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COMPUTER NETWORKS

1 OSI, TCP/IP MODELS

1. OSI MODEL

• OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
• OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in
1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer
communications.
• OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer is
assigned a particular task.
• Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.

Physical Layer: It is responsible for transmitting bits from one node to another node.
Data link layer: It is responsible for node to node delivery within the LAN and the systems
will be identified by the MAC address. It checks for physical transmission errors and packages
bits into data frames. The data link layer encompasses two sub-layers of its own:
i. Media Access Control (MAC) layer- It is responsible for controlling how device in a network
gain access to medium and permits to transmit data.
ii. Logical link control layer- This layer is responsible for identity and encapsulating network-
layer protocols and allows you to find the error.

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Network layer: It is responsible for source to destination delivery and the system will be
identified by IP Address. It is responsible for receiving frames from the data link layer and
delivering them to their intended destinations among based on the addresses contained inside
the frame.
Transport layer: It is responsible for process to process or end to end delivery and the system
will be identified by port address. It regulates the size, sequencing, and ultimately the transfer
of data between systems and hosts. One of the most common examples of the transport layer
is TCP or the Transmission Control Protocol.
It determines how much data should be sent where and at what rate. This layer builds on the
message which are received from the application layer. It helps ensure that data units are
delivered error-free and in sequence.
Transport layer helps you to control the reliability of a link through flow control, error control,
and segmentation.
The transport layer also offers an acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and
sends the next data in case no errors occurred. TCP is the best-known example of the transport
layer.
Session layer: It is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction between
communicating devices. Session Layer controls the dialogues between computers. It helps in
establishing the starting and terminating connections between the local and remote application.
Presentation layer: It is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between the two systems. Because of this, it at times also called the syntax layer. It
also helps in handling the data compression and data encryption.
Application layer: It serves as a window for users and application processes to access network
service. The application layer identifies communication partners, resource availability, and
synchronizes communication.
• The lower layer will always encapsulate the higher level i.e. higher layer will act as a data
to lower layer and attach a header of its own.

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1.1. Comparison of Networking Devices in different layers

Layer Device Address Functionality Protocols

• Point-To-Point Configuration,
• Bit synchronization,
Physical Hub, MAC
Layer Repeater Address • Physical Topology,
• defines direction of
transmission,
• Node-to-Node delivery
Data Link • Logic link control
IEEE 802.2, IEEE
MAC
Layer Bridge • Access control 802.11, Token Ring,
Address
PPP
• Error control
• Flow control
• Logical Addressing
Network IP • Routing IP, IPv6, ICMP,
Router
Layer address IGMP, ARP, RARP
• Datagram encapsulation,
fragmentation & reassembling
• End to End transmission
• Process level addressing

Transport Port • Segmentation

Gateway TCP, UDP
Layer Address • Multiplexing/Demultiplexing
• Congestion control
• Flow Control
Session • Session Establishment Sockets, RPC,
Layer • Management and termination NetBIOS
• Data translation
Presentation
• Compression SSL, MIME
Layer
• Encryption
DNS, BOOTP, DHCP,
Application SNMP, FTP, TFTP,
Layer
• User application services SMTP, HTTP, Telnet,
IMAP, POP3

1.2. Advantages of OSI:

• It is a generic model and acts as a guidance tool to develop any network model.
• It is a layered model. Changes are one layer do not affect other layers, provided that
the interfaces between the layers do not change drastically.
• It distinctly separates services, interfaces, and protocols. Hence, it is flexible in nature.
Protocols in each layer can be replaced very conveniently depending upon the nature
of the network.
• It supports both connection-oriented services and connectionless services.

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1.3. Disadvantages of OSI:

• It is purely a theoretical model that does not consider the availability of appropriate
technology. This restricts its practical implementation.
• The OSI model is very complex. The initial implementation was cumbersome, slow and
costly.
• Though there are many layers, some of the layers like the session layer and
presentation layer have very little functionality when practically deployed.
• There is a duplication of services in various layers. Services like addressing, flow
control and error control are offered by multiple layers.
• The OSI model did not meet the practical needs as well as the TCP/IP model. So, it
was labelled as inferior quality.
1.4. TCP/IP Model:
• The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
• The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer, network
layer, data link layer and physical layer.
• The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface, internetworking,
and transport functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model and
these four layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a single layer called the
application layer.
• TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of them
provides specific functionality.
Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two or more
lower-level protocols.

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• The application layer provides applications with standardized data exchange. Its
protocols include the HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer protocol) , FTP (File Transfer Protocol),
Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) and Simple
Network Management Protocol (SNMP), TELNET (TERminal NETwork). At the
application layer, the payload is the actual application data.
• The transport layer is responsible for maintaining end-to-end communications
across the network. TCP handles communications between hosts and provides flow
control, multiplexing and reliability. The transport protocols include (TCP) and User
Datagram Protocol (UDP), which is sometimes used instead of TCP for special purposes
• The network layer, also called the internet layer, deals with packets and connects
independent networks to transport the packets across network boundaries. The
network layer protocols are the IP and the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP),
which is used for error reporting.
• The physical layer, also known as the network interface layer or data link layer,
consists of protocols that operate only on a link -- the network component that
interconnects nodes or hosts in the network. The protocols in this lowest layer
include Ethernet for local area networks (LANs) and the Address Resolution Protocol
(ARP).

Protocols

Application Layer

HTTP Hyper Text Transfer protocol

FTP File Transfer Protocol

POP3 Post Office Protocol 3

SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol

TELNET Terminal Network

DNS Domain Name System

TFTP Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)

NFC Near Field Communication

RPC Remote Procedure Call

Transport Layer

TCP Transmission Control Protocol

UDP User Datagram Protocol

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Network Layer

ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol

IGMP Internet Group Management Protocol

ARP Address Resolution Protocol

RARP Reverse Address Resolution Protocol

LSR Link State Routing

OSB Open shortest path first

1.5. Importance of TCP/IP:

TCP/IP is non-proprietary and, as a result, is not controlled by any single company.
Therefore, the Internet Protocol suite can be modified easily. It is compatible with all
operating systems, so it can communicate with any other system. The Internet Protocol
suite is also compatible with all types of computer hardware and networks
TCP/IP is highly scalable and, as a routable protocol, can determine the most efficient
path through the network. It is widely used in current internet architecture.

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