buildings

Article
Integrating BIM–IoT and Autonomous Mobile Robots for
Construction Site Layout Printing
Fahad Iqbal 1 , Shiraz Ahmed 1, *, Fayiz Amin 1 , Siddra Qayyum 2 and Fahim Ullah 2

1 Department of Civil Engineering, Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences & Technology,
Topi 23640, Pakistan; [email protected] (F.I.); [email protected] (F.A.)
2 School of Surveying and Built Environment, University of Southern Queensland,
Springfield Central, QLD 4300, Australia; [email protected] (S.Q.); [email protected] (F.U.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The traditional methods of marking construction site layouts using manual techniques
such as chalk lines are prone to human errors, resulting in discrepancies between blueprints and
actual layouts. This has serious implications for project delivery, construction, costs and, eventually,
project success. However, this issue can be resolved through autonomous robots and construction
automation in line with Industry 4.0 and 5.0 goals. Construction automation enables workers to
concentrate on the construction phase and not worry about manual site markups. This leads to an
enhancement in their productivity. This study aims to improve the floor layout printing technique by
introducing a framework that integrates building information modeling (BIM) and the Internet of
Things (IoT), i.e., BIM–IoT and autonomous mobile robots (AMR). The development process focuses
on three key components: a marking tool, an IoT-based AMR and BIM. The BIM-based tools extract
and store coordinates on the cloud platform. The AMR, developed using ESP32 and connected to
the Google Firestore cloud platform, leverages IoT technology to retrieve the data and draw site
layout lines accordingly. Further, this research presents a prototype of an automated robot capable of
accurately printing construction site layouts. A design science research (DSR) method is employed
in this study that includes a comprehensive review of the existing literature and usage of AMRs in
construction layout printing. Subsequently building upon the extant literature, an AMR is developed
and experiments are conducted to evaluate the system’s performance. The experiment reveals that
Citation: Iqbal, F.; Ahmed, S.; Amin, the system’s precision falls within a range of ±15 mm and its angle accuracy is within ±4 degrees.
F.; Qayyum, S.; Ullah, F. Integrating Integrating robotic automation, IoT and BIM technologies enhances the efficiency and precision of
BIM–IoT and Autonomous Mobile
construction layout printing. The findings provide insights into the potential benefits of deploying
Robots for Construction Site Layout
AMRs in construction projects, reducing site layout errors and improving construction productivity.
Printing. Buildings 2023, 13, 2212.
This study also adds to the body of knowledge around construction automation in line with Industry
https://doi.org/10.3390/
4.0 and 5.0 endeavors.
buildings13092212

Academic Editor: Farnad Nasirzadeh Keywords: autonomous mobile robots; BIM; construction automation; construction site planning;
Received: 1 August 2023
IoT; layout printing
Revised: 28 August 2023
Accepted: 29 August 2023
Published: 30 August 2023
1. Introduction
The construction industry has been lagging behind other sectors, such as manufac-
turing, for years in terms of productivity [1]. According to McKinsey Global Institute,
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
productivity in manufacturing has nearly doubled whereas in the same period, construc-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
tion has experienced stagnant growth since 2005 [2]. Nowadays, one of the biggest concerns
This article is an open access article
is the lack of skilled construction workers or the general availability of construction workers
distributed under the terms and
and the application of innovative technologies [3]. Construction automation, particularly
conditions of the Creative Commons
robotics-based automation, can reduce some of the pressure brought on by the labor short-
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
age and help boost productivity [4–6]. Several sectors have benefited from the Industry 4.0
4.0/).
revolution to create programs that use automated technologies for handling operations [7].

Buildings 2023, 13, 2212. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13092212 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

Buildings 2023, 13, 2212 2 of 17

However, there is still a long way to go for the construction industry in terms of digital
transformation and making full use of the potential technologies [8].
In the construction industry, project inefficiencies such as poor productivity, cost
overruns and the need for rework pose a significant challenge [9,10]. Remarkably, 90% of
projects encounter cost overruns [11], resulting in profound financial ramifications. It is
projected that the implementation of productivity enhancements has the potential to yield
a remarkable annual cost savings of approximately USD 1.63 trillion to the industry [12].
Hence, it is unsurprising that enhancing project efficiency has become a top priority for
construction leaders. The study found that, among the various factors contributing to costs,
construction site layout plays a crucial role and can account for up to 25% of a project’s
expenses [13]. One of the main reasons for this is the high labor costs resulting from a
shortage of skilled workers. The lack of expertise or the ability to minimize errors leads to
delays, further adding to the project costs [14]. Therefore, to meet the rising demands of
the construction industry, automation of construction processes to eliminate inefficiencies
has become an urgent and essential task for contractors and industry leaders alike.
Construction site layout operation uses floor-marking elements, including the position
of door windows, free-access flooring and dry walls. To mark their future positions on
the floor and other surfaces at the construction site, the construction workers first use
measuring tapes to create marks and lines with chalk. This process often requires multiple
people with a high level of skill to carry out this activity.
Thousands of lines and marks must be drawn manually while constructing large
buildings and infrastructures, requiring high precision and time from workers. Depending
on the expertise of the on-site personnel, such as carpenters, standard manual layout-
printing procedures have varying degrees of precision [15]. Additionally, one of the
primary issues for construction rework is often the differences between the on-site layout
and the blueprint [16]. The traditional method is suitable for small-scale labor because
it heavily depends on workers’ skills and may not be useful for mega projects [17]. The
usage of manual methods leads to layout clashes, resulting in variations in mega projects.
Earlier studies suggest that the total cost of rework due to construction errors in layout
could range between 5% to 25% of the total rework [18].
In recent years, surveying technology has advanced remarkably. Measuring tools like
the total station and laser scanner are frequently utilized on building sites. Prior research
to enhance the effectiveness of the lining/marking job performed by these devices can
be categorized as a support technology. Support technology is intended to improve the
efficiency of the manual or automated marking process [19]. Construction workers will be
more productive if they can focus on installing building components while the marking
process is automated through robots [20]. These robots could be programmed to interpret
data from CAD models and accurately mark reference points or lines on construction sites.
Building information modeling (BIM) is a cutting-edge technology that revolutionizes
how construction projects are designed, managed and executed [21]. It represents the
functional and physical aspects of an infrastructure or building, integrating various data
elements such as 3D models, spatial relationships, material specifications and project
schedules. This technology streamlines the construction process, improves efficiency,
reduces rework and saves time and costs [22]. The ability of BIM to provide detailed
and accurate information makes it an ideal tool for automating construction processes,
especially when combined with robotics. By leveraging BIM data, robotic systems can be
integrated into the construction processes to perform complex and repetitive tasks with
higher precision and reliability [23]. This integration offers a unique response to mitigate
the challenges of automation, curb the effects of labor shortages and improve productivity
in the construction industry [24].
Over the last two decades, robotics in construction (RiC) has emerged as a diverse
and interdisciplinary field, integrating technologies like additive manufacturing, deep
learning and BIM [25]. The rapidly expanding literature covers various applications, from
robotic excavators and construction drones to specialized robots like façade cleaners [26,27].
Buildings 2023, 13, 2212 3 of 17

RiC promises to revolutionize the construction industry, improving efficiency, safety and
sustainability. However, more research and collaboration is needed to fully exploit its
potential.
Unlike industrial robots, the benefits of RiC are not yet fully utilized in the construction
sector due to its slow adoption and lagging behind the technology adoption curve [28,29].
One of the challenges in developing and implementing RiC is the need for expert knowledge
from both robotics and construction. The situation is further exacerbated due to the
involvement of various stakeholders, including general contractors, robot developers and
researchers who may not share the same views about automation and robotics adoption [30].
Furthermore, due to a lack of interoperability between the design and robotics, data must
be manually transferred and integrated between the phases of design and construction,
which takes much time, is tedious and is prone to error. Therefore, practical implementation
and individual handling are significantly more difficult. Added to this is the constantly
increasing complexity of technical innovations, data communication and the coordination
between everyone involved in the construction project.
1. To address this interoperability gap for the layout marking process, the authors
propose a framework for the automated extraction and analysis of floor plans from
BIM models using Dynamo. The data extracted are then input into the Windows
application developed in this study to determine and draw an optimal path for
the IoT-powered robot. Finally, the data are uploaded to the robot via the Internet
using the Firestore real-time database to draw the floor plans on an actual scale on
the construction site. The proposed framework uses a set of algorithms for robotic
systems to automatically perform the printing operations based on the extracted and
analyzed input data from BIM. This framework will facilitate accurate and precise site
layout printing operations by utilizing the information extracted from BIM models in
real-time. Accordingly, the objectives of this study include:
2. To extract data from BIM models using Dynamo and process it through a Windows
application to establish an efficient workflow for transforming the BIM data into a
format suitable for the layout printing robot.
3. To develop a comprehensive framework that enables smooth communication and data
exchange between BIM models and robotic systems through the IoT.
The novelty of this study lies in its comprehensive approach to addressing the chal-
lenges of construction layout printing through the integration of BIM, IoT and AMR. While
previous research has explored individual aspects of construction automation or robotics in
layout printing, the primary gap this study addresses is the lack of interoperability between
BIM and robotics, which has hindered the full realization of the benefits of automation
in construction. By developing a framework that enables seamless communication and
data exchange between BIM and AMR through the IoT, this study aims to optimize the
layout printing process and improve construction productivity. The integration of BIM, IoT
and AMR sets this study apart from others. It highlights its importance in paving a new
innovative way for the widespread adoption of automation in the construction industry,
leading to enhanced project delivery and cost-effectiveness.
The proposed framework for construction layout printing has far-reaching applications
and benefits across the construction sector. Firstly, large-scale construction projects, such as
commercial buildings and infrastructure developments, stand to gain the most from this
automation. The use of autonomous robots for precise layout printing can significantly
reduce the time and effort required, leading to faster project completion and reduced labor
costs. Additionally, the improved accuracy and data exchange through BIM integration
can enhance project coordination and decision-making, resulting in improved project
efficiency, reduced errors, minimized rework and increased cost-efficiency. Furthermore,
the technology can benefit smaller construction projects and contractors, allowing them
to compete more effectively and deliver high-quality results with minimum workforce
and time constraints. BIM–IoT integration for the site layout process enables construction
professionals to focus on more critical tasks, thus enhancing workforce productivity.
Buildings 2023, 13, 2212 4 of 17

The research methodology employed in this study follows a systematic approach to

comprehensively investigate the technological interoperability between BIM and RiCs with
a specific focus on construction site marking. The study is initiated with the systematic
literature review (SLR) method, enabling a thorough analysis of the most recent publications
on the application of the BIM–IoT framework and layout marking robots. Identifying
research gaps in the literature highlighted the need for a BIM–IoT framework to develop
a BIM-integrated AMR for construction layout printing. Therefore, the design science
research (DSR) methodology was adopted to tackle this topic [31]. Following the tenets of
design science research (DSR), a creative BIM–IoT framework customized for the specific
task of construction layout marking was conceived. In order to verify its feasibility and
efficiency, the framework was put into action through a sequence of demonstrations and
meticulously planned laboratory experiments. The results of these experiments were
subsequently juxtaposed with existing research to evaluate the suitability and potential
advantages of the newly introduced BIM–IoT framework. This paper is structured as
follows. Section 2 presents a review of the pertinent literature and discusses relevant
studies on robotics system designs and existing research in construction automation. It
sets the foundation for the proposed framework’s novelty and addresses the research gap.
Section 3 details the proposed approach, including BIM integration, Windows application
development and the AMR design for layout printing. Section 4 presents the results of the
experiments, demonstrating the accuracy and efficiency of the proposed system. Pertinent
discussions and comparisons with other studies are presented in Section 5. Finally, Section 6
concludes the study, summarizes its contributions and presents the limitations and future
directions of research.

2. Existing Robotic Systems for Construction Site Layout Drawings

Previous studies have attempted to achieve accurate and autonomous marking op-
erations through AMRs. Tanaka et al. [32] developed a system that could independently
navigate and draw on a ceiling board. The system had an accuracy of 10 mm and it took
approximately 8 min to draw a single point. The robot relied on a laser range finder (LRF)
to locate the three pillars’ margins at a building site. However, the accuracy of the markings
was compromised if a pillar was too far away or if a fire-resistant material was used to
cover it. Abidin et al. [33] developed a mobile robotic system for autonomous floor marking
during trade fairs or exhibitions. The marking accuracy of this method was about 10 mm.
The accuracy depended on a camera situated on top of the designated marking area. How-
ever, the setup was time-consuming and expensive since each installation position required
the camera to be calibrated, which had to be positioned on the ceiling. The viewing field of
the camera also restricted the marking area.
Another marking robot developed by Tanaka et al. [34] consisted of a mobile self-
positioning robot with a drawing system. This robot was used to mark and fit the various
devices on the ceiling board. In this task, the marking precision of ±10 mm was satisfactory
but insufficient for building construction. Inoue et al. [35] presented a system that used an
LRF and a total station to find the position of the robots. This system achieved a marking
accuracy of about 2 mm and it took approximately 2 min to mark the target area once the
robot reached it. However, the system was unable to gauge the mobile robot’s attitude
angle while it was traveling and no reported navigation technique allowed it to move
between marking sites. Kitahara et al. [19] and Lee et al. [36] presented a robotic system
that could precisely draw line segments on floors and walls of construction sites with a
precision of 1 mm or less. However, their setup required a human worker to move the
robot via a remote command; it was not automated.
Previous studies in the field have often depended on manual operator intervention or
robot position resets for each task, resulting in laborious and repetitive work, ultimately
decreasing overall work productivity. Additionally, none of these studies have explored
integrating the process with BIM. This presents a critical gap. Accordingly, there is a need
for a novel robotic marking system that minimizes reliance on manual labor, automates
Buildings 2023, 13, 2212 5 of 17

repetitive tasks and allows the workforce to focus on other construction activities. Devel-
oping low-cost IoT-based robots becomes imperative to achieve this objective. Various
other industries have already leveraged IoT platforms and relevant frameworks to develop
navigational robots, making it a promising avenue for cost-effective and efficient robot
integration in construction.
Kamarudin et al. [37] developed an IoT-based mobile robot with a line-following
mechanism for an automated guided vehicle (AGV) application, controlled via a mobile
app communicating through the IoT. The system used radio frequency identification
(RFID) tags for location identification. Karahan et al. [38] created an IoT-based mobile
robot position controlling system with Raspberry Pi, allowing users to control the robot
remotely through a web-based control panel. Nafais et al. [39] designed an IoT-based
intelligent cargo carrier robot capable of providing location, orientation, obstacle and
surface texture information in real-time. The system also enabled remote monitoring
and control and was programmed to respond intelligently to sensor-detected conditions.
These projects showcase the integration of IoT technology with mobile robots, facilitating
advanced functionalities suitable for various applications like logistics and warehouse
automation. Nevertheless, the applications of such AMRs are limited in construction site
layout drawings.

3. Research Methodology
This section presents the conceptual framework and detailed methodology adopted in
this study. It provides a detailed overview of the carefully organized stages of the current
research and shares implementation details of the proposed system.

3.1. Proposed Framework

The automated construction site layout printing process presented in this study in-
volves utilizing multiple components and technologies. It includes a BIM model for
generating plans [40], the development of a Windows application for processing data and
an IoT-based mobile robot for printing the layout. This integrated system enables automa-
tion and streamlines the site layout printing process, offering numerous benefits such as
increased efficiency, improved precision and reduced labor requirements [41]. Figure 1
presents an overview of the framework proposed for BIM–IoT integrated construction
layout printing through AMRs. The proposed framework has multiple layers of operation.
It includes a BIM application layer, a Windows application layer, a network layer, an AMR
layer and a server layer.
The BIM model in the BIM application layer serves as the foundation for the layout
printing process. It provides accurate and detailed information for different elements
of floor plans and the site layout [42]. The information is extracted using Dynamo. A
Windows application is also developed in the Windows application layer that plays a crucial
role in processing the data extracted from the BIM model. The application serves as an
intermediary between the BIM model and the mobile robot (the AMR layer), transforming
the extracted information into a format suitable for printing and storing it on a cloud
database (server layer). The system is connected through IoTs and networks through the
network layer. The mobile robot is the physical entity responsible for drawing the layout of
the construction site.
Buildings 2023, 13, 2212
Buildings 2023, 13, 2212 6 of 17
6 of 17

Figure 1. Overview of the proposed framework.

Figure 1. Overview of the proposed framework.
3.2. BIM Model and Information Extraction
3.2. BIM Model
In this and
study, Information
a BIM Extraction
model was developed using Revit 2018 [41]. The model consisted
of a In
floor
thisplan of 480
study, a BIMft2 as depicted
model in Figure 2 using
was developed [43]. The floor
Revit 2018plan consisted
[41]. The model of two
consisted
rooms of 10 × 13 ft with a window of width 4ft and a Veranda of 20 × 11 ft. For testing
of a floor plan of 480 ft2 as depicted in Figure 2 [43]. The floor plan consisted of two rooms
purposes, the floor plan was scaled down by 1:8. The floor plan serves as the basis for
of 10 × 13 ft with a window of width 4ft and a Veranda of 20 × 11 ft. For testing purposes,
extracting the necessary data from the Revit model. To extract the data from the floor plan,
the
thefloor plan was
coordinates scaled
of the startdown by points
and end 1:8. The
of floor planwere
elements serves as the using
obtained basis Dynamo,
for extracting
a the
necessary data from tool
visual programming the for
Revit model.
Revit ToThese
[44,45]. extract the data were
coordinates from then
the floor
storedplan, the coordi-
in a local
nates of the start and
file stored on the desktop. end points of elements were obtained using Dynamo, a visual pro-
gramming tool coordinates
Extracting for Revit [44,45]. These coordinates
using Dynamo enables the were thenofstored
collection precise ininformation
a local file stored
about the elements
on the desktop. in the floor plan, specifically walls and windows. The Dynamo script
adopted in this study is shown in Figure 3. Critical data related to the
Extracting coordinates using Dynamo enables the collection of precise information positioning and
dimensions of walls and other site features can be obtained by accessing the start and end
about the elements in the floor plan, specifically walls and windows. The Dynamo script
points of these elements. This information is essential for accurately replicating the layout
adopted in this study is shown in Figure 3. Critical data related to the positioning and
on the construction site. The current model extracts data for walls and windows only;
dimensions
however, it can of walls and other
be extended site features
to other featureswithcan start
be obtained by accessing the start and end
and end coordinates.
points of these elements. This information is essential for accurately replicating the layout
on the construction site. The current model extracts data for walls and windows only;
however, it can be extended to other features with start and end coordinates.
Buildings 2023, 13, Buildings
2212 2023, 13, 2212 7 of 17
Buildings 2023, 13, 2212 7 of 17

Figure
Figure 2. Revit floor 2. Revit floor plan.
plan.

Figure
Figure 3. Dynamo script3.for
Dynamo script of
automation fordata
automation offrom
extraction data the
extraction from the Revit file.
Revit file.
Figure 3. Dynamo script for automation of data extraction from the Revit file.
3.3. Developed
3.3. Developed Windows Windows Application
Application
In addition the
In addition to developing to developing
BIM modelthe
BIM model and
andBIM model and
extracting
extracting dataextracting
data from data
from Revit,
Revit, from Revit, a Win
aaWindows-
Windows-
based application
developed to process the extracted data and upload it and
was
based application was also developed also developed to process the extracted data to a upload
cloud platform for the mobile robot to access. The user interface of the
cloud platform for the mobile robot to access. The user interface of the developed window developed wi
application,
application, which provideswhich provides aenvironment
a user-friendly user-friendlyfor
environment for data
data processing, canprocessing,
be seen can b
in Figure 4. The application was developed using Python, leveraging PyQt, FirestorePyQt,
in Figure 4. The application was developed using Python, leveraging and Firestor
Buildings 2023, 13, 2212 8 of 17
Buildings 2023, 13, 2212 8 of 17

in Figure 4. The application was developed using Python, leveraging PyQt, Firestore and
Matplotlibtotoenhance
Matplotlib enhance itsits functionality.
functionality. TheThe developed
developed application
application has has various
various features,
features,
such
suchasasloading
loadingthe Revit
the Revitfile, loading
file, layouts,
loading displaying
layouts, floorfloor
displaying plans and and
plans uploading the the
uploading
plans
planstotothe
therobot.
robot. It also instructs the robots on when to to print
print the
the layout
layout through
through the
theprint
print control function. The x and y coordinates can be changed or varied in the
control function. The x and y coordinates can be changed or varied in the application application
through
throughvarious
varioustools where
tools where needed.
needed.

Figure4.4.Developed
Figure Developed window
window application
application for for layout
layout printing
printing through
through the robot.
the robot.

To
Todesign
design thetheuser
userinterface
interfaceof of
thethe
window
window application,
application, the the
PyQt library
PyQt was was
library utilized.
utilized.
Qt Designer is a powerful tool that allows developers to create interactive
Qt Designer is a powerful tool that allows developers to create interactive and visually and visually
appealing
appealinggraphical
graphical user interfaces
user [46].[46].
interfaces Firebase’s Firestore
Firebase’s featurefeature
Firestore provides the necessary
provides the neces-
remote data access and storage functionality. This integration allows
sary remote data access and storage functionality. This integration allows seamless com- seamless communi-
cation between the Windows application and the cloud platform, enabling efficient and
munication between the Windows application and the cloud platform, enabling efficient
convenient availability of the extracted data for subsequent analysis and utilization by the
and convenient availability of the extracted data for subsequent analysis and utilization
mobile robot [47]. Furthermore, for the visualization of the data collected from the Revit
by the mobile robot [47]. Furthermore, for the visualization of the data collected from the
model in the Windows application, the Matplotlib library was utilized [48]. The overall
Revit
data model
flow in theinWindows
the Windows application,
application can be seenthe inMatplotlib
Figure 5. library was utilized [48]. The
overall data flow in the Windows application
In the developed Windows application, coordinates can be of
seenthein Figure
wall 5. are extracted
elements
In theand
by Dynamo developed
stored inWindows
a local file.application, coordinates
These coordinates of the into
are imported walltheelements
robot. The are ex-
tracted by Dynamo and stored in a local file. These coordinates
Windows application sorts the coordinates based on their starting points and proximity. are imported into the ro-
Itbot.
addsThe Windows
virtual application
navigation lines tosorts
bridge thegaps,
coordinates
ensuringbased on their
the robot’s starting
smooth points and
movement
proximity.
without It adds
printing virtuallines.
additional navigation linespath
The robot’s to bridge gaps, ensuring
is displayed on the screen the torobot’s
ensuresmooth
it
follows
movement the Revit
without model and finally,
printing the data
additional areThe
lines. stored on the
robot’s Firestore
path cloud. on
is displayed Thethefree
screen
tier of Firebase Cloud provides 1 GB of space, allowing for 20,000 document
to ensure it follows the Revit model and finally, the data are stored on the Firestore cloud. writes and
50,000 document
The free tier of reads per day.
Firebase Cloud Theprovides
usage limit 1 GBcanofbespace,
increased by opting
allowing for for premium
20,000 document
tiers
writes and 50,000 document reads per day. The usage limit can be increasedremotely
[49]. The Windows application also enables users to start or stop the robot by opting for
when
premiumnew floor plansThe
tiers [49]. are Windows
sent for navigation.
application This streamlined
also enables users datatoflow
startsimplifies
or stop the therobot
process, enabling efficient robot navigation in complex environments.
remotely when new floor plans are sent for navigation. This streamlined data flow sim-
plifies the process, enabling efficient robot navigation in complex environments.
Buildings 2023, 13, 2212 9 9of
of 17

Figure
Figure 5.
5. Dataflow
Dataflow diagram
diagram of
of the
the window
window application.
application.

3.4. Proposed Robotic System Design

The robot developed for this study is based on the studies of Inoue et al. [50] and
Tanaka et et al.
al.[32].
[32].The
The developed
developed mobile
mobile robot
robot consists
consists of two
of two mainmain components,
components, as
as illus-
illustrated
trated in Figure
in Figure 6. These
6. These includeinclude
a robot a robot
with awith a self-position
self-position measurement
measurement systemsystem
and a
and a marking
marking system.system. Theutilizes
The robot robot utilizes
odometry odometry for localization
for localization based on based on thecoordi-
the input input
coordinates. The mobile system is equipped with two independent
nates. The mobile system is equipped with two independent driving wheels and a caster driving wheels and
a caster wheel, allowing it to navigate toward the target point using
wheel, allowing it to navigate toward the target point using BIM data stored on the cloud.BIM data stored on
the cloud. By utilizing the rotational angles of its driving wheels, the
By utilizing the rotational angles of its driving wheels, the robot employs dead reckoningrobot employs dead
reckoning
to follow itsto predetermined
follow its predetermined path. A benchpoint
path. A benchpoint is neededisfor needed for the
the robot robot tothe
to initiate initiate
lay-
the layout printer. This can be set through the survey point of the
out printer. This can be set through the survey point of the BIM model. The robot makesBIM model. The robot
makes adjustments
minor minor adjustments to ensure
to ensure positional
positional accuracy
accuracy at theatfirst
the start
first start if necessary.
if necessary. WithWiththe
the designated point confirmed, the lifting system activates the marking
designated point confirmed, the lifting system activates the marking system, enabling system, enabling
the
the robot
robot to draw
to draw the desired
the desired layoutlayout
on the onfloor.
the floor. This process
This process continues
continues until alluntil
floorallmark-
floor
markings
ings are completed.
are completed.
The robot’s physical specifications include a length of 200 mm, a width of 95 mm
and a variable height ranging from 170 mm to 200 mm. It has a total weight of 4 kg. Its
development is based on using ESP32, a versatile microcontroller, combined with two
NEMA 17 stepper motors, each integrated with DRV8825 stepper motor drivers to facilitate
precise movement. Additionally, the robot’s marking tool is equipped with an SG 90 servo
motor for the linear motion of movable assembly.
Buildings 2023, 13, 2212 10 of 17
Buildings 2023, 13, 2212 10 of 17

Figure 6. Developed mobile robot for layout printing.

Figure 6. Developed mobile robot for layout printing.
The robot’s physical specifications include a length of 200 mm, a width of 95 mm and
The marking device of the mobile robot developed in the current study has a special
a variable height ranging from 170 mm to 200 mm. It has a total weight of 4 kg. Its devel-
pen holder module designed especially for the computer numerical control (CNC) plot-
opment is based on using ESP32, a versatile microcontroller, combined with two NEMA
ter [51]. It consists of two parts, as shown in Figure 7. One part is fixed and attached to
17 stepper motors, each integrated with DRV8825 stepper motor drivers to facilitate pre-
the robot chassis, holding a servo motor. The other part is movable and holds the marker.
cise movement. Additionally, the robot’s marking tool is equipped with an SG 90 servo
During the operation, the marker is lowered when the robot moves along the path to be
motor for the linear motion of movable assembly.
marked. TheThe marker
marking is subsequently
device of the mobileraised when the robot
robot developed in the needs
currenttostudy
move toaaspecial
has different
location for navigation. This way, the robot can accurately mark its path
pen holder module designed especially for the computer numerical control (CNC) plotter when needed
and avoid unnecessary marking, thus ensuring efficient and safe operation.
[51]. It consists of two parts, as shown in Figure 7. One part is fixed and attached to the The module
Buildings 2023, 13, 2212 used in chassis,
robot the developed
holdingmarking
a servo device
motor. was
The 3D printed
other with
part is 50% density
movable to have
and holds significant
11 of 17
the marker.
strength to push the pen so that the layout can also be drawn on rough
During the operation, the marker is lowered when the robot moves along the path to be surfaces.
marked. The marker is subsequently raised when the robot needs to move to a different
location for navigation. This way, the robot can accurately mark its path when needed and
avoid unnecessary marking, thus ensuring efficient and safe operation. The module used
in the developed marking device was 3D printed with 50% density to have significant
strength to push the pen so that the layout can also be drawn on rough surfaces.
In this study, a permanent marker was attached to the movable part of the marking
device to draw the mentioned floor plan on a leveled surface of ceramic tile. The attached
servo motor pushes the marker to touch the surface when the line needs to be drawn. The
force applied by the servo motor is restricted to avoid causing any disturbance to the mo-
tion of the robot. Although the proposed marking assembly may not work on uneven,
rough surfaces or soils, the robot can still be utilized with a different marking device, i.e.,
chalk powder, to adapt to various surfaces [52].
One of the primary challenges when implementing an IoT-based framework is en-
suring security to prevent cyberattacks and data misuse. The proposed framework incor-
porates the Firebase Authentication and Authorization mechanism [53]. The Firestore se-
curity rules meticulously control data access, specifying who can read and write data.
Furthermore, the sensors are programmed using the “Firebase_ESP_Client.h” library,
which(a)offers built-in security features, guaranteeing secure (b) data transmission from the
sensor to the database. This library prioritizes user privacy and data protection, adhering
Figure 7. Marking
Marking
to Google’s
Figure 7. tool (a).
stringent
tool (a). 3D CAD
CAD Model
Model
authentication
3D (b). Actual
Actual 3D-printed
processes.
(b). 3D-printed model
model with
with servo
servo motor
motor and
and pen
pen
mounted.
mounted.

4. System
In thisTesting
study, a permanent marker was attached to the movable part of the marking
device to drawsets
Different the mentioned floor were
of experiments plan on a leveledtosurface
conducted of developed
test the ceramic tile.robotic
The attached
system
servo
based motor
on the pushes
proposedtheframework
marker tofor touch the surface
drawing when site
construction the layouts.
line needs to be
In the drawn.
first set of
The force applied by the servo motor is restricted to avoid causing any disturbance
experiments, the lengths of lines were drawn and the robot’s performance was evaluated. to the
motion of the robot. Although the proposed marking assembly may not work
For length evaluation, three straight lines of 61 cm in length were drawn in Revit, as shownon uneven,
rough surfaces
in Figure 8a. Theorrobot
soils,was
the then
robotdeployed
can still be utilized
to draw with
these a different
lines marking
on a B2 sheet device,
of paper i.e.,
placed
chalk powder,floor.
on a concrete to adapt to various
On average, surfaces
each 61 cm[52].
line was marked in approximately 8 s and the
accuracy achieved was within ± 1 cm. The results of the robot’s markings can be observed
in Figure 8b. In the next step, three L-shaped lines were also drawn to assess the accuracy
of the angle drawn by the robot, as shown in Figure 8c,d. The accuracy of the angle drawn
by the robot ranged within ± 4 degrees. These tests were performed inside a lab on a
Buildings 2023, 13, 2212 11 of 17

One of the primary challenges when implementing an IoT-based framework is ensur-

ing security to prevent cyberattacks and data misuse. The proposed framework incorpo-
rates the Firebase Authentication and Authorization mechanism [53]. The Firestore security
rules meticulously control data access, specifying who can read and write data. Further-
more, the sensors are programmed using the “Firebase_ESP_Client.h” library, which offers
built-in security features, guaranteeing secure data transmission from the sensor to the
database. This library prioritizes user privacy and data protection, adhering to Google’s
stringent authentication processes.

4. System Testing
Different sets of experiments were conducted to test the developed robotic system
based on the proposed framework for drawing construction site layouts. In the first set of
experiments, the lengths of lines were drawn and the robot’s performance was evaluated.
For length evaluation, three straight lines of 61 cm in length were drawn in Revit, as shown
in Figure 8a. The robot was then deployed to draw these lines on a B2 sheet of paper placed
on a concrete floor. On average, each 61 cm line was marked in approximately 8 s and the
accuracy achieved was within ±1 cm. The results of the robot’s markings can be observed
in Figure 8b. In the next step, three L-shaped lines were also drawn to assess the accuracy of
the angle drawn by the robot, as shown in Figure 8c,d. The accuracy of the angle drawn by
the robot ranged within ±4 degrees. These tests were performed inside a lab on a smooth
Buildings 2023, 13, 2212 surface. The experiments were repeated several times for initial calibration until
12 of the
17 most
accurate results were obtained.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 8. (a) Lines drawn in the Revit. (b) Lines drawn on site by the robot. (c) Angled lines in Revit.
Figure
(d)8. (a) Lines
Lines drawndrawn in the
on site by Revit. (b) Lines drawn on site by the robot. (c) Angled lines in Revit.
the robot.
(d) Lines drawn on site by the robot.
Buildings 2023, 13, 2212 12 of 17

In another experiment, the scaled floor plan prepared in Revit (see Figure 9a) was
uploaded to the cloud after processing. Both straight lines and corners were included in
the floor plan to determine both the linear and angular accuracy of the robotic drawings.
The developed robot was placed on a plane surface of ceramic tiles and the layout from the
cloud was input to the robot for pertinent drawings, as shown in Figure 9b. The accuracy
(c)
of the drawn layout was cross-checked in the experiment(d) by manually measuring the
lines and angles drawn by the robot. The layout was drawn in less than 5 min with a line
Figure 8. (a) Lines drawn in the Revit. (b) Lines drawn on site by the robot. (c) Angled lines in Revit.
accuracy of 1.5 cm and angle accuracy of ±3 degrees.
(d) Lines drawn on site by the robot.

(a) (b)
Figure 9. (a) Floor plan model in Revit. (b) Layout of the drawing printer by the robot.
Figure 9. (a) Floor plan model in Revit. (b) Layout of the drawing printer by the robot.

In the first set of experiments conducted in a controlled environment, the results

obtained were highly accurate compared to the second set of experiments performed
on ceramic tiles. This discrepancy suggests that the surface on which the robot moves
can significantly impact its accuracy. Despite the overall efficiency of the experiment, a
few issues arose during the first trial, notably a power outage that caused the robot to
lose its location information, requiring it to restart the entire process from the beginning.
Additionally, an error can also be seen at the cross of the L-shaped line where the end point
of the line does not coincide with the starting point of the next line. This error is due to
the lateral motion of the marking device that results in higher linear lengths in the second
experiment. The robot requires the marking device to be located in the center of the axle of
the wheel so that during turning or rotation, the marking point does not change.

5. Discussion
Automating the site layout marking process can reduce reliance on manual labor and
minimize the potential for human error. This may eventually lead to an improvement in
workers’ productivity. The use of robotics in construction offers several advantages [54].
Firstly, it significantly speeds up the layout marking process, allowing construction projects
to progress faster with increased accuracy and safety in precision working. With automa-
tion, the mobile robot can swiftly navigate the construction site and print multiple layout
markings faster than manual methods.
Automation improves the precision and accuracy of layout printing. Human error and
associated variations in worker skill levels can lead to discrepancies between the on-site
layout and the blueprint. However, with the integration of robotics and the precise data
extracted from the BIM model as proposed in the current study, the mobile robot may
Buildings 2023, 13, 2212 13 of 17

strengthen the sustainability of innovation and the digital transformation process as a

whole and can consistently apply the layout markings with high accuracy, minimizing
errors and ensuring adherence to the design specifications [55].
Furthermore, the automation of the layout printing process frees up human resources
to focus on other critical construction tasks. By delegating the labor-intensive and time-
consuming task of layout printing to the mobile robot, construction workers can dedicate
their time and expertise to more complex and value-adding activities. This increases
productivity and efficiency within the construction site, leading to positive economic long-
term effects [56]. The use of the layout printing robot may not be limited to building
construction; rather, it can be adapted for a wide range of applications, including traffic
signs and symbol printing on the road.
The current study demonstrates superior results compared to several other systems
presented by Jensfelt et al. [17], Tsuruta et al. [20], Lee et al. [36] and Kitahara et al. [19]
as shown in Table 1. The current study achieves an accuracy of 10 mm and completes the
layout marking task in 8 s, showcasing a fully automated process with BIM–IoT integration.
In contrast, the systems presented in the above studies exhibit lower accuracy values
ranging from 2.3 mm to 28 mm and take longer to complete the task, with values ranging
from 33 s to 98 s. The degree of automation in the other systems varies, with some being
semiautomated, requiring an on-site operator to set up the mobile robot and load the
floor plan. Similarly, the manual systems need an operator to control the robot’s motion
on-site using a joystick/controller. In comparison, the current study presents a completely
automated process utilizing the IoT framework; the robot can be controlled remotely.

Table 1. Comparison of the proposed marking robotic system with other studies.

Degree of BIM
Study Accuracy Time Weight
Automation Integration
Current Study 15 mm 8s Automated 4 Kg Yes
System Presented by Jensfelt et al. [17] 28 mm 33 s Semi-Automated Unknown No
System Presented by Tsuruta et al. [20] 2.3 mm 98 s Semi-Automated 17 Kg No
System Presented by Lee et al. [36] Unknown Unknown Manual Unknown No
System Presented by Kitahara et al. [19] <1 mm Unknown Manual 56 Kg No

The current study uses a BIM-integrated model. In comparison, the other systems do
not use BIM integration for precise data extraction. Although the system developed by
Jensfelt et al. [17] uses 2D CAD drawings manually uploaded to the robot, such manual
models cause an additional error of up to 2 cm. The current study’s automated approach
offers advantages in terms of speed, precision and accuracy, reducing reliance on manual
labor, minimizing human errors and allowing construction workers to focus on more critical
tasks. Compared to manual methods, AMRs presented in the current study can reduce the
time of layout marking by almost 50% [17].
The cost of a simple robot developed based on ESP32 and NEMA 17 for developing
countries is significantly lower compared to the robots mentioned in the studies above. The
mentioned studies involved the development of specialized robotic systems for specific
tasks, such as ceiling board marking and floor marking, using advanced technologies like
laser range finders, cameras and total stations. These specialized systems often require
expensive components and complex setups, leading to higher development costs. In
contrast, the ESP32 and NEMA 17 based robot would be a more straightforward and cost-
effective solution due to the simplicity of its design and the affordability of its components.
By leveraging IoT-based platforms and frameworks, the development of the ESP32 and
NEMA 17 based robot can be further streamlined, making it an attractive and economically
viable option for construction applications in developing countries.
Buildings 2023, 13, 2212 14 of 17

6. Conclusions, Limitations and Future Directions

This study investigates the potential integration of RiC with BIM in addressing real-
world challenges, with a focus on enhancing the efficiency of construction layout marking.
Through the integration of robotics, IoT and BIM, a comprehensive framework has been
proposed in this study to enable seamless communication and data exchange between BIM
models and robotic systems. A prototype robot was developed that facilitates accurate
and precise printing operations based on extracted information from BIM, resulting in
increased efficiency, improved precision and reduced reliance on manual labor. The need
for improved interoperability between BIM and robotics, as well as the adoption of robotics
in the construction sector, is also highlighted in this study. The proposed methodology aims
to bridge these gaps by providing an integrated system that combines BIM data extraction,
Windows application processing and IoT-powered mobile robot printing. The developed
automation system has the potential to enhance productivity, accuracy and efficiency
in the site layout printing process, freeing up construction workers for more complex
tasks and minimizing errors associated with human factors. Moreover, the minimized
dependency on manual labor can decrease workplace accidents and health risks associated
with physically demanding tasks, ultimately contributing to improved worker well-being.
In addition, the AMRs have zero to no carbon emissions compared to other techniques
and heavy equipment used on construction sites. Therefore, these will help reduce the
carbon footprints of construction site layout activities [57]. Similarly, the usage of advanced
technologies will help in the smoother integration of construction activities into society in
line with modern smart cities and society endeavors [58].
The BIM–IoT framework devised within the scope of this study stands as a proof of
concept. One of the potential challenges in the adoption of the BIM–IoT framework is the
limitations in data transfer capacity and data security. This study uses encryption and
authentication to enhance data protection and flow. However, there are other limitations
that need to be addressed in future research. For example, while mostly automated, it
extracts data from the BIM model using Dynamo. The local file created by Dynamo is then
imported into the Windows application; thus, the system includes a few manual steps.
Hence, the system cannot be recognized as a real-time automated system but rather as a
nearly real-time system. Moreover, using an Arduino device, such as the ESP32, to operate
an AMR with stepper motors can be an excellent choice, but there are certain limitations
related to the execution of instructions that can affect the simultaneous control of both
motors. The Arduino executes instructions sequentially, one line at a time, which can
introduce challenges for coordinating the movement of multiple motors. This delay is in
microseconds; hence, it is not significant, but the Arduino-based AMR may not be the
best choice for extremely high accuracy. Furthermore, the robot developed in this study
does not sense the environment in terms of surfaces and obstacles; plain surfaces were
used to test the robot. The accuracy of the robot may result differently as odometry results
are prone to surface slippage or wheel malfunctioning, in which the error accumulates
with time. This may restrict its usage on uneven surfaces, which are not uncommon on
construction sites.
Further advancements in the real-time operation and precision of the AMRs could
be explored in future research. Some recommendations include streamlining the data
extraction process from the BIM model by exploring automated methods that minimize
manual steps. Further enhancing the real-time capabilities and addressing the limitations
of the Arduino device, such as the ESP32, will improve coordination and ensure smooth
movement of the AMRs. This can be achieved by controlling multiple stepper motors
simultaneously using alternative hardware or programming techniques. In addition, the
advancements in relation to Industry 5.0 endeavors can also be explored in future studies.
Buildings 2023, 13, 2212 15 of 17

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, F.I., S.A., S.Q., F.A. and F.U.; methodology, F.I., S.A., F.A.,
S.Q. and F.U.; software, F.I.; validation, F.I., S.A., S.Q., F.A. and F.U.; formal analysis, F.I., S.A., S.Q.,
F.A. and F.U.; investigation, F.I., S.A., S.Q., F.A. and F.U.; resources, F.U. and S.Q.; data curation
F.I., S.A. and F.A.; writing—original draft preparation, F.I. and F.A.; writing—review and editing,
S.Q., S.A. and F.U.; visualization, F.A.; supervision, S.A., S.Q. and F.U.; project administration, S.Q.,
S.A. and F.U.; funding acquisition, F.U. and S.Q. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: The data and codes used in this study are available from the first
author and can be shared upon reasonable request.
Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge the design of the marking system developed by Trần
Luân under open access and the developers of Firebase-ESP-Client Library for esp32 that have been
utilized in the current study.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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