Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs

2024, Volume 8, Number 2, pages 436–459

Original scientific paper
Socio-Economic Impact of the Mass Rapid Transit (MRT)
System in Dhaka: A Case Study of Mirpur Stations
*1 Shahriar Iqbal Raj , 2 Inmaculada Mohino , 3 Farjana Khatun
School of Engineering and Physical Science, Department of Architecture, North South University, Bangladesh
1
2 Higher Technical School of Architecture, Department of Urban Planning and Land Management, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid,
Spain
3 Faculty of Social Science, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Jahangirnagar University, Bangladesh
1 E-mail: [email protected] , 2 E-mail: [email protected] , 3 E-mail: [email protected]

ARTICLE INFO:

Article History:
Received: 23 June 2024 ABSTRACT
Revised: 15 August 2024 Mass Rapid Transport (MRT) has become pivotal in sustainable urban transportation, especially in
Accepted: 1 September 2024 densely populated cities like Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh. Dhaka is implementing its first MRT
Available online: 5 September
system, which includes 17 stations, with three located in Mirpur. Mirpur, a significant area due to its
2024
diverse economic activity and population, is an important case study for understanding the effects of
Keywords: the MRT system. The study area spans 58.66 square kilometers and has a population of 632,664,
Mass Rapid Transit (MRT), representing a zone with unplanned mixed uses and a spontaneously developed favorable job-housing
Socio-Economic Impact, ratio conducive to transit-oriented development (TOD). Challenges such as last-mile connectivity and
Dhaka Urban Development, capacity limitations could impede the MRT's socio-economic potential. Moreover, the current land use
Transit-Oriented Development and urban planning framework are not adequately prepared to support future TOD. This research
(TOD), highlights the necessity of proactive legislative changes and infrastructural improvements to optimize
Sustainable Urban Transportation. the success of Mirpur's MRT stations. Despite being in service for only a year and facing a lack of real-
life data, this study focuses on Mirpur MRT stations to explore the socio-economic impacts of MRT
systems, aiming to enhance knowledge in urban transportation and development.

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Highlights: Contribution to the field statement:
- MRT-6 aims to introduce a new mass transport mobility option as part of the This study advances the field of urban transportation by evaluating the
future TOD policy. socio-economic impacts of the MRT-6 system in Dhaka. It fills a
- Examination of the MRT-6 route and station surroundings to assess critical gap in understanding MRT's effects on unplanned urban areas,
socioeconomic impact. proposing legislative and infrastructural improvements for optimal
- Implementation of MRT-6 has been ongoing for one year, with limited transit-oriented development (TOD), thereby enhancing sustainable
practical data available for conclusive study. urban growth and policy formulation.
- Continued Research on MRT station success is necessary.
- Proactive Legislative Changes and infrastructural enhancements are crucial,
as highlighted by this research.
*Shahriar Iqbal Raj:
School of Engineering and Physical Science, Department of Architecture, North South University, Bangladesh
Email address: [email protected]
How to cite this article:
Raj, S. I., Mohino, I., & Khatun, F. (2024). Socio-economic Impact of Mass Rapid Transit (Mrt) System. Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs,
8(2), 436–459. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2024.v8n2-9
 JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 8(2), 436–459/ 2024
1. Introduction
1.1 Background and Context
Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh, is among the world's most populous and densely populated cities,
with over 10.2 million residents (BBS, 2022). The city has experienced rapid urbanization in recent
years, marked by a population growth rate of 3.26% (WPR, 2024). Additionally, Dhaka attracts 3-4
million migrants annually from different parts of the country due to better job opportunities and higher
wages (Karim, 2015). In 2018, Dhaka was ranked ninth in urban agglomeration among the top 67 cities
globally, and it is projected to rank fourth by 2030 (The Economist Intelligence Unit, 2018). In a global
urban risk assessment, Dhaka ranked second in four categories: Critical Infrastructure, Environment,
Socio-Institutional, and Economic (TBS, 2023). The city’s rapid urbanization has resulted in numerous
challenges, including a lack of affordable housing, urban poverty, inadequate healthcare, limited
empowerment of women, poor public transportation, illiteracy, slums, institutional corruption, social
inequities, and insufficient green spaces (Barai, 2020). These issues are further compounded by severe
traffic congestion due to a transportation system heavily reliant on road-based vehicles such as cars,
buses, mini-buses, auto-rickshaws, cycle-rickshaws, and human haulers, all contributing to increased
safety concerns and traffic accidents (Raj & Naem, 2022). Traffic congestion significantly impacts
environmental pollution, particularly air quality, due to emissions of carbon monoxide (CO) and
carbon dioxide (CO₂) from congested traffic (Arefin, Mallik, & Islam, 2017). The economic loss
associated with traffic congestion for a commuter is estimated at $4 per day (Haider & Papri, 2021).
Implementing a Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) strategy is essential for achieving sustainable
urban development and meeting the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030 (Raj & Naem,
2022). The Strategic Transport Plan (STP) for Dhaka (2004-2024), developed by Louis Berger Inc.
and BCL, introduced the concept of TOD by proposing an MRT system in Dhaka. The Japan
International Cooperation Agency (JICA) conducted the Dhaka Urban Transportation Network
Development Study (DHUTS) Phase 1 in collaboration with the Dhaka Transport Coordination
Authority (DTCA), which emphasized an elevated metro rail system as a priority project to address
the city's growing transportation challenges. The proposed MRT system is designed based on future
urban socio-economic indicators rather than existing economic activity levels to address these issues
(RAJUK, 2015). The Dhaka Structure Plan (2016-2035) recommended developing a mass transport
system to ensure balanced urban development rather than focusing solely on traffic management within
the existing urban areas.
A World Bank report proposed three elevated MRT and three Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) systems, with
routes including MRT-1, 5, 6, and BRT-1, 2, 3 (DMTCL, 2020). MRT-6, which is partially operational,
currently includes 16 stations on an elevated route connecting Uttara North and Motijheel. The MRT
lines are expected to handle 10% of total traffic, with BRT-1 expected to be completed by 2035
(RAJUK, 2015).

1.2 Problem Statement

Dhaka, home to over 10.2 million people, faces enormous pressure on its infrastructure and public
services due to rapid urban growth. The city is plagued by challenges such as housing shortages,
increased poverty, inadequate healthcare, insufficient public transport, and severe traffic congestion.
These problems are exacerbated by the reliance on diverse road transport modes and the lack of
coordination among various transport agencies, leading to significant environmental pollution,
economic losses, and social disruptions.
To address these challenges, government initiatives and research funded by the World Bank and JICA
have emphasized the implementation of Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) through strategic
transport plans. These plans include developing multiple MRT systems to alleviate transportation
issues and promote sustainable urban growth. Despite the operationalization of MRT-6 for one year,
existing studies and implementations have inadequately explored the socio-economic impacts of MRT-
6 and the integration of station influence zones into surrounding urban plans. This creates an urgent

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need for a comprehensive evaluation of the MRT-6 system to assess its impact on urban development
and to develop effective strategies for TOD adoption.

1.3 Research Gap

o Inadequate Consideration of Socio-Economic Factors: Current studies on MRT systems
primarily focus on trip characteristics based on future projections. There is a lack of
comprehensive analysis that includes the socio-economic impacts of MRT stations and their
influence zones, which is crucial for evaluating the MRT-6 system's impact on urban
development.
o Limited Focus on Land Use Planning: While strategic plans propose developing transport
routes to facilitate balanced urban growth, there is insufficient research on the redevelopment
and densification of land uses around MRT stations. This gap restricts the potential of the MRT-
6 system to promote TOD and sustainable urban expansion.
o Scarcity of Empirical Studies on Environmental and Economic Impact: Despite the
pressing issues of traffic congestion and environmental pollution in Dhaka, there are few
empirical studies that assess the effectiveness of the MRT-6 system in addressing these
challenges. Comprehensive research is needed to evaluate the environmental benefits and
economic savings associated with MRT-6 implementation.
This study aims to address these research gaps by thoroughly examining the MRT-6 system's impact
on Dhaka's urban development. It uses three station areas as a pilot study to develop strategies for TOD
adoption, contributing to the city's sustainable growth and long-term urban development goals.

1.4 Objectives of the research

Public transportation is a vital solution to traffic congestion and other urban transportation challenges.
Advanced, reliable, and well-organized transit systems enhance mobility and ensure safe access to
employment, community services, healthcare, education, and recreational activities. As an essential
public good, public transportation must provide adequate mobility for all, including vulnerable groups
such as the elderly, disabled, and economically disadvantaged, which is crucial in urban planning
(Jaafar Sidek et al., 2020). Given Dhaka's continued growth, effective public transit is becoming
increasingly important. The Government of Bangladesh (GOB) has made substantial investments to
improve the Dhaka Metropolitan Area's (DMA) transportation system, including the construction of
MRT-6, the country's first metro system, at a cost of $2,910 million USD. The adoption of a TOD
strategy is another critical policy measure that will enhance the success of this initiative. It is therefore
essential to recognize the potential of the transit system and the TOD strategy to justify these
substantial investments in public transportation.
The objectives of this research are:
• To identify the socio-economic factors and their impacts on the study area.
• To understand the need for proactive legislative changes and infrastructural improvements to
maximize the success of the MRT stations in Mirpur.
• To evaluate the role of Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) in enhancing the effectiveness
and sustainability of the MRT-6 system.
These objectives aim to provide insights into the sustainable development and efficient functioning of
the MRT-6 system, ensuring it meets the diverse needs of Dhaka's growing population while promoting
strategic urban planning through TOD.

2. Research Methodology
2.1 Study Design
This research employed a mixed-method approach to examine the impact of TOD and the development
of MRT station surroundings. The study utilized both quantitative and qualitative techniques along
with primary data collection. Preliminary data were collected through random online and physical

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surveys. The stations were physically observed to understand existing infrastructure and social,
economic, and development activities. This mixed-method approach provides a comprehensive view
of the benefits of the TOD- system in the Mirpur area, capturing socio-economic variations.
After the data collection process, the data were processed to classify accordingly. Data processing
involves converting data from one format to another. In contrast, data analysis consisted of examining,
categorizing, tabulating, or otherwise recombining the evidence to address the initial propositions of
the study. Data based on area observation were graphically presented with GIS maps, tables, and
graphs to depict the comprehensive socio-economic impact of land use in the study area.

2.2 Participants
The study focused on three MRT stations in the Mirpur area. 208 Participants' data were collected
using protocols from Google Forms and questionnaire surveys. The Google form was circulated among
social media groups of young and aged people, students, and professionals. Physical questionnaire
surveys were conducted near concerned station areas. The participants included diverse individuals
engaged in various social, economic, and development activities around the MRT stations. This
selection aimed to capture the socio-economic variation of MRT-6 users.

Figure 1. Conceptual Frame work of Research Methodology.

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3. The study area
Mirpur is one of Dhaka's 21 administrative divisions. Most households living there are middle-class
and impoverished; the residential and hygienic conditions are standard for any densely populated urban
region. There are multiple wards (small areas under local government) on the site; partially included
are Wards 11, 12, 13, 7, and 14. This area was developed to house primarily Muslim rehabilitated
populations under the 1959 master plan. However, this master plan was rendered outdated during the
colonial era, and Mirpur began to set a new pattern of urbanization, reinventing the scope of mixed-
use development. Together with residential structures, there are several business and industrial
communities (Afrin, Zerin, Sharmin, Kazi, & Morshed, 2012). A significant portion of homes are
semi-pucca. There are rainfall runoff systems and markings on every pucca road. However, most
internal roadways lack designated walking areas. Among the three MRT stations, Mirpur 11 and
Mirpur 10 are more densely populated than Pallabi, and Mirpur 10 station is the busiest. Mirpur 10 has
the intersection of four streets connecting other parts of Mirpur. Pallabi MRT station started operation
on January 25, 2023. Mirpur 11 MRT station started operation on March 15, 2023, and Mirpur 10
MRT station became operational on March 1, 2023.
Nevertheless, most interior roads lack designated walkways; they are narrow, with occasionally
damaged sections and illegal encroachments of roadside shops, thus hindering the metro station's
walking connectivity with neighbours. Every Mirpur ward has several urban amenities, including
colleges, schools, hospitals, speciality hospitals, markets, stadiums in the vicinity, open glossary
markets, street markets, parks, workplaces, businesses, and unofficial economic activity areas
(hawkers). The garment industry dominates the area's economy, and numerous unofficial businesses
may be seen on the sides of the roads (Sharmeen & Houston, 2019).

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Figure 2. Road Network system of Dhaka City and Super imposed MRT-6 route (grade
separated-elevated route, adopted from OS map).

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Figure 3. Study area road network and land use- showing the MRT-6 three
Stations of Mirpur. (developed from OS map and field study).
4. Theoretical background
4.1 Transit-oriented development
Three decades ago, Petter Calthorpe and Peter Calthorpe introduced the concept of "Transit-Oriented
Developments" (TOD) in the book "The New American Metropolis, Ecology, Community, and New
American Dream." In this work, the authors emphasized the significance of smart density, walkability,
public space, place-making, human-scale design, and mixed-use development, aiming to elucidate the
crucial elements for creating sustainable and affordable communities with an enhanced quality of life
(Jamme, Rodriguez, Bahl, & Banerjee, 2019). Aligned with the ideas of Calthorpe and other
proponents of New Urbanism, they envisioned economically viable and environmentally responsible
communities, contending that the integration of rail transit could play a central role in realizing such a

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transformative urban lifestyle (P. Calthorpe, 1993).

TOD has recently gained increased attention for promoting smart urban growth (Renne, Voorhees,
Bloustein, & Jenks, 2005). In many developing countries, the reliance on road-based public
transportation systems persists because of the initial high costs and dependence on external donors for
investment. The urban mobility landscape in these growing cities needs to be improved by
inadequately designed urban networks (Chatman, 2013) and a decline in the quality of public transport
services (Pojani & Stead, 2017). Research suggests that, in the long run, TOD can emerge as a
successful development strategy for developing countries, potentially offering even more significant
benefits than in more affluent nations (R. B. Cervero, 2013). However, TOD requires a well-designed
transport network integrated with considerations such as land use diversity, density, affordability, and
accessibility to residence and job opportunities.
The primary goal of TOD is to generate revenues where benefits will exceed costs on both local and
regional scales (Singh, Zuidgeest, Flacke, & van Maarseveen, 2012). The economic vitality and long-
term development of communities depend heavily on the effectiveness of transit networks in rural,
urban, and suburban districts. Transit systems ought to serve everyone's needs and aid in commuting
to work, school, the doctor, and visiting friends and family. These two domains come together in
transit-oriented development (TOD), which results in substantial change. A dense, walker-friendly,
mixed-use area near a transit hub draws people and enhances thriving, connected community
partnerships that support the construction of affordable and low-cost housing close to transit can be
fostered with the aid of public transportation. When implemented effectively, TOD creates more
egalitarian communities. According to Stan Wall, Managing Partner for HRA Advisors, Washington
D.C., TOD helps to develop a sense of place, a sense of ownership, and a secured future,
acknowledging and realizing who are the real beneficiary of a transit investment or a TOD investment.
(FTA, 2024).
TOD is an urban planning strategy that integrates transport transit and land use seamlessly. This
approach, widely advocated, revolves around creating a built environment with relatively high density
and a mix of urban functions around transit stations (P. Calthorpe, 1993; Duany & Elizabeth, 1994).
TOD is a planning tool that harmonizes land use and transit systems, fostering vibrant, sustainable,
pedestrian-friendly city areas with high-density and diverse land use activities.
In the United States, metropolitan areas grapple with dispersed growth patterns or sprawl development,
and TOD has been embraced to address the associated environmental and social impacts (Porter, 1997).
Research highlights the significant effect of TOD in reducing private automobiles, increasing transit
ridership, and fostering a stronger sense of community in neighborhoods (Cervero, 1996; Newman &
Kenworthy, 1999).
In the context of European cities, where the use of automobiles is relatively low, and there is a more
extended history of integrating transit and land use, TOD is employed to encourage urban renewal in
city centers (e.g., the ABC location policy in the Netherlands) as well ascended to facilitate the
reconfiguration of the cities' outskirts (Bertolini & Spit, 2005).
In the context of Asia, Japan has been at the forefront, experimenting with policies that, to a significant
extent, serve as early models for the Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) concept (Delpirou, Doulet,
& Delaunay, 2016). In Asian cities, TOD is overlaid on an existing culture of transport-land use
integrated planning (Delpirou, Doulet, & Delaunay, 2016). This achievement intensifies urban
development and relocates metropolitan functions, primarily addressing traffic problems.

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Figure 4. Conceptual TOD diagram-Dhaka (JICA, 2018).

Figure 4 summarizes the TOD operating process. The diagram illustrates the various conditions for a
successful TOD are strongly interdependent. Maximizing the short- and long-term benefits of MRT
demands the simultaneous achievement of the three goals: sustainable urban development, efficient
urban transportation, and equitable socio-economic development (JICA, 2018).

4.1 Mass rapid transit

Mass rapid transit refers to the public transportation services that combine individual trips into
common trunk links or a significant amount of collectivization. It includes those modes that rely on a
particular fixed track or an exclusive road track that may be used by many users separately. Bus lanes
and other types of bus priority in mixed traffic are generally segregated or mostly separated busways
(Ahmad & Hasan, 2019). As a component of the entire system, the kind and importance of secondary
access and egress points to the trunk facility are considered. In developing cities, the primary need for
mass transit is to transfer many people quickly. This requires cheap transportation costs (therefore low
fares) and quickness in operation in the absence of significant subsidies. Because safeguarding its
impacts depends on speed, this assessment will refer to mass rapid transit (MRT).

4.2 Types of public transit

There are four general types of public transit. For this study, these are defined as follows:
4.1.1 Busways: are at-grade unless otherwise indicated, with horizontal protection from other traffic
and frequent priority over other traffic at signalized crossings.
4.1.2 Light Rail Transit (LRT): refers to at-grade railing with comparable horizontal protection
unless otherwise indicated. Generally, LRT contains one or two functional compartments. Light
rail lies between the Train and tram. Light rail travels longer distances than trams but takes more
travel time than trains and stops at more stands. Light rail is more suitable for regional routes
than long distances (General Affairs, 2024).
4.1.3 Metros: are entirely segregated and typically located underground or elevated. Rapid service
delivery depends on segregation, and carrying a considerable mass ridership is made possible
by technology.
4.1.4 Suburban Rail: These services are fully segregated by controlled level crossings and are often
at grade within a more extensive rail network (Majid & Singh, 2018).

4.2 Need for mass rapid transit in Dhaka

Dhaka is a lively city; the increasing population, expanding urban area, enhancing economic activities,
and promoting motorization have made life more prosperous. However, this attractive urbanization
introduces many challenges, such as chronic traffic congestion, air and noise pollution, longer

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commuting time, and scarcity of affordable housing, which will accelerate unless adequate urban
strategies and effective frameworks exist.
According to RSTP, it was declared that MRT 1, 5, and 6 will affect both transportation and land use
planning, and it is essential to integrate urban planning with transportation. In other words, the urban
railway can suppress urban sprawl in Dhaka, promote appropriate development initiatives along the
metropolitan railway, and establish an urban structure for TOD (Kumar Roy & Labony, 2019). In
addition, urban railway users can avoid heavy traffic congestion with improved accessibility to the
central areas of Dhaka. Moreover, it will bring environmental sustainability by alleviating air pollution
and promoting economic growth through increased opportunities.
Numerous amenities on the MRT improve accessibility, safety, and comfort. The universal design
includes features that increase accessibility for all users, such as elevators, escalators, and warning tile
blocks. Automatic gates and platform screen doors (PSDs) will guarantee further security and comfort.
According to the projection of Dhaka Structure Plan 2016-35, traffic volume will reach 60 million
passenger trips. The limited road space and high traffic flow indicate the need for a long-term solution
that can be achieved through the mass transit system. The government must develop MRT and BRT
systems to manage increased traffic volume in the upcoming years (RAJUK, 2015).

Table 1: Modal share with consideration to MRT (in thousands).

Item Car Bus Rickshaw Others Rail & Walk MRT Total
Water

No 2013 2016 10708 12724 38 66 5803 31355

MRT 2015 2518 12894 13145 49 87 6184 34877
2025 5520 20739 15338 94 164 7784 49639
2035 9737 24782 16360 120 203 8572 59774
With 2013 2016 10708 12724 38 66 5803 31355
MRT 2015 2518 12894 13145 49 87 6184 34877
services 2025 5054 19387 14549 90 159 7665 2735 49639
2035 8772 21745 14698 113 195 8356 5895 59774

In Table 1, mass transit systems are built to efficiently transport vast numbers of people, which is
crucial during peak travel times. Currently, Dhaka's public transportation system relies solely on low-
capacity, road-based transit. This will change with the introduction of an MRT system structured
according to the hierarchy of public transportation systems. To address future transportation demand,
the Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) and Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) Systems should be implemented. Priority
is given to public transportation systems with higher capacity (RAJUK, 2015).

5. Socio-economic impact of mass rapid transit

Developed countries like the United States, Canada, Germany, and France obtained rapid mass transit
to achieve environmental goals and flourish in the economic sector (Walmsley, Perrett, & Laboratory,
1992). To make cities congestion-free, faster, and more reliable for the public necessitates effective
transportation planning. The general purpose is to decrease the dependency on motorized vehicles.
Conversely, developing countries implement costly TOD projects to control growing transportation
needs, which may not reduce traffic congestion (Alam, 2010). TOD-based transport solutions enhance
the overall quality of urban life, and both businesses and employees are attracted to the region,
supporting additional growth and development in developing countries. Thus, agglomeration benefits
are typically capitalized into land values and rents at locations where access to public transportation
services is concentrated (Weisbrod & Reno, 2009).
With a lot of benefits from TOD, Banister and Thurstan Goodwinn argue that TOD's impact can be
measured on the economy at three distinct levels (Banister & Thurstain-Goodwin, 2011).
▪ Output and productivity changes;

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▪ At the meso level, the impact related to agglomerative economics and labour market
▪ At the micro-level, the effect is determined by land and property market effects.
(Banister & Thurstain-Goodwin, 2011).
5.1 Identified socio-economic impacts of mass rapid transport:
This research identified and concentrated on the social and economic impacts of mass rapid transit,
and based on these three MRT stations, the surroundings are surveyed accordingly.

5.1.1 SOCIAL IMPACTS

5.1.1.1 Accessibility and Mobility
Accessibility means the description of the proximity to the desired destinations and the facilitation
offered by the transport system, including public transport and preferably non-motorized transport to
reach them. Mobility is the ability to travel to the desired destination and the necessary movement.
Application of the TOD concept is expected to increase accessibility and mobility while reducing
congestion and environmental pollution, ensuring the efficient use of energy in the transportation
sector (Kristianto, Ismiyati, & Setiadji, 2020). Thus, as a mass public transport mode, MRT influences
accessibility and provides mobility to an area. This study shows that 41% of participants feel that the
MRT –system will reduce their time on the road and ease accessibility.
5.1.1.2 Availability and Affordability
Availability and Affordability refer to transport facilities such as buses or rail-based systems that
enable basic mobility activities. The affordability ensures that the fare cost shall not exceed a certain
percentage of household income. Measuring the Affordability of individual or household transport
systems is essential to formulating any strategic transport policy, and it assists in formulating
comfortable commuting strategies for low-income and mobility-constrained people (UN.ESCAP,
2018). The study shows that 33% of people agree that the system is affordable, and 36% somehow
agree with the benefit; thus, a significant percentage realize that MRT-6 will be the most convenient
mode of transport.
5.1.1.3 Quality and Reliability
Reliability and quality are paramount considerations for daily commuters. A dependable public
transport service strictly adheres to schedules, ensuring vehicles run punctually while providing
accurate information on routes, fare structures, and transport mode frequencies. Conversely, quality is
assured by delivering comfort and cleanliness, maintaining courteous behaviour among service
operators, and prioritizing safety.
5.1.1.4 Safety and Security
The safety of passengers is one of the most essential aspects of a successful transport mode, which
refers to the prevention and protection from the exposed dangers to passengers in transport. The way
to the station and waiting shall also be safe for all passengers. Commuters shall not experience theft,
harassment, or harmful comments that provoke uneasiness or demotivate passengers from travelling
with public transport.
5.1.1.5 Health
Health is another critical aspect, including passengers and other road users or persons living alongside
the tracks or streets. Health should be protected from being jeopardized. The appropriate authorities
must control air pollution, dust, noise, etc. Information about the lines, fares, routes, conditions for
children, elderly, disabled, timetables, and transport system owners must be easily accessible in the
language passengers speak. The station area must be adequately marked with eligible signage
indicating the location of the information and eventual operational changes.
5.1.1.6 Public Involvement
The public, including passengers, shall have adequate authority to influence the planning policies and
operation of public transport. Public transport authorities shall provide an exact place for messages or
proper contact channels. Personnel attending to the answer and working with public relations are
required.

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5.1.1.7 Time-Saving
Metro is a crucial component of TOD-supported public transit systems, where travel times are expected
to be short and efficient. Time should be saved by using the service, not vice versa. Public transport
should serve where people need to go and be economically significant for the passengers (Zamparini
& Reggiani, 2007).
5.1.1.8 Economic benefit
The use of efficient Metro Rail as public transport, income earning, or other can be reached by
increasing access to different forms of resources.
5.1.1.9 Economic Impact
Travel and vehicle ownership savings are realized by public transportation users and those opting out
of personal cars. This leads to shifts in consumer spending. Concurrently, drivers of automobiles
experience reduced traffic congestion, translating into direct travel cost savings for households and
businesses. Additional benefits include lowered business operating costs tied to worker wages and
increased reliability due to diminished traffic. Furthermore, expanded access to a broader pool of
skilled workers, facilitated by fewer traffic jams and extended transit service areas, enhances business
productivity. The indirect effects of business expansion on suppliers and worker wages further fuel
regional business growth. The cumulative impact of cost reductions and improved productivity may
influence a country's international competitiveness. (Weisbrod & Reno, 2009).
5.1.1.10 Job Housing Ratio
Depending on how evenly the distribution of jobs and housing is distributed among the residents, there
is a notable variation in the average commute distance and duration. The average commuter in Dhaka's
housing-rich areas takes 8.17 minutes (2.92 km) longer than the employment-rich regions.
Communities that are balanced economically and environmentally would be created by housing
options within an affordable commute of their place of employment. To ensure a suitable balance
between housing and jobs, cities must continue to grow and residents' travel habits within them
(Rahman & Ashik, 2020).

6. Results and discussion

6.1 Study area analysis (Field observation)
The Mirpur area is predominantly residential in Dhaka. Roadside mixed-use developments are visible.
Once there, many small garment industries flourished in this area because of the supply of cheap labour
from nearby neighbourhoods. However, the scenario has changed in the last decade. The job scope of
garment industries is replaced with small furniture manufacturing workshops, vehicle repair
workshops, small manufacturing industries, and retail shops. Most of the streets at Mirpur and the
adjacent area are comprehensive, and alternative connectivity has been created with well-bitumen-
carpeted road networks. In addition, a linked flyover and a new MRT system are developed to ensure
ease of traffic and speedy connectivity. However, Mirpur's significant challenges are the lack of a well-
designed footpath network, the illegal encroachment of Hawkers, and road-adjacent economic
activities.

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Figure 5: Study Area Images- a. Mirpur 10 MRT station, Busy street with public transport; b. People
are queuing for the ticket. c. People boarding on the Train; d. Mirpur 11- MRT station. e. Packed
Train on peak hour; f. Pallabi MRT Station.

7. Data analysis from field survey

7.1 Determining job-housing ratio
The concept of Job-household balance is derived from initiatives of the self-contained community by
Howard, Purdom, and Munford (Giuliano, 1991). Giuliano defines Job-housing balance as "the
distribution of employment relative to the distribution of Workers in a given geographic area."
Job-housing balance can reduce travel demand and increase the quality of the place, which is visible
through the adoption of cities' development and transport authorities in developed countries (Wu,
Zhang, & Yang, 2015). Job housing balance is one of the preconditions for the effective
implementation of the TOD policy (Rahman & Ashik, 2020).

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Table 2: Recommended Jobs-housing balance ratios.

Study Measurement Recommended Ratio
(R. Cervero, 1989) Jobs to household ratio Ceiling ratio 1.5 (multiple workers) at a
Ceiling ratio city level
(Frank & Pivo, 1994) Jobs to household ratio 0.8:1–1.2:1 for census tracts
(Peng, 1997) Jobs to household ratio 1.2:1–2.8:1 for TAZs covered by a 5-mile
radius of a central TAZ
(Armstrong & Sears, 2001) Jobs to household ratio 1:1–1:1.29 Commute shed within 14 miles
radius of job centers
(Cervero R. , Jobs housing balance as Jobs to housing unit ratio 1.4:1–1.6 for Medium-sized community
public policy, 1991)

The job-housing balance has been calculated as a ratio of the number of jobs and households in this
study area. The equation to calculate the ratio: JHR =Ji/Hi
Where Ji = number of jobs (employed population) of neighbourhood i
Hi= number of Households in the neighbourhood

Table 3: Job-Housing Calculation Chart (Relevant et al., (BBS et al., 2011).

Job-housing calculation chart
The base year is 2013 Present 2022 Projected 2030
Thana Household TPE Job- Househo TPE Job- Househo TPE Job-
Housing ld Housing ld Housing
Mirpur 117450 116700 0.99 152253.5 146254. 0.96 191760.0 178754. 0.93
7 98 4 58
Pallabi 143332 151381 1.06 185805.1 189719. 1.02 234017.4 231877. 0.99
0 16 6 01

The table shows household data, total employed population (TPE), and job-housing ratios for the
Mirpur and Pollabi area for three years: the base year 2013, the current year 2022, and the estimated
for 2030. These data indicate that the number of employed people and households in Mirpur and
Pollabi has grown. Still, the job-housing ratio has shrunk, meaning that the number of jobs in Mirpur
has not kept up with the growth in employed people and households, which could result in problems
like increased unemployment or people having to commute to other places for work.
Suppose there is a decline in the employment-to-housing ratio despite an increase in the number of
families and employed people. In that case, it might cause problems such as more unemployment rates
and more commuting. The Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) system may provide a workable option by
providing mass people in and out of the area for various purposes.

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8. Field survey – SOAR analysis

Table 4: SOAR analysis of MRT stations.
MRT-ST Strengths Opportunities Aspirations Results
PALLABI ▪ Good Location ▪ Good Land Mark ▪ MRT station ▪ MRT will generate
▪ Moderate Traffic ▪ Scope of ▪ Scope to increase traffic and, thus, the
▪ Street Side Commercial Economic
Economic Activities Development activities
scope of economic
▪ Residential ▪ Good quality ▪ Increased activity
road accessibility ▪ Retail shops
▪ New MRT ▪ New Urban Spaces-
Station Theater
▪ Rise in property price
MIRPUR-11 ▪ Good Neighborhood ▪ Good Land Mark ▪ MRT station ▪ MRT will generate
▪ Vibrant ▪ Road Side ▪ Scope to increase traffic and, thus, the
Surroundings Commercial Economic
▪ Good Road Network activities activities
scope of economic
▪ Street Side Mixed ▪ Less Traffic ▪ Increased activity
Use Development Congestion accessibility ▪ Retail shops
▪ New MRT ▪ New Academic
Station Facilities
▪ Business offices
▪ Low traffic on the
road
▪ Rise in Property price
MIRPUR-10 ▪ Good Neighborhood ▪ Good Land Mark ▪ MRT station ▪ Might experience
▪ Road Transport ▪ Road Side ▪ Scope to increase huge traffic
Junction Commercial Economic
▪ Good Road Network activities activities
▪ Excessive economic
▪ Heavy Economic ▪ Less Traffic ▪ Increased activity
Activities Congestion accessibility ▪ Street Vendor
▪ Street Side Mixed- ▪ New MRT ▪ Unsafe Padeterian
Use Development Station movement

A questionnaire survey was conducted to understand the impact of metro service on the Mirpur area.
Total number of respondents was 208, The demographic profile of the respondents is given below:
Among the total respondents, 51.4% were male, 48.1% were female, and the rest did not prefer to
answer. A large number of female respondents are between 18 and 24 and are students by profession.
On the contrary, most male respondents were employed and aged between 25 and 44. A minimal
number of respondents were under 18. And no respondents were over the age of 55. (Figure 6 is the
reference Chart).
According to the survey, most people choose buses and rickshaws for frequent travel. Besides,
automobiles and CNG are popular travel modes in Mirpur. A small number of people use motorbikes
and cycles. Motorbike-ride sharing is also widespread among people. People are spending more money
while travelling by bus and rickshaw. From the graph, MRT is still the least popular travel mode in the
area. (Figure 6 is the reference Chart).

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Figure 6. Demographic Profile of the Responded.

The study draws attention to the wide range of housing options and demographics of those residing
close to the metro station. By comprehending the housing patterns of inhabitants and tackling related
issues, it is possible to enhance the station's accessibility and promote a livelier and more involved
community. Figure 6: The chart indicates that a noticeable number of people live in rented houses that
are very far (relative to the MRT influence zone) from the metro station in the Mirpur area. In the long
run, eventually, while the benefit of MRT will be exposed to the neighbour, a significant number of
households may shift to near the MRT station for their accessibility, convenience, and comfort.
Survey data shows another important scenario: around 40.4% of the respondents live very far from the
station influence area, and 37.5% live far from the station area. This means they are not actively
participating in local community initiatives facilitated by metro stations. However, if these people start
using metro services, traffic around the station area will increase and positively impact local
businesses, thus contributing to the local economy.
This investigation explores respondents' differing perspectives about how the new MRT system might
affect housing, the economy, and transportation systems. A survey on 208 people within at least a mile
radius of the study area of concerned MRT stations would directly impact was used to gather data.
In the pie chart-1, 39% of the respondents believe introducing a new MRT system would effectively
reduce traffic congestion in the Mirpur region. However, 41% of respondents were unsure about the
impact. Only 5% of respondents strongly agreed about the ability of MRT to decrease traffic problems.
The rest expressed doubts about the positive effects of traffic congestion. The field observation also
verifies the respondent's notions regarding traffic management. However, it is understandable that the
MRT service is in its infant stage. While all supporting services will be in place, traffic congestion
should decrease and ease the traveller's waiting time on the street. The positive notion of the people is
also expected to encourage them to use the MRT service at their convenience.

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Figure 7. Pie Charts- showing survey data

The second pie chart assesses respondents' thoughts regarding possibly moving their home closer to
an MRT station. A questionnaire Survey was used to collect data from 208 people who lived more
than one mile away from the locations of the current MRT stations. Here, 34% of respondents are
unsure about it. 44% disagreed, and the rest agreed to move near the MRT station.
Regarding the possible cost-saving advantages of utilizing the MRT system for travel, respondents'
opinions are split, as seen by the third analysis. While a significant portion, a total of 56%,
acknowledge the possibility of reduced travel expenses. 20% of the responses are not in favor of
acknowledging the cost-saving benefits of utilizing the MRT system for commuting. Disagreement
might relate to the additional cost the traveler is spending to reach the MRT station. The rest are still
confused about it.
This fourth chart assesses respondents' perceptions of the possible time-saving benefit of using an
MRT system to commute. According to the analysis, respondents mostly agreed on the potential time-
saving advantages of using the MRT system for transportation. The percentage is 79%. 15% of
respondents are unsure, and only 6% disagree or strongly disagree that the MRT system will save them
time during travel.
The Fifth graphic illustrates respondents' differing opinions about how a Mass Rapid Transit (MRT)
system might affect the cost of real estate. Although a sizable fraction (73%) recognizes that there may
be a price-hike in property values close to MRT stations, a sizable minority continue to express worries
about the magnitude of the impact and economic uncertainty. Of those surveyed, 21% were unsure,
and 6% disagreed or strongly disagreed that the MRT system would affect land and home values. Field
observation shows that 10%-15% of real estate has increased since the work of the MRT system
started.

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The analysis aims to comprehend the most common ways people get to the MRT station. The data
indicates that people use a variety of forms of transportation to get to the MRT station. It will be
essential to comprehend demographic preferences and deal with related issues to improve accessibility
and support environmentally friendly transportation options. Survey data from 208 respondents was
analyzed and plotted 71% of respondents reached the station by rickshaw. 29 % of the respondents
reported walking as their primary mode of getting to the MRT station. 39% of respondents utilize
public buses. Around 16% of respondents are using ride-sharing to reach the station. 38% of
respondents reported using other modes to reach the station. And 19% of respondents accounted for
using CNG. So, we can address the parking challenges as many people use vehicles rather than walk
to the MRT station.
In the Mirpur area, according to the respondents, people living very far and far from the metro station
have a low crime rate, so much importance to living in their current location. So, there is a chance that
by reducing the crime rate around the metro station, the area can create a sense of safety, which will
bring more people to live and work around the station.

Figure 8. Travel Mode to reach MRT station (in percentage)

9. Recommendation
Dhaka, the vibrant capital of Bangladesh, has consistently faced the challenges of crowded streets, air
pollution, and lack of systematic urban development. Dhaka is considered one of the most challenging
cities globally to traverse (Afrin, 2023). Addressing this issue, the introduction of MRT6 stands as a
noteworthy advancement that holds the potential to reshape the city's transportation dynamics.
However, including MRT-6 as a Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) component in the Dhaka
Detailed Area Plan 2022-35 is a significant step in changing Dhaka's transport horizon. Relying solely
on MRT-6 without advancing other TOD elements could lead to overly optimistic anticipation of its
impact on Dhaka's traffic conditions and economic, social, and environmental spheres. Following are
recommendations based on the survey data analysis and literature reviews.

9.1 Infrastructure Investment

'MRT construction is a large capital investment, which becomes a heavy burden to the railway operator
in financing and repayment by fare-box revenue. Europe and the United States generally cover the
whole construction cost with public funds, which is a better approach. This will support financially
viable railway businesses. A project like MRT is expensive and might require a special budget
allocation in the national fiscal budget' (JICA, 2010)
Most developing countries built such projects with the help of donor agencies like the World Bank,
JICA, or donor countries. A stable supply of funds is required to construct the METRO line and
develop surrounding road networks, footpaths, parking routes, infrastructure, and facilities to attract

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economic development and create a scope of mixed-used development.

9.2 Integration with Current Transport Systems:

A well-integrated transport system contributes to the attractiveness of public transport, thus reducing
the number of automobiles on the street (Mrníková, Poliak, Šimurková, Hernandez, & Reuter, 2017).
Establishing an excellent integrated street network with the MRT stations is essential. Safe and evenly
levelled footpaths are a priority requirement to create walkable access to the MRT station. Surveys
showed that the studied MRT stations lack connectivity through safe and quality footpaths and parking
facilities. People use Buses, Rikshaws, or Ride share to reach the MRT station, causing additional
travel costs. People may be encouraged to use MRT as their primary form of transportation by putting
in place a single ticketing or transfer system.

9.3 Accessibility and Inclusivity:

The mobility concept will undergo massive changes in the upcoming years based on how it will be
articulated with the transport of people and goods, always considering universality and accessibility
(Silva, Verde, Paiva, Barreto, & Pereira, 2023). Railways and stations should be designed to support
the accessibility of elderly and physically challenged people. To meet the various demands of
commuters, this should include tactile pathways, elevators, escalators, ramps, and priority sitting
places. Appropriate visual and native language signs should be billed as required.

9.4 Environmental Sustainability:

One of the anticipated benefits of MRT is that it will reduce dependency on automobiles. Every day,
532 new vehicles hit the Dhaka Metropolitan Area (Ullah, 2022). Eco-friendly technologies in MRT
trains and infrastructure should be encouraged. The engineering design of MRT should incorporate
energy-efficient technologies. The scope of the use of renewable energy should be there. The traffic
volume and peak-hour integration must determine the frequency and the service. Initiatives must be
taken to encourage people to switch from driving cars to using public transit to protect the environment.
Educational TVC, social media, easy ticketing service, and promotional initiatives should be designed.

9.5 Safety Precautions:

Stringent safety procedures and well-thought-out action plans must be developed to safeguard
passenger security. Separate female-only compartments should be encouraged. CCTV monitoring
must be permanently installed, and the system should be visible to travelers. In-compartment
emergency communication and use-instructions should be established. All the instructions and
information should be displayed in the native language.

9.6 Public Education Efforts:

Start efforts to inform the public about the advantages of MRT systems, such as fewer traffic jams,
lower pollution levels, and faster travel times. Programs for community participation and various
media outlets could be used for this.

9.7 Regulatory Framework:

Clear rules and policies addressing rates, timetables, and maintenance requirements should be
established to maintain a sustainable MRT system and its seamless operation.

9.8 Urban Planning and Development:

Introducing MRT is Dhaka's most crucial component of more significant TOD planning. Implementing
TOD in urban designs has become a common challenge for developing countries. Three types of urban
sprawl affect the growth throughout the cities of developing countries: the low-density sprawl of
higher-income regions that become auto-dominant, low-income sprawl that isolates the poor from

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economic, social, and cultural opportunities, and high- the density sprawl of superblock, towers (P. A.
Calthorpe, 2022). As an alternative to these challenges, cities must create walkable and transit-oriented
communities offering many automobile options. Sustainable TOD needs mixed-used neighborhoods
that can create places for a broad range of economic activities, ages, and household types (P. A.
Calthorpe, 2022). The MRT system should coordinate with the expanding urban planning and requires
a logical route rationalization. Encourage transit-oriented development (TOD) around MRT stations
by combining land-use planning and transit development. A comprehensive strategy would be needed
to develop and implement new policies, including public involvement, government actions, and
partnerships with diverse stakeholders. Ultimately, with careful and research-based approaches that
are unbiased to political influences, the new MRT system of Dhaka would become more accessible,
sustainable, and efficient.

10. Conclusion
This study presents a comprehensive evaluation of the socio-economic impacts associated with the
implementation of the Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) system in Mirpur, Dhaka. The findings highlight
several key areas where the MRT system contributes positively to urban development and community
well-being, while also identifying critical challenges that must be addressed to maximize the system's
potential.
Firstly, the MRT system in Mirpur has demonstrated significant improvements in accessibility and
mobility, offering efficient and reliable transport options for a diverse population. This has led to
reduced travel times and increased connectivity between residential areas and commercial hubs,
fostering economic growth and development. The analysis shows that 41% of participants believe the
MRT system will reduce their time on the road and enhance accessibility, aligning with the objectives
of transit-oriented development (TOD) principles.
Moreover, the MRT system has had a notable impact on land values and economic activities
surrounding the stations. Property prices in the vicinity of MRT stations have experienced an upward
trend, with an observed increase of 10-15% since the commencement of the MRT project. This trend
indicates the potential for TOD to stimulate urban renewal and densification, contributing to
sustainable city expansion. The study also reveals several challenges that need to be addressed to
ensure the MRT system's long-term success. The lack of well-designed pedestrian pathways and last-
mile connectivity remains a significant barrier to maximizing the system's socio-economic benefits.
Illegal encroachments and insufficient infrastructure further hinder the full realization of the MRT's
potential.
Furthermore, the job-housing ratio analysis indicates a disparity between employment opportunities
and housing availability in the Mirpur area, necessitating targeted interventions to balance this
equation and reduce commuting pressures. This calls for strategic urban planning that integrates land
use with transit development, promoting mixed-use neighbourhoods and facilitating economic
activities around MRT stations. To enhance the MRT system's effectiveness and sustainability, several
recommendations have been put forward. These include investing in infrastructure improvements,
integrating current transport systems, enhancing accessibility for all commuters, and adopting eco-
friendly technologies to promote environmental sustainability. Public education efforts and a robust
regulatory framework are also essential to ensure the MRT system's successful operation and
maintenance.
In conclusion, the implementation of the MRT system in Mirpur offers valuable insights into the
transformative potential of mass transit in rapidly urbanizing areas. By addressing the identified
challenges and leveraging the system's socio-economic benefits, stakeholders can contribute to
Dhaka's sustainable urban growth and achieve long-term development goals. This research highlights
the importance of strategic planning and collaboration among government agencies, urban planners,
and the community to create a more prosperous and interconnected urban future for Dhaka.

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Acknowledgements
We want to express our heartfelt gratitude to North South University, Bangladesh, and Polytechnic
University of Madrid, Spain. Their unwavering support, resources, and invaluable contributions were
instrumental in the successful completion of this work.

Funding
This research received no specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-
profit sectors.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest related to this research.

Data availability statement

The data supporting this study's findings are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable
request.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

CRediT author statement:

Conceptualization: Shahriar Iqbal Raj; Methodology: Shahriar Iqbal Raj, Dr. Inmaculada Mohíno
Sanz; Software: Shahriar Iqbal Raj, Farjana Khatun; Validation: Farjana Khatun; Formal Analysis:
Shahriar Iqbal Raj; Investigation: Farjana Khatun; Resources: Shahriar Iqbal Raj; Data Curation:
Shahriar Iqbal Raj, Farjana Khatun; Writing - Original Draft: Shahriar Iqbal Raj; Writing - Review &
Editing: Shahriar Iqbal Raj, Farjana Khatun; Visualization: Shahriar Iqbal Raj. All authors have
reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript.

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How to cite this article:

Raj, S. I., Mohino, I., & Khatun, F. (2024). Socio-economic Impact of Mass Rapid Transit (Mrt)
System. Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs, 8(2), 436–459.
https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2024.v8n2-9

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