kittens) grow for four-12 months to the maturity age and ready for
breeding, depending on the breed. For example the small polish breed
may be breed at four months, medium New Zealand white at six-seven
months and heavy Flemish at nine-12 months of age. In many breeds
sexual maturity may be attained at five months after birth but it is not
recommended to opt for breeding doe immediately attaining the sexual
age of maturity. Consideration must be given to the physical ability of
the doe to carry pregnancy to term and to kindle young ones safely.
Good quality feed and adequate feeding plus sound management care
from birth may encourage a producer to breed a fast growing doe much
earlier than its other mates lacking adequate quality and quantity of
nutrients and growing slowly. This implies that age is not an absolute
consideration in breeding but rather size, which is often from 2.0kg live
weight. Please note that the doe must be returned to her cage and
separately kept as soon as copulation with the buck occurs, to avoid
abortion or loss of developing embryo as a result of struggling and
fighting by the buck to have another round of mating with the doe if
fertilization had taken place. Sometimes inexperience doe may resist
mating, it is therefore important for the rearer to assist by restraining the
doe to enable the buck to mount on her.
About four-five days before kindling nesting box is required to be

placed within the closest reach for the pregnant doe. The nesting box
should be stuffed with succulent bedding materials such as wood saving
or grasses. The pregnant does on her own would naturally shed part of
her hair covering to create warm cover for the hairless kittens to be
delivered. Kittens cohabit with their dam in the nesting box for about
two weeks during which the eyes are open and hair covering also
develops. Re-breeding of the doe can be done shortly after kindling;
however, re-breeding of doe four times in a year will suffice for good
results. A good doe produces on the average 28 kittens per year.
3.4 Rabbit Feeds and Feeding
Management of kittens from birth through weaning to maturity depends

largely on quality of feeds and appropriate application of feeding
principles during the growth period. Young rabbits are left with the does
to have access to milk until weaning at 56-60 days to attain 1.5kg
weaning weight. Litter size (number of kittens per birth) determines the
average litter weight due to competition for milk and feed. During
lactation, adequate good quality concentrate, sufficient succulent greens
and plenty of clean fresh water should be provided to ensure production
of abundant milk for the young ones. Milk consumption at early stage of
180
life of a kitten offers nutrients that ensure immune protection and rapid
growth during the pre-weaning growth period. As such kitten weighing
about 60g at birth attains 1.8-2.0kg at the weaning age of 50-60 days. At
four-eight weeks, kitten would have grown hair coat to conserve body
heat without the dam providing warmth for them. They should on their
own eat some concentrate, greens and root supplied to their dam. At
weaning, the dam is simply removed from the litter and kept separately
away in another hutch. Sudden removal of the dam while the milk still
flows may results in a caked udder. In order to avoid this condition at
weaning, a few kittens especially those having slow rate of growth be
left with the dam for few days until milk flow ceases.
Besides the removal of dam at weaning a number of activities are

usually carried out immediately for ease of good management such as:
(1) Identification of individual weaners using ear tags, tattooing or

notching methods.
(2) Sexing: separation of males and females weaners.
(3) Selection for breeding especially for replacement stock.
It is important to note certain principles guiding the feeding and

nutrition of rabbits. The domestic rabbit is primarily herbivorous and
will eat most types of green vegetation, hays, grains, tubers and roots.
Thus rabbits may thrive on feed ingredients from plant sources. This
convenient feeding habit derives from the special adaptation of the
digestive system of rabbit. The digestive tract basically is that of a
monogastric consisting of a simple stomach and a pair of large caeca
(plural) where cellulolytic microorganisms reside. The latter additional
structures aid in digestion of forage feeds which other simple stomach
animals cannot easily digest. Another special ability of rabbits
supporting the use of poor quality feed ingredients is the recycling of
soft faecal pellets to supplement protein quality and B-vitamins and
further aids better digestion of poorly digestible feed. The protein-rich
soft faeces (coprophage) is produced from bacterial protein synthesised
in the caecum (singular). The stomach adaptation of empowers rabbits to
utilise non-protein nitrogen ingredients (urea, poultry manure, biuret) as
sources of protein which further ease feed and nutrient requirements of
rabbit while contributing to faster growth.
The nutrient needs of rabbits consist of suitable amounts of protein,

carbohydrates, fat, minerals, vitamins, water and roughage. It is essential
that feeds containing these nutrients must be provided in a palatable
form and sufficient quantity. Nutrient requirements of 17 per cent crude
protein (plus 0.65 per cent lysine and methionine), 2450 kcal digestible
energy have been recommended the protein sources may include
soybean, groundnut, cottonseed, palm kernel and sunflower meal in
181
combination with non-protein nitrogen sources. While the energy may

be derived from fats, tubers, grains and forage feeds. Fat
supplementation as energy source should not exceed 20-25 per cent
depending on age. It is of necessity to add a satisfactory level of
roughage or any fibre source into the diet of rabbits to avoid enteritis
and to aid both microbial activities and bowel movement. Staple food
by-products commonly consumed in many Nigerian cultures have been
tried and found to be useful for feeding rabbits e.g. dry cereal and
legume grains. The use of cassava tuber peels and leaves, bambara nut
wastes, poultry manure, maize and sorghum offal have been
recommended as cheap alternative feedstuffs for rabbit without
comprising growth rate and development of body tissues.
3.5 Basic Principles of Housing and Sanitation for Rabbits
The underlying principle of housing for rabbit is that housing

accommodation should protect stock from predators, extreme climate,
accidents and injuries. It should also aid comfort, growth and
reproductive wellbeing of the rabbits and conveniently permit all
operations to be carried by the husbandman. In its characteristics habits
rabbit houses may be sited close to human habitation because rabbits are
not noisy and their faeces are not stenchy-like in poultry and piggery.
Rabbit houses ought to be a simple, cheap labour saving and easy to
operate without compromising adequate ventilation and convenience of
stock and workers. Specific designs of rabbit houses vary from one
location, climate, scale of operation and investment to another. Materials
for construction also determine the durability of the houses and their
facilities.
Rabbit hutches or cages have been recommended to measure 0.9-1.2 m

in length, 0.6-0.9 m in width and 0.6 m in heights with a clearance from
the ground level of 1m. In principle a breeding doe or buck should be
provided with 0.09 m2 floor spaces for each 0.5 kg body weight. In
another words, 5 kg live weight doe would require 0.9 m2 of floor space
for its convenient accommodation.
The type of flooring installed in rabbitry, influences the easy and

frequency of cleaning of the cage. Wire mesh flooring is widely used
where self-cleaning hutches are desired. Other types of flooring are solid
and slat flooring or their combination with wire mesh flooring. Where
solid flooring is installed slanting of the floor and frequent cleaning to
remove urine, faeces and left-over of feed stuff on the floor is suggested.
Slat flooring requires that hard wood slats are spaced closely to avoid
trapping of rabbit feet in between slats. It is advisable to double wire
mesh at base of hutches to avoid trapping of feet, breaking by predators
or weakened by urine.
182
Provision of component facilitates such as nesting box, feeder, waterer,

rack for forage and saltlick are important consideration for the
construction of a rabbit hutch. Different materials ranging from metal
sheets, wood, concrete, mud, plastic to earthen pots are commonly in
use. The choice of material depends on capital, labour and preference of
the owner. Rearing of rabbits in colony cage ranges from 0.37 to 0.55
cm2 for a cage. Colony or cage rearing is often used for raising young
rabbits especially for meat production. A space of 60 x 43cm types of
housing are briefly described as follows:
· Pens: These are partitions in housing where rabbits are kept on

concrete floor surrounded by wire mesh, wooden or concrete
wall. All components facilities are placed on the floor for easy
access by the rabbits. Note that matured rabbit reared as
replacement stock are not suitable for this type of housing.
· Paddocks: These are fenced area in fields where rabbits are
allowed to freely graze on the growing vegetation; portable
hutches are usually placed within the fenced area to provide
accommodation for the rabbit while they remain in the area or at
night.
· Underground Housing: This type of housing permissible for
rabbit to create a natural mode of living similar to condition in
the feral state. However, concrete flooring must be provided
beneath the underground to prevent rabbit burrowing to escape.
Rabbit burrows into the underground where they live most part of
the day but occasionally come up to the surface to feed and drink.
Both the top and underground spaces are fenced to avoid escape.
· Portable Hutches: These are light movable hutches to
accommodate and transfer hutches from one point to another
usually in the backyard where rabbits can be grazed on vegetation
or in paddocks.
· Nesting Boxes: Nesting boxes are special housing facilities
designed to accommodate the dam and the kittens prior to
kindling and during the period of nursing to weaning. They
provide convenient place for kindling for the breeding doe and
prevent kittens from wandering away from their source of
warmth and suckling. Cushioning materials such as succulent
hay, cotton wool, shredded paper or hair are provided by doe or
rearer to aid survival of the kittens at their early life.
Ease of attention and disposal of dirt for a clean environment should

form a strong consideration for a choice of accommodation for rabbit.
183
3.6 Principles of Disease Prevention and Health

Management
Rabbits in good health and vitality are easily recognized by their bright
eyes, alertness to sound, smooth and glossy coat and good appetite. The
immediate surrounding including hutches, equipment, water and feeds
are the points of attack by parasites and diseases. Cleaning and hygiene
of the sanitary conditions of these ports determine the health status of
the rabbitry. Cleaning and hygiene implies prompt disposal of manure,
used bedding materials, stale food, providing wholesome water and feed
and keeping the entire hutch and its components clean and disinfected.
Sanitation in the rabbitry forms the best method for the prevention of
disease outbreak. Similarly, rabbits entering into the rabbitry from an
outside environment must be quarantined for two-three weeks prior to
introducing into the stock. The quarantine provides a period of
observation and treatment of worms and external parasites as well as
other diseases that may be noticed. Isolation of any sick rabbit
immediately on notice of certain habits or symptoms of a disease
condition helps a great deal to prevent spread of diseases in the herd.
Habits associated with disease condition include: listless (or
restlessness), isolation from other mates or sitting hunched up in a
corner, not actively feeding or drinking, dull eyes, rough coats. These
observations are indicative of disease infection and the immediate
attention of veterinary personnel is most desirable. Most disease
conditions of rabbits may be categorised into viral, bacterial, parasitic,
fungal and non-infectious diseases:
a. Non-Infectious Diseases
(i) Cannibalism: Does may sometime be predisposed to killing and

eating up their kittens. Lack of sufficient or good quality feed or
water, nervousness and crowdy accommodation may trigger such
a vice habit. Does found in this vice behaviour consistently
should be culled or disposed off.
(ii) Bloat: This is a condition associated with the distention of the

abdomen due to accumulation of fluid in the stomach as a result
of malfunctioning of the digestive system. Excessive feeding of
carbohydrate-based diets, slimy forage or certain legumes are
predisposing factors. Addition of fat or hay to diets and reduction
of grains in concentrate diet eliminate bloating condition in
rabbits.
184
b. Fungal Diseases
Ringworm: This is a disease of the skin coat caused by fungis

Trichophyhton mentagrophytes. It is characterized by circular loss of
hair at a spot on the skin or thinning of the fur. The affected portion may
be inflamed or covered with bran-like flaky skin debris. Treatment is
often effected by sprinkling of powdered sulfur to nesting boxes or on
infected spot after scrapping off the whitish flakes.
c. Parasitic Diseases
(i) Coccioliosis: Coccioliosis is caused by protozoa known as

Eimeria spp. Infected rabbit show signs of diarrhea, lack of
appetite, rough coat and poor growth rate. The diarrhea may be
accompanied with stained feaces. Treatment with
sulfaquinoxaline often suffices.
(ii) Mange: This is a disorder associated with Sarcoptes scabiei or

Notoedres cati infection. It is characterized by scratching of the
spot of infestation and loss of hair on the chin, nose, head, base of
ears and eyes. Dipping rabbit in lime sulfur preparation has aided
in treating the disease.
d. Bacterial Diseases
(i) Pasteurellosis: This is a disorder of the nasal membrane, air

passages and the lungs. It is highly contagious disease caused by
Pasteurella multocida. Rabbit exhibit snuffles or nasal catarrh
and inflammation of mucous membrane. The bacterial parasite is
responsible for abscesses which may be found in any part of the
body or head.
(ii) Conjunctivitis (Weepy eye): Infected rabbit is prone to rub the
eyes with her feet resulting in watery exudates or discharge from
the eyes, reddening of the eyes and eventual inflammation of the
eye tissues. Treatment is done with eye ointments containing
sulfonamide, antibiotics and/or steroids.
(iii) Pneumonia: This is bacterial infection arising from dampy and
unsanitary hutches and inadequate bedding. The body
temperature of the affected rabbit rises up to 40 0C and the animal
exhibits off-feed, dyspnea and lassitude. Antibiotics such as
oxytetracycline, penicillin or combination of penicillin and
streptomycin are used as effective treatments.
185
4.0 CONCLUSION
The focus of this study unit is on the basic management principles

guiding rabbit production. For a fresh beginner in rabbit rearing, there is
need for clarity on the advantages of choosing rabbitry as an enterprise
among other livestock production engagements. He must have the
understanding of identifying breeds or strains of rabbit required to meet
his production objectives and subsequently selecting for specific traits of
interest. The realisations of the farmer’s objective are predicated on his
knowledge and application of the principles of rabbit management and
husbandry which are concisely discussed under the six themes of the
main content.
5.0 SUMMARY
Domestication of rabbits from the wild is recent. Rabbit production has

several advantages over other farm animal production enterprises
especially in terms of low cost and easily available feedstuff, high
reproductive efficiency and above all, high profitability. As such fresh
beginners, be they farmers or students, must be acquainted with the
basic principles of selecting, breeding, feeding, housing and managing
the health of rabbit to achieve the production objectives.
1. Identify three breeds of rabbit you consider suitable for your local
environment. Describe how you will establish a rabbitry for your
college to enable it sell replacement stock to your community.
2. Describe a housing system for a tenant who lives in an upstair
and desires to keep rabbit for family consumption.
3. Itemise routine daily husbandry activities for feeding and
healthcare of rabbits reared in a backyard hutch.
Aduku, A.O. & Olukosi, J.O. (1990). Rabbit Management in the

Tropics. Abuja, Nigeria: Living Book Series, (Publ.)
Agrodok 20. Agromisa (1989). Backyard Rabbit Farming in the

Tropics. Second Edition. The Netherlands: Wageningen.
Cheeke, P.R. (1984). “Rabbit Nutrition and Feeding: Recent Advances

and Future Perspectives.” The journal of Applied Rabbit
Research 7(1): 31-37.
186
UNIT 4 LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT TIPS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 General Management Considerations
3.2 Economic Consideration
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In spite of all attempts to present this course ‘Principles of Animal

Production’ in a form that offers students the principles and techniques
for livestock production and stimulate practical desires to engage in
actual production or provide expert advisory services to producers, such
efforts would fail if consideration is not given to some additional salient
management tips. This study unit provides a rap-up of information
required to further manage or establish a livestock enterprises bearing in
mind the important economic factors to achieve high productivity and
profitability. The general management tips provided in the unit is
applicable to productive livestock enterprises widely present in the
tropics and particularly in Nigeria where commercial livestock
production may be described as being at infancy. It is envisaged that the
management tips would assist learners gain insights to both production
and management aspects of a profitable livestock enterprise
management as it may concern various farm animal species.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
· recount some salient points required to fortify their knowledge of

managing different classes of livestock
· explain the economic considerations in livestock enterprise
management.
187
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 General Management Considerations
It is important to note that the more time manager can personally devote
to the maintenance of the herd the better the chances of success. It is
also crucial for the producer to have sound knowledge about animal
management because ignorance of certain basic facts or principles can
result in great loss of stock or income. Experience in most instances
guarantees confidence to succeed. Suggested practical steps or tips are
meant to inspire confidence in farm animal production.
· Stockmanship. This concerns relationship and rapport between a

husbandman and his stock. A good stockman is firm and
irregularities pays attention to the needs of his stock. He is highly
sensitive to and watches for in the behaviour or condition of
individual animal. He also anticipates problems ahead of action
or inaction. He carries out his routine activities with calmness and
diligence, and minimises upsetting or scaring the herd or flock of
stock. Even in an attempt to restrain or attend to a member of the
herd, calmness of the herd is minimally disrupted through the use
of retraining materials or facilities that guarantee peace.
· Cleanliness and Hygiene: Maintenance of good hygiene in the

livestock farm environment does not only reduce incidence of
diseases and parasites in farm animals but it also has a beneficial
effect on staff morale to work in clean environment. Routine farm
operations should allow for periodic cleaning, emptying and
resting of pens for sufficient time before stocking. Cleaning of a
used pen must be immediate involving scrubbing, washing and
disinfecting and left dry to break lifecycle of parasites and
recurrence of diseases.
· Evaluation and Selection for Replacement: The stock

population of a farm is dynamic. New purchases and selection
from the existing herd is being consistently undertaken for
replacement. Evaluation and selection of desirable animal is the
first test for considering eligibility for the replacement of old,
non-performing or disposed animal. New purchases from open
market scarcely have records to use as basis for evaluation. The
stockman in such circumstance is left with option of visual
evaluation or the physical appraisal/scoring technique.
Traditionally this involves observation of physical appearance
relating to its health, alertness, agility and absence of other
defects. The relative meatiness or physical body condition may
be determined on the basis of a combination of physical feel at
188
various points such as the pin bones, tail setting, loin area,
backbone or ribs. A simplified guide is provided in the table
below:
Table 4.1: Livestock Condition Scoring System

Score Description Assessment of fat covers over: Backbone,
transverse spiral process or hips.
0 Emaciated Exposed, no cover on bones
1 Poor Bones prominent, little cover
2 Moderate Bones easily felt without palm pressure
3 Good Bones easily felt with firm palm pressure
4 Fat Bone cannot be felt with firm pressure
5 Grossly fat Further deposition of fat impossible
Besides its traditional use in identifying, selecting and purchasing

stock, physical appraisal is quite useful as a guide for
management and feed requirement. For example in beef
production enterprise, animals identified to have finished in terms
of the required conformation and deposition of fat may be culled
for slaughter or market while those that are yet to meet the target
are offered high level diet to finish early. In few instances feed
quality is reduced to lower the rate of fat deposition.
· Record-Keeping: In order to measure both the technical and

economic efficiency of a livestock enterprise, it is essential to
keep some basic records. These should cover all aspects of the
enterprise especially those concerned with the evaluation of the
efficiency of the enterprise. For example, sire or dam
productivity, lactation or growth performance of individual
animal may be measured. The type and detail of a record depends
on the information it is intended to provide and the accuracy of
the recorder. The record sheet need not be over ambitious in
showing too many details that lead to ambiguity. Record must be
clear, dated and should indicate the period covered by
information e.g. monthly and six monthly basis. A comparison of
individual farm records with other farms or regional averages
enables farms to assess their performance or efficiency as well as
competition. One other important use of record keeping is to
maintain overall productivity in the herd by having a culling
policy, so that animals are moved as soon as performance falls
below predetermined due to age, injury, lameness, poor litter-
size, poor mothering ability, low fertility are rationales for
culling. Note that lifetime performance of a stock will be
necessary for the selection of its offspring or progeny for
replacement.
189
· Water and Feed Consumption: The importance of water for

consumption, cleaning and ambient temperature control in the
tropical herd cannot be ignored in the productivity of stock. The
absence of regular supply of clean, fresh water is often the first
factor that limits feed intake. While specific objectives of the
enterprise and the management system adopted dictate the
sophistication of the feeding method. Feeding and management
must be geared to optimize performance. The small-scale rural
producer, for example, will attempt to maximize the use of
cheaper, lower quality feedstuff. It is expected that stock
produced under such feeding condition will experience slower
growth rate as a consequence of limitation of farm animal to
utilise bulky fibrous and low quality feedstuff. Under commercial
conditions different priorities may give feed utilisation efficiency
and cost, growth rate, carcass leanness and grading according to
the relative economic advantages they provide. Other major
decisions relating to feed system to be adopted may include:
(i) Restricted or ad lib feeding: Restricted feeding is known for its

firm control on feed wastage and feed cost, excess fattiness in
carcasses. Ad lib feeding saves labour gives faster growth rate
and larger carcass weight, as well as removes competition at the
feed trough which must be designed to operate efficiently to
minimize waste. Both restricted and ad lib feeding methods
should be combined to yield the most desirable result.
(ii) Meal or Pellets: Pelleted feeds have consistently shown to be

superior to meal by as much as about 5% in promoting live
weight gain and food conversion efficiency. The marginal gains
must be compared with extra cost of pellets above the cost of
meal.
(iii) Separate Feeding System: Handling of bulky feed separately

from protein concentrate has proven to optimize economic
efficiency of production. In such system for example bulky feed
such as fresh cassava roots are dry and fed directly to pigs to
appetite twice weekly. Protein concentrate is then fed daily
according to a fixed rate (500g for weaners up to 50kg live
weight, 75g for finishers above 50kg). The system maximise
added value from farm production. Nutrient balance may be sub-
optimal but it is highly efficient in term of economic of
production.
(iv) Special Feeding or Lifecycle Feeding Techniques are widely

gaining importance due to their timely effectiveness. Examples of
such techniques are:
190
· Creep Feeding – As the name implies feeding young animals

especially piglets in nest or creep where the dams have no access
to consume the feed. Weaning feed for young animal can be
easily consumed by adults if enough protection is not provided to
deter the adult pen mates. Creep feeding enhances growth of the
piglets, helps the digestive system to adjust to change from milk
to solid diet prior to weaning and prevents nutritional stress
associated with ‘suckling pressure’ of the dam.
· Topping: This is another form of feeding specially applied to dry

animals in preparation for breeding. It is offered three-four weeks
prior to breeding. The feed is required to be of relatively high
quality in terms of energy, protein and mineral-vitamins to enable
growth and development of body tissues needed for efficient
reproduction. Both breeding male and female may benefit from
topping at the beginning of breeding season. It may also be
extended to pregnant female during foetus growth.
3.2 Economic Consideration
The potential profitability of a livestock enterprise varies considerably

from country to country and between regions within a country. In either
large or small scale production, prospective livestock producers need to
consider some economic points or questions before undertaking an
enterprise particularly involving live animals or animal products to
avoid disillusionment and loss of money.
(i) Is there an assured market for the stock or animal product

intended to be produced. Closely related to this is how to sell the
products without incurring too high cost? Is the price on offer
adequate for products adequate to justify cost and profitability?
Will it be necessary to site the farm closer to the market and what
is the possibility to expand the market or production in future for
increased income?
(ii) Do I have sufficient funds to get started? Money is needed for
fixed capital costs i.e. buildings and equipment and working
capital to pay for stock, feed and labour for the first year of
operation. Note that cash expense tends to increase in the first
year and cash receipt takes similar duration to begin to come after
the take-off of the enterprise.
(iii) What are the possible directions for expansion or integration to
enable the enterprise take advantage of various opportunities-
production or m arketing available. Is there more suitable stock or
breeds available for the type of system or operations in managing
the enterprise?
191
(iv) Do I have unhindered access to input supplies at suitable costs

especially for feed resources, water, drugs, power as well as
infrastructures such as access road and construction materials?
(v) Do I have the requisite managerial competent to engage in the
enterprise or employ competent experts and labour force to
undertake production at desirable level.
(vi) Specifically important to these considerations is the overall
security of the farm against corrupt tendencies of the employees,
over invoicing of purchases by contracting agent, pilfering or
organised act of robbery at every unit of the enterprise.
It is also important to bear in mind a few concepts of financial and

economic analyses to enable quick determination of profitability.
Financial analysis has to do with returns to the farmer or operator of
enterprise. It gives an indication of the profitability level of the
enterprise when both costs of production and the returns are considered.
The cost of production consist of variable and fixed costs while gross
return or gross revenues concerns the total value of production. The
profit is the difference between gross return and total cost of production.
Fixed cost is derived from expenses incurred in acquiring the
breeding/replacement stock, housing, waterers, feeders’ crates,
measuring scale, farm land, equipment and infrastructures. Variable
costs arise from expenditures pertaining to concentrate feed, hay, labour,
drugs, transportation, marketing and miscellaneous expenses. Net
returns or profit is derived from the gross profit after deduction of
marketing, administrative costs and taxes have been made. It is
advisable for beginner to raise his own stock and initiate his own project
within his own resources without any external source of funds.
Economic analysis covers profitability of the entire farm enterprise. It

discusses pay-back period, break-even analysis, benefit-cost ratio,
internal rate of return and net present worth which are indicators of
profitability and sustainability of enterprise.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Producers must strive to integrate all considerations relating to the well

being and productivity of his animals with those relating to cost-
effectiveness. Success in this regard invariably depends on relatively
high degree of attention to details, technical and economic factors as
well as competence of the operator.
192
5.1 SUMMARY
The theme of this study unit is by no means exhaustive. Management

tips for livestock production enterprise intends to stimulate desire for
profitable engagement in livestock operation while providing additional
information to understand principles of animal production. Primary
focus is on general and economic consideration in establishing and
maintaining a profitable farm but greater success relates to technical and
managerial competence and experience of the operator, scale of
production and ability to pay attention to details.
1. Describe general and economic considerations you need to take

in establishing a named livestock production enterprise.
2. Explain the usefulness of the following operations:
a. Record keeping
b. Water and feed consumption
c. Financial analysis
d. Stockmanship
Holness, D.H. (1991). “Pigs.” The Tropical Agriculturalist. (Pp. 101-

130.) London, U.K: Macmillan (Publ.)
Devendra, C & Fuller, M.F. (1970). Pig Production in the Tropics.

Oxford, England: Oxford Univ. Press (Publ.)
Olukosi, J.O. & Erhabor, P.O. (1988). Introduction to Farm

Management Economics: Principles and Applications. (Pp. 77-
93.) Zaria, Nigeria: Agitab (Publ.)
193

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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COURSE CODE: ANP202

COURSE TITLE: PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL

Course Team Dr. Samson O. Aribido (Developer/Writer) - KSU,

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria

First Printed 2011

All Rights Reserved

This course guide provides a synopsis of the teaching schedules into

Each unit entails activities expected to be covered in one week of study.

What You Will Learn in this Course?

The course aims at providing an understanding of the established facts

them increase production, improve productivity and cope with

· Appreciate historical and current advances in the development of

The thirteen study units contained in the course are as follows:

Unit 1 An Overview of Animal Production: Concepts, Roles,

Unit 1 Livestock Breeding in the Tropical Environment

Unit 1 General Principles of Pig Production

The first unit provides an overview of animal production. It also

Study units 2, 3 and 4 describe peculiar influence of the tropical

Units 5 and 6 illustrate the principles of animal breeding and their

extended summary of management tips for livestock production not

Tutor-marked assignments (TMAs) account for 30per cent of your total

Appropriate time schedule for assignments and examination have been

The overall evaluation of students consist of two phases – one phase

The TMA as a matter of compulsion must be submitted to your tutor

Final Examination and Grading

Course Marking Scheme

Assessment Marks Obtainable

2. End of Course Examination = 70% of Course Work

Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials

Tutorials covering a total of 16 hours have been slated to assist you in

· If you do not have clear understanding of the study, reference

Course Code ANP202

Course Team Dr. Samson O. Aribido (Developer/Writer) - KSU,

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria

First Printed 2011

All Rights Reserved

Module 1 ………………………………… ……………………… 1

Unit 1 An Overview of Animal Production: Concepts, Roles,

Module 2 ………………………………… ……………………… 55

Unit 1 Livestock Breeding in the Tropical Environment ….. 55

Module 3 ………………………………… ……..……………… 114

Unit 1 General Principles of Pig Production…………..……. 114

Unit 1 An Overview of Animal Production: Concepts, Roles,

UNIT 1 AN OVERVIEW OF ANIMAL PRODUCTION:

In this unit, students will be introduced to the concept of animal

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

· explain the concept of animal production and your preference for

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Concept of Animal Production

Animal production is an aspect of agricultural production. Agriculture is

Since animal production forms a central theme in the provision of

Under the traditional practice and knowledge system, taboos, custom

In addition, same herders are traditionally bound to a specific coat

In some instances, the traditional skills have been of tremendous to

In animal breeding, genetic studies have made provisions for crossing