TOPIC 10: GEAR MEASUREMENT

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 1. Tooth thickness

Tooth thickness in gear measurement is a critical parameter for ensuring proper gear function and performance.
Tooth thickness refers to the width of a gear tooth measured along the pitch circle, which is the imaginary circle
that represents the smooth, circular path that the teeth would follow if the gear were perfectly smooth. Accurate
measurement of tooth thickness is essential for gear manufacturing and quality control. Here are the methods
and tools used to measure tooth thickness in gears:

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Methods of Measuring Tooth Thickness:

1. Chordal Thickness Measurement:

o Description: Chordal thickness is the distance across a gear tooth measured from one side to the
other along a line (chord) that is parallel to the pitch circle.
o Tools Used: Gear tooth calipers are commonly used to measure the chordal thickness directly.
The caliper's jaws are positioned on the gear tooth, and the measurement is taken.
2. Span Measurement:
o Description: Span measurement involves measuring the distance over several gear teeth, usually
two or more, to calculate the average tooth thickness. This method helps to account for variations
in individual teeth.
o Tools Used: Gear span micrometers are used for this purpose. The micrometer spans over a set
number of teeth, and the measurement is taken across the specified span.
3. Base Tangent Length Measurement:
o Description: The base tangent length is the distance measured along the tangent to the base
circle of the gear between two opposite flanks of the gear teeth.
o Tools Used: Specialized micrometers or comparators are used to measure the base tangent
length.
4. Over Pin or Ball Measurement:
o Description: This method involves placing two pins or balls of a known diameter in the spaces
between the gear teeth and measuring the distance between them.
o Tools Used: A micrometer is used to measure the distance over the pins or balls. The diameter of
the pins or balls is chosen based on the gear’s module or diametral pitch.

Tools and Instruments for Measuring Tooth Thickness:

1. Gear Tooth Caliper:

o Description: A gear tooth caliper is a specialized caliper designed to measure the chordal
thickness of gear teeth directly.
o Usage: The caliper jaws are placed on the gear tooth, and the chordal thickness is read from the
scale or digital display.
2. Gear Span Micrometer:
o Description: A gear span micrometer measures the span over a set number of gear teeth.
o Usage: The micrometer is positioned across the specified number of teeth, and the span
measurement is taken.
3. Base Tangent Micrometer:
o Description: This micrometer measures the base tangent length, which helps in determining the
tooth thickness.
o Usage: The micrometer is used to measure the distance between two opposite flanks of the gear
teeth along the tangent to the base circle.
4. Pin/Ball and Micrometer:
o Description: Pins or balls of a known diameter are placed in the gear tooth spaces, and a
micrometer measures the distance between them.
o Usage: This method is particularly useful for measuring internal gears or gears with small
module sizes.

Steps to Measure Tooth Thickness:

1. Preparation:
o Ensure the gear is clean and free from debris or burrs that could affect the measurement.
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 oSelect the appropriate measuring tool based on the gear’s specifications and the preferred
measurement method.
2. Measurement:
o For chordal thickness, use the gear tooth caliper to measure the width of the gear tooth at the
pitch circle.
o For span measurement, use the gear span micrometer to measure the span over the specified
number of teeth.
o For base tangent length, use the base tangent micrometer to measure the distance between two
opposite flanks of the gear teeth along the tangent.
o For over pin or ball measurement, place the pins or balls in the tooth spaces and use the
micrometer to measure the distance between them.
3. Calculation:
o For span and base tangent measurements, calculate the average tooth thickness or use the
measurements to determine if the gear meets the required specifications.
4. Recording:
o Record the measurements and compare them with the gear’s design specifications to ensure
compliance with tolerance limits.

Importance of Accurate Tooth Thickness Measurement:

 Performance: Proper tooth thickness ensures smooth meshing of gears, reducing noise and vibration.
 Durability: Correct tooth thickness helps distribute loads evenly, reducing wear and extending the
gear’s lifespan.
 Interchangeability: Accurate measurement ensures that gears can be replaced or interchanged without
compatibility issues.
 Quality Control: Ensuring that gears meet specified dimensions is crucial for maintaining quality in
manufacturing processes.

By following the appropriate methods and using the correct tools, precise measurement of tooth thickness in
gears can be achieved, ensuring optimal gear performance and longevity.

(i) Gear tooth Vernier

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A gear tooth vernier, also known as a gear tooth caliper, is a specialized instrument used for measuring the
thickness of gear teeth directly at the pitch line. This tool is particularly useful for precision measurement and
quality control in gear manufacturing. Here’s a detailed description of the gear tooth vernier, its construction,
and how it is used for measuring tooth thickness.

Construction of Gear Tooth Vernier:

1. Main Scale and Vernier Scale:

o Main Scale: The main scale of the gear tooth vernier is graduated in millimeters or inches and
provides the primary measurement.
o Vernier Scale: The vernier scale allows for more precise readings, usually to the nearest 0.01
mm or 0.001 inches, depending on the model.
2. Measuring Jaws:
o Fixed Jaw: One jaw is fixed and serves as the reference point.
o Movable Jaw: The other jaw is movable and can be adjusted to measure the distance between
the gear teeth.
3. Probes:
o Probes: The gear tooth vernier has specially designed probes that fit into the gear tooth spaces.
These probes are aligned with the pitch circle of the gear to measure the chordal thickness
accurately.
4. Locking Screw:
o Locking Mechanism: A locking screw allows the user to lock the movable jaw in place after
making a measurement, ensuring that the reading remains stable.
5. Fine Adjustment:
o Fine Adjustment Mechanism: Some gear tooth verniers come with a fine adjustment
mechanism for precise positioning of the measuring jaws.

Operation of Gear Tooth Vernier:

1. Preparation:
o Clean the Gear: Ensure the gear and the vernier caliper are clean and free from debris or burrs
that could affect the measurement.
o Zero the Caliper: Before taking a measurement, ensure that the vernier caliper is zeroed
correctly.
2. Positioning the Vernier:
o Align with the Pitch Circle: Position the gear tooth vernier so that the probes fit into the tooth
spaces and the measuring jaws are aligned with the pitch circle of the gear.
o Adjust the Jaws: Open the movable jaw and place the vernier on the gear tooth. Adjust the
movable jaw so that the probes contact the flanks of the gear tooth at the pitch circle.
3. Taking the Measurement:
o Read the Main Scale: Note the reading on the main scale where the zero mark of the vernier
scale aligns.
o Read the Vernier Scale: Look at the vernier scale and note the line that aligns best with any line
on the main scale. This provides the fractional part of the measurement.
o Combine Readings: Combine the readings from the main scale and the vernier scale to get the
total measurement of the chordal thickness.
4. Recording the Measurement:
o Record the Results: Write down the measurement and compare it to the gear’s design
specifications. Ensure that the measurement falls within the acceptable tolerance range.

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Example Calculation:

Suppose the main scale reading is 12.5 mm, and the vernier scale reading is 0.02 mm.

 Main Scale Reading: 12.5 mm

 Vernier Scale Reading: 0.02 mm
 Total Measurement: 12.5 mm + 0.02 mm = 12.52 mm

Importance of Using a Gear Tooth Vernier:

1. Precision: The gear tooth vernier provides highly precise measurements of gear tooth thickness, which
is crucial for the proper functioning of gears.
2. Quality Control: Ensures that gears meet design specifications and tolerance limits, which is vital for
maintaining quality in manufacturing processes.
3. Performance: Accurate measurement of tooth thickness ensures smooth meshing of gears, reducing
noise, vibration, and wear.
4. Interchangeability: Helps in ensuring that gears are interchangeable without compatibility issues,
which is important for maintenance and repairs.

Summary:

The gear tooth vernier is a specialized tool used for measuring the chordal thickness of gear teeth directly at the
pitch line. Its construction includes a main scale, vernier scale, measuring jaws, probes, locking screw, and
sometimes a fine adjustment mechanism. By following proper measurement procedures, the gear tooth vernier
allows for precise and accurate measurement of gear tooth thickness, which is essential for gear performance,
quality control, and manufacturing consistency.

(ii) Constant chord comparator

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A constant chord comparator is another tool used for the precise measurement of gear tooth thickness. The
concept of constant chord measurement involves measuring the distance between two points on the gear tooth
flanks that are a fixed distance apart, irrespective of the gear's size. This method is beneficial because it
provides a direct measurement that is less affected by gear profile variations and deviations.

Construction of Constant Chord Comparator:

1. Fixed Reference Points:

o Constant Chord Length: The constant chord is a predefined, fixed length specific to the gear
being measured, which ensures that the measurement is consistent across different teeth.
o Reference Markings: The comparator includes markings or a setup to ensure that the
measurement is taken at the correct chord length.
2. Measuring Probes or Points:
o Probes: The constant chord comparator has two probes or contact points that are set at the
predefined chord length. These probes contact the flanks of the gear tooth.
o Adjustable Probes: In some designs, the probes can be adjusted to fit the exact constant chord
length required for different gears.
3. Measurement Scale:
o Dial Gauge or Digital Readout: The comparator typically features a dial gauge or a digital
display to show the measurement directly. The dial gauge provides an analog reading, while the
digital readout gives a precise numerical value.
4. Base and Support:
o Stable Base: A sturdy base to hold the gear and the measuring device in place, ensuring minimal
movement and vibration during measurement.
o Support Arm: An arm or frame to hold the measuring device and maintain the correct
orientation and position relative to the gear.

Operation of Constant Chord Comparator:

1. Setup:
o Select Constant Chord Length: Determine the constant chord length for the gear being
measured. This is usually provided by the gear's design specifications or calculated based on the
gear parameters.
o Position the Gear: Place the gear on the stable base, ensuring it is securely held and does not
move during measurement.
2. Aligning the Probes:
o Adjust Probes: If the comparator has adjustable probes, set them to the correct constant chord
length.
o Position Probes: Place the probes on the flanks of the gear tooth. Ensure the probes are at the
correct height to measure the chord at the pitch circle.
3. Taking the Measurement:
o Read the Dial Gauge or Digital Display: Observe the reading on the dial gauge or digital
display. This reading represents the tooth thickness at the constant chord length.
o Consistent Pressure: Apply consistent pressure to ensure that the probes make firm contact with
the gear tooth flanks without deforming the tooth.
4. Recording the Measurement:
o Document the Results: Record the measurement and compare it to the gear's specifications to
ensure it falls within the acceptable tolerance range.

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Example Calculation:

 Constant Chord Length (C): Let’s assume the constant chord length is 20 mm.
 Measured Tooth Thickness (T): If the dial gauge reads 5.25 mm, this is the tooth thickness at the
constant chord length.

Advantages of Using Constant Chord Comparator:

1. Accuracy: Provides a highly accurate measurement of tooth thickness that is less affected by gear
profile variations.
2. Consistency: Ensures consistent measurements across different teeth by maintaining a fixed
measurement length.
3. Simplicity: Offers a straightforward and direct method for measuring tooth thickness without the need
for complex calculations.

Applications:

 Quality Control: Used in manufacturing to ensure gears meet design specifications.

 Maintenance: Helps in verifying gear condition during routine inspections.
 Research and Development: Used in the development of new gear designs to ensure proper tooth
geometry.

Summary:

The constant chord comparator is a precise tool for measuring the thickness of gear teeth at a fixed chord length.
Its construction includes fixed reference points, measuring probes, a measurement scale (dial gauge or digital
display), and a stable base. The operation involves setting up the gear, aligning the probes, taking the
measurement, and recording the results. This method provides accurate and consistent measurements, making it
valuable for quality control, maintenance, and research in gear manufacturing and design.

(iii) Measurement over rollers

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The measurement over rollers method is a precise technique used to measure the thickness of gear teeth,
particularly for helical gears, bevel gears, and some other complex gear types. This method involves placing
two rollers of known diameter into adjacent spaces between the gear teeth and measuring the distance between
the outer surfaces of these rollers. This technique helps in determining the tooth thickness indirectly.

Construction and Setup:

1. Rollers:
o Diameter: Two cylindrical rollers of known, precise diameters are used. The diameter of the
rollers is chosen based on the module or diametral pitch of the gear.
o Material: The rollers are usually made of hard, wear-resistant materials such as steel to ensure
accuracy and longevity.
2. Micrometer:
o External Micrometer: A precision external micrometer or a specialized gauge is used to
measure the distance between the outer surfaces of the rollers.
o Accuracy: The micrometer should have a high degree of accuracy, typically to within a few
micrometers, to ensure precise measurement.
3. Fixture or Holding Device:
o Stable Holding: A fixture or holding device may be used to hold the gear and the rollers in
place, ensuring stability during measurement.

Operation of Measurement Over Rollers:

1. Preparation:
o Select Rollers: Choose rollers with a diameter suitable for the gear’s module or diametral pitch.
Ensure the rollers are clean and free from defects.
o Position Gear: Secure the gear in a stable fixture or holding device to prevent movement during
measurement.
2. Placing Rollers:
o Insert Rollers: Insert the two rollers into adjacent spaces between the gear teeth. Ensure the
rollers are positioned correctly and seated at the same depth.
3. Taking the Measurement:
o Measure Distance: Using the external micrometer, measure the distance between the outer
surfaces of the two rollers. This distance is referred to as the "measurement over rollers."
o Consistent Pressure: Apply consistent pressure on the micrometer to ensure accurate
measurement without deforming the rollers or the gear teeth.
4. Calculating Tooth Thickness:
o Formula: The actual tooth thickness can be calculated using the measurement over rollers and
the known diameter of the rollers. The calculation will also involve considering the gear
geometry, such as the module, pressure angle, and the number of teeth.
o Equation: The general formula for calculating the tooth thickness (S) from the measurement
over rollers (M) is: S=M−2Rcos⁡(α)S = M - 2R \cos(\alpha)S=M−2Rcos(α) where RRR is the
radius of the rollers and α\alphaα is the pressure angle of the gear.

Example Calculation:

Suppose you have a gear with the following parameters:

 Roller diameter: 5 mm
 Measurement over rollers: 25 mm
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  Pressure angle (α): 20 degrees

First, convert the roller diameter to the radius: R=52=2.5 mm

Next, calculate the cosine of the pressure angle:

cos(α)=cos(20∘)≈0.9397

Now, plug these values into the formula:

S=25 mm−2×2.5 mm×0.9397≈25 mm−4.6985 mm≈20.3015 mm

Thus, the tooth thickness SSS is approximately 20.3015 mm.

Advantages of Using the Measurement Over Rollers Method:

1. Precision: Provides a highly accurate measurement of gear tooth thickness.

2. Versatility: Suitable for different types of gears, including helical and bevel gears.
3. Indirect Measurement: Helps in obtaining tooth thickness without direct contact with the gear tooth
flanks, reducing the risk of damaging the gear.
4. Applicability: Useful for gears with small module sizes or fine teeth, where direct measurement
methods might be challenging.

Summary:

The measurement over rollers method is a precise and reliable technique for determining the thickness of gear
teeth. It involves placing two rollers of known diameter into adjacent gear tooth spaces and measuring the
distance between the outer surfaces of these rollers using an external micrometer. This method, combined with
appropriate calculations, provides accurate tooth thickness measurements, essential for gear manufacturing,
quality control, and ensuring proper gear function.

2. Helical gears

Helical gears are a type of cylindrical gear with teeth that are cut at an angle to the axis of rotation, forming a
helix shape. This design allows for smoother and quieter operation compared to spur gears, which have teeth
that are parallel to the axis of rotation. Helical gears are widely used in various applications due to their
efficiency and ability to handle higher loads.

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Key Features of Helical Gears:

1. Helical Angle:
o Definition: The angle at which the gear teeth are inclined relative to the gear axis.
o Impact: Affects the gear's axial thrust, load-carrying capacity, and smoothness of operation.
2. Tooth Engagement:
o Overlap: The angled teeth allow for gradual engagement, meaning that at any given time,
multiple teeth are in contact.
o Advantages: This results in smoother transmission of power, reduced noise, and lower vibration
compared to spur gears.
3. Load Distribution:
o Efficiency: Helical gears distribute the load more evenly across the teeth, which increases the
load-carrying capacity and reduces stress on individual teeth.

Advantages of Helical Gears:

1. Smooth Operation:
o Gradual Engagement: The gradual engagement of teeth reduces shocks and vibrations, leading
to quieter and smoother operation.
2. Higher Load Capacity:
o Load Distribution: The load is distributed over multiple teeth, allowing helical gears to handle
higher loads compared to spur gears.
3. Versatility:
o Applications: Suitable for both parallel and non-parallel shaft arrangements, including right-
angle configurations.
4. Efficiency:
o Power Transmission: Helical gears are efficient in transmitting power and can operate at high
speeds with minimal losses.

Disadvantages of Helical Gears:

1. Axial Thrust:
o Axial Forces: The angled teeth generate axial thrust forces, which need to be managed by using
thrust bearings.
o Design Complexity: This adds to the complexity of the gear system design.
2. Manufacturing Complexity:
o Precision: Helical gears are more complex to manufacture than spur gears due to the helix angle
and tooth profile.
3. Cost:
o Expense: The increased complexity and precision requirements make helical gears more
expensive to produce.

Applications of Helical Gears:

1. Automotive Industry:
o Gearboxes: Commonly used in car transmissions due to their smooth operation and ability to
handle high speeds and loads.
2. Industrial Machinery:
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 o
Conveyors: Used in conveyor systems and other machinery that requires reliable and efficient
power transmission.
3. Aerospace:
o Engines: Employed in aerospace applications for their durability and ability to handle high loads
and speeds.
4. Power Generation:
o Turbines: Used in turbine engines and other power generation equipment.

Measurement and Quality Control:

1. Tooth Thickness:
o Methods: Measured using techniques such as measurement over rollers, gear tooth vernier
calipers, and constant chord comparators.
o Importance: Ensures proper meshing and load distribution between gears.
2. Helix Angle:
o Accuracy: Critical for ensuring smooth operation and efficient power transmission.
o Measurement: Typically measured using specialized equipment and techniques to ensure
precision.
3. Axial Thrust:
o Management: Must be managed using appropriate bearings and design considerations to
prevent damage and ensure reliable operation.

Summary:

Helical gears are widely used in various applications due to their smooth operation, high load capacity, and
versatility. Their design, featuring angled teeth, allows for gradual engagement and efficient power
transmission. While they present some challenges in terms of axial thrust and manufacturing complexity, the
advantages often outweigh these drawbacks. Proper measurement and quality control are essential for ensuring
the performance and reliability of helical gears in any application

(i) Gear rolling test machine

A gear rolling test machine is a specialized equipment used to measure the pitch error and eccentricity of teeth
in helical gears. These machines provide a non-destructive way to evaluate the quality and accuracy of gears,
ensuring that they meet the required specifications for smooth operation and efficient power transmission.
Here's an overview of the construction, operation, and benefits of using a gear rolling test machine for helical
gears.

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Construction of Gear Rolling Test Machine:

1. Base and Frame:

o Sturdy Construction: The base and frame of the machine are made from heavy-duty materials
to provide stability and minimize vibrations during testing.
o Precision Alignment: Ensures that all components are precisely aligned for accurate
measurements.
2. Spindles:
o Master Gear Spindle: Holds the master gear, which is a reference gear with known dimensions
and high accuracy.
o Test Gear Spindle: Holds the gear being tested. Both spindles are mounted on bearings to allow
smooth rotation.
3. Measurement System:
o Dial Indicators: Precision dial indicators or electronic sensors measure the variations in tooth
spacing (pitch error) and eccentricity.
o Data Acquisition: Modern machines may use digital systems to collect and analyze data in real-
time.
4. Drive System:
o Motor and Controls: A motor drives the spindles, rotating the gears at a controlled speed. The
controls allow for adjustment of speed and other parameters.
5. Adjustment Mechanisms:
o Fine Adjustments: Mechanisms to finely adjust the positioning of the gears to ensure proper
meshing and alignment.

Operation of Gear Rolling Test Machine:

1. Setup:
o
Mounting the Gears: The master gear is mounted on the master gear spindle, and the test gear is
mounted on the test gear spindle.
o Aligning the Gears: The gears are aligned to ensure proper meshing. This may involve
adjusting the spindles and checking the alignment with precision tools.
2. Rolling Process:
o Engagement: The gears are engaged, and the machine is started. The gears rotate in mesh,
simulating actual operating conditions.
o Measuring Pitch Error: The dial indicators or sensors measure the variations in tooth spacing
as the gears rotate. Pitch error is the deviation from the ideal tooth spacing.
o Measuring Eccentricity: The machine also measures the eccentricity, which is the deviation of
the gear's center from its true rotational axis.
3. Data Collection and Analysis:
o Real-Time Data: Measurements are taken in real-time as the gears rotate. The data is recorded
and analyzed to determine the pitch error and eccentricity.
o Graphical Representation: The results can be displayed graphically, showing the deviations
across the entire circumference of the gear.
4. Interpreting Results:
o Tolerance Comparison: The measured errors are compared against the acceptable tolerance
levels specified for the gear. This helps in identifying any deviations that could affect the gear's
performance.

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 o Quality Assessment: Based on the results, the quality of the gear can be assessed, and necessary
adjustments or corrections can be made in the manufacturing process.

Benefits of Gear Rolling Test Machine:

1. Accuracy: Provides highly accurate measurements of pitch error and eccentricity, ensuring that gears
meet precise specifications.
2. Non-Destructive Testing: Allows for the evaluation of gears without causing any damage, making it
suitable for quality control in production environments.
3. Real-Time Analysis: Enables immediate detection of errors, facilitating quick adjustments and
corrections in the manufacturing process.
4. Quality Assurance: Ensures that gears operate smoothly, reducing noise, vibration, and wear, thereby
enhancing the overall performance and longevity of gear assemblies.
5. Comprehensive Testing: Can be used for various types of gears, including helical, spur, and bevel
gears, making it versatile and valuable in different industrial applications.

Summary:

A gear rolling test machine is essential for measuring pitch error and eccentricity in helical gears. Its
construction includes a sturdy base, precision spindles, a measurement system, a drive system, and adjustment
mechanisms. The operation involves setting up the gears, engaging them, and measuring the deviations in tooth
spacing and gear center. The benefits of using such a machine include accurate, non-destructive testing, real-
time data analysis, and improved quality assurance for gear manufacturing.

(i) comparison of helical and spur gear elements in terms of circular pitch, module, tooth thickness,
p.c.d, chordal thickness, base diameter and pitch

Helical and spur gears are two of the most commonly used types of gears in mechanical systems. While they
share some fundamental characteristics, their differences in geometry and performance have significant
implications on their specific elements. Here's a detailed comparison of helical and spur gear elements in terms

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of circular pitch, module, tooth thickness, pitch circle diameter (P.C.D), chordal thickness, base diameter, and
pitch.

1. Circular Pitch (p)

Definition: The circular pitch is the distance measured along the pitch circle from one point on a tooth to the
corresponding point on the adjacent tooth.

 Spur Gears:
o Description: In spur gears, the circular pitch is straightforward and measured directly along the
pitch circle.
o Calculation: p=π×dNp
o p=Nπ×d
o Uniformity: The circular pitch remains constant around the entire pitch circle.
 Helical Gears:
o Description: In helical gears, the circular pitch is measured along the helix, making it slightly
longer due to the angle.
o Calculation: p=π×dN÷cos(β)
o p=Nπ×d÷cos(β)
o where β\betaβ is the helix angle.
o Adjustment: The helix angle must be taken into account, making the calculation a bit more
complex.

2. Module (m)

Definition: The module is the ratio of the pitch circle diameter to the number of teeth, reflecting the size of the
teeth.

 Spur Gears:
o Description: The module is the same for all teeth and is directly related to the gear’s physical
size.
o Calculation: m=dN
o m=Nd
o Uniformity: It remains constant throughout the gear.
 Helical Gears:
o Description: The normal module is used, reflecting the perpendicular distance between adjacent
teeth along the helix.
o Calculation: m=dN÷cos(β)
o m=Nd÷cos(β)
o Adjustment: The helix angle affects the module calculation, requiring adjustment to ensure
correct tooth size.

3. Tooth Thickness

Definition: The tooth thickness is the thickness of a gear tooth measured along the pitch circle.

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  Spur Gears:
o Description: Tooth thickness is measured directly on the pitch circle.
o Calculation: Tooth Thickness=p2=π×d2N
o Thickness=2p=2Nπ×d
o Uniformity: Constant around the gear.
 Helical Gears:
o Description: Tooth thickness must be measured in the normal plane (perpendicular to the helix).
o Calculation: Tooth Thickness=p÷cos(β)2 =π×d2N÷cos(β)
o Tooth Thickness=2p÷cos(β)=2N÷cos(β)π×d
o Adjustment: The helix angle complicates the direct measurement.

4. Pitch Circle Diameter (P.C.D.)

Definition: The diameter of the circle which passes through the pitch point of each tooth.

 Spur Gears:
o Description: Directly calculated and straightforward.
o Calculation: P.C.D.=dP.C.D. = dP.C.D.=d
o Uniformity: A simple calculation based on the number of teeth and module.
 Helical Gears:
o Description: Calculated similarly but considering the helix angle.
o Calculation: P.C.D.=dP.C.D. = dP.C.D.=d
o Adjustment: The basic definition remains the same, but the helix angle affects other
dimensions.

5. Chordal Thickness

Definition: The thickness of a tooth measured along a straight line chord, rather than along the arc.

 Spur Gears:
o Description: Measured straightforwardly along the pitch circle.
o Calculation: Chordal Thickness=2×R×sin(π2N
o Chordal Thickness=2×R×sin(2Nπ)
o Uniformity: Simple and direct due to the straight tooth profile.
 Helical Gears:
o Description: Measured similarly, but in the normal plane.
o Calculation: Chordal Thickness=2×(R÷cos(β))×sin(π2N)
Chordal Thickness=2×(R÷cos(β))×sin(2Nπ)
o Adjustment: Requires adjustment for the helix angle.

6. Base Diameter (d_b)

Definition: The diameter of the base circle from which the involute profile of the tooth is generated.

 Spur Gears:
o Description: Directly calculated from the pitch diameter and pressure angle.
o Calculation: db=dcos(ϕ)
o where ϕ is the pressure angle.
o Uniformity: Simple and straightforward.

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  Helical Gears:
o Description: Affected by the helix angle as well as the pressure angle.
o Calculation: db=dcos(ϕ)
o Adjustment: The base diameter does not directly consider the helix angle but affects the
involute generation.
o

7. Pitch

Definition: Refers to various measurements, but generally the distance between similar points on adjacent teeth.

 Spur Gears:
o Description: Includes circular pitch and diametral pitch.
o Circular Pitch Calculation: p=π×dN
o p=Nπ×d
o Diametral Pitch Calculation: P=Nd
o P=dN
 Helical Gears:
o Description: Similar to spur gears but adjusted for the helix angle.
o Circular Pitch Calculation: p=π×dN÷cos(β
o p=N÷cos(β)π×d
o Diametral Pitch Calculation: P=N÷cos(β)d
o P=dN÷cos(β)

Conclusion:

Helical gears and spur gears have several similarities in their fundamental elements, but the helix angle in
helical gears adds complexity to their measurements and calculations. Understanding these differences is crucial
for accurate gear design and application, ensuring that each gear type performs optimally in its intended use.

TYPICAL GEAR ERRORS

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Gear errors can significantly affect the performance and lifespan of gears, leading to noise, vibration, and
reduced efficiency. Understanding these errors is essential for proper gear design, manufacturing, and
maintenance. Here are some typical gear errors:

1. Pitch Errors

Definition: Pitch error is the deviation in the distance between successive teeth measured along the pitch circle.

 Types:
o Cumulative Pitch Error: The total deviation accumulated over multiple teeth.
o Single Pitch Error: The deviation in distance between any two adjacent teeth.

Effects: Leads to irregular gear meshing, noise, and vibrations.

2. Profile Errors

Definition: Profile error is the deviation of the actual tooth profile from the theoretical involute profile.

 Types:
o Form Error: Deviation over the entire profile of the tooth.
o Lead Error: Deviation in the tooth's helix angle (for helical gears).

Effects: Causes uneven load distribution, increased wear, and noise.

3. Runout Errors

Definition: Runout error is the deviation of the gear's pitch circle from a perfect circle, causing the teeth to be
closer or further apart as the gear rotates.

 Measurement: Typically measured with a dial indicator as the gear rotates.

Effects: Results in variable tooth spacing, leading to vibration and uneven gear wear.

4. Tooth Thickness Errors

Definition: Tooth thickness error is the deviation in the thickness of the gear teeth, measured at the pitch circle.

Effects: Causes improper meshing, backlash variations, and increased noise.

5. Helix Angle Errors (for Helical Gears)

Definition: Helix angle error is the deviation in the intended angle of the helical gear teeth.

Effects: Leads to axial thrust variations, increased wear, and noise.

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6. Tooth Alignment Errors

Definition: Tooth alignment error is the misalignment of the gear teeth along the face width of the gear.

Effects: Results in uneven load distribution across the tooth width, increased wear, and noise.

7. Eccentricity

Definition: Eccentricity error occurs when the center of the gear does not coincide with the center of rotation.

Effects: Causes variable tooth engagement, leading to vibrations and uneven wear.

8. Backlash Errors

Definition: Backlash error is the deviation in the gap between mating gear teeth.

Effects: Excessive backlash can cause noise and reduced accuracy, while insufficient backlash can lead to
jamming and increased wear.

9. Surface Finish Errors

Definition: Surface finish error is the deviation in the smoothness of the gear tooth surface.

Effects: Causes increased friction, noise, and reduced efficiency.

10. Waviness

Definition: Waviness is the presence of periodic deviations on the gear tooth surface, which can be due to
manufacturing processes.

Effects: Leads to noise, vibrations, and uneven load distribution.

11. Burnishing

Definition: Burnishing error is the result of surface hardening techniques that can cause distortions in the gear
teeth.

Effects: Affects the gear's meshing quality and can lead to increased wear and noise.

Summary:

Understanding these typical gear errors is crucial for diagnosing and addressing issues in gear systems. Proper
design, manufacturing, and maintenance practices can minimize these errors, ensuring smooth operation,
efficiency, and longevity of gear mechanisms.

4. ERROR IN INVOLUTE FORMS

(I) Optical projector and master drawing

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Optical Projector and Master Drawing in Error Detection of Involute Forms

Optical Projector:

An optical projector, also known as a profile projector or shadowgraph, is a precision measurement tool used to
inspect the geometry of gear teeth and other components by projecting a magnified image onto a screen for
detailed analysis.

Components:

1. Light Source:
o Provides illumination for projecting the shadow of the component onto the screen.
2. Lenses and Mirrors:
o Magnify the image of the gear tooth profile.
3. Projection Screen:
o Displays the magnified profile for inspection.
4. Measurement Scales:
o Allow precise measurement of dimensions and deviations from the desired profile.

Operation:

1. Mounting the Gear:

o The gear or component is mounted on the stage of the optical projector.
2. Projection:
o The light source projects the shadow of the gear tooth profile onto the screen.
3. Magnification:
o The lenses magnify the image to allow detailed inspection.
o
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 4. Comparison:
o The magnified profile is compared to a master drawing or template to identify deviations and
errors.

Master Drawing:

A master drawing is a highly accurate representation of the ideal gear tooth profile, usually created to very tight
tolerances. It serves as a reference for comparison during inspection.

Components:

1. Involute Profile:
o The theoretical shape of the gear tooth, based on the involute curve.
2. Tolerances:
o Specified limits within which the actual gear tooth profile should fall.
3. Reference Points:
o Critical points on the gear tooth profile used for precise comparison.

Use in Error Detection:

1. Overlay Method:
o The master drawing is overlaid on the magnified image of the gear tooth profile on the projection
screen.
2. Deviation Measurement:
o Any deviations between the actual profile and the master drawing are measured using the scales
on the projection screen.
3. Error Identification:
o Errors such as pitch error, profile error, and runout can be identified by comparing the actual
profile to the master drawing.

Errors in Involute Forms:

Profile Errors:

 Definition: Deviations of the actual tooth profile from the theoretical involute shape.
 Detection: The optical projector highlights areas where the profile deviates from the master drawing.
 Impact: Can cause uneven load distribution, increased wear, and noise.

Pitch Errors:

 Definition: Variations in the spacing between adjacent teeth.

 Detection: Measured by comparing the distance between teeth to the master drawing.
 Impact: Leads to irregular meshing, noise, and vibrations.

Runout Errors:

 Definition: Eccentricity or wobbling of the gear's pitch circle.

 Detection: Detected by rotating the gear and observing deviations on the projection screen.
 Impact: Causes variable tooth spacing and uneven wear.

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Helix Angle Errors (for Helical Gears):

 Definition: Deviation in the intended angle of the helical gear teeth.

 Detection: Identified by comparing the projected helical angle to the master drawing.
 Impact: Results in axial thrust variations and increased wear.

Summary:

The use of an optical projector and master drawing is an effective method for detecting errors in involute forms
of gear teeth. By projecting a magnified image of the gear tooth profile and comparing it to a highly accurate
master drawing, precise measurements of deviations and errors can be made. This process is crucial for ensuring
the quality and performance of gears in mechanical systems, reducing noise, vibration, and wear while ensuring
smooth and efficient operation.

(ii) Involute profile testing machine

An involute profile testing machine is a specialized piece of equipment designed to evaluate the accuracy of
gear tooth profiles, specifically the involute profile. The involute profile is crucial for the proper meshing of
gears and ensuring smooth, efficient operation. This machine is used to detect various errors in the involute
form, ensuring that gears meet the required specifications.

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Construction of Involute Profile Testing Machine

1. Base and Frame:

o Sturdy Structure: Provides stability and precision for accurate measurements.
o Alignment: Ensures proper alignment of gear components during testing.
2. Gear Holding Mechanism:
o Spindles or Mounts: Securely hold the gear being tested.
o Adjustments: Allow for precise positioning and alignment of the gear.
3. Measurement System:
o Optical System: Uses optical techniques to project or view the gear profile.
o Sensors: Equipped with high-resolution sensors or dial indicators to measure deviations.
o Data Acquisition: Digital systems for capturing and analyzing measurement data.
4. Projection System:
o Projector or Magnifier: Projects a magnified image of the gear tooth profile for detailed
inspection.
o Screen: Displays the projected image for comparison.
5. Software:
o Analysis Tools: Provides tools for analyzing the measured data, comparing it to the theoretical
profile.
o Error Detection: Identifies deviations and errors in the involute profile.

Operation of Involute Profile Testing Machine

1. Setup:
o
Mount the Gear: Place the gear on the holding mechanism and align it according to the
machine's specifications.
o Adjust Settings: Configure the machine settings for the specific gear being tested, including
measurement parameters.
2. Measurement Process:
o Project Profile: The machine projects a magnified image of the gear tooth profile onto a screen
or uses sensors to capture the profile.
o Compare with Theoretical Profile: The actual gear profile is compared to the theoretical
involute profile.
o Capture Data: The machine records deviations and errors in the gear tooth profile.
3. Analysis:
o Display Results: The machine displays the results of the measurements, highlighting any
deviations from the ideal involute profile.
o Interpret Errors: Analyze the data to identify specific errors, such as profile deviations, pitch
errors, and runout errors.
4. Correction:
o Identify Adjustments: Based on the detected errors, adjustments can be made to the gear
manufacturing process to correct the deviations.
o Re-Test: The corrected gears are re-tested to ensure that the errors have been addressed.

Errors Detected by Involute Profile Testing Machine

1. Profile Errors:
o Definition: Deviations in the actual gear tooth profile from the theoretical involute shape.
o Detection: Identified by comparing the projected or measured profile with the ideal involute
profile.
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 o
Impact: Causes uneven load distribution, increased wear, and potential gear failure.
2. Pitch Errors:
o Definition: Variations in the spacing between adjacent teeth, affecting gear mesh.
o Detection: Measured by analyzing the distance between teeth and comparing it with the
theoretical spacing.
o Impact: Leads to irregular meshing, noise, and vibration.
3. Runout Errors:
o Definition: Eccentricity or wobbling of the gear's pitch circle, leading to uneven tooth
engagement.
o Detection: Observed by rotating the gear and measuring deviations from the ideal pitch circle.
o Impact: Causes variable tooth spacing and increased wear.
4. Helix Angle Errors (for Helical Gears):
o Definition: Deviations in the helix angle of helical gears, affecting axial thrust and performance.
o Detection: Measured by comparing the actual helix angle to the theoretical angle.
o Impact: Results in uneven load distribution and increased wear.

Benefits of Using an Involute Profile Testing Machine

1. Precision: Provides highly accurate measurements of gear tooth profiles.

2. Efficiency: Allows for quick and detailed inspection of gear profiles.
3. Quality Assurance: Ensures that gears meet the required specifications for smooth and efficient
operation.
4. Error Detection: Identifies and quantifies errors in gear profiles, enabling corrective actions to be
taken.
5. Improved Performance: Helps in manufacturing gears with optimal meshing characteristics, reducing
noise, vibration, and wear.

Summary

An involute profile testing machine is essential for ensuring the accuracy of gear tooth profiles, particularly in
detecting errors in involute forms. By projecting a magnified image of the gear profile and comparing it to a
theoretical involute profile, the machine helps identify and correct deviations such as profile errors, pitch errors,
runout errors, and helix angle errors. This ensures high-quality gear production and optimal performance in
mechanical systems.

5. Optical gear tooth measuring devices

Optical gear tooth measuring devices are precision instruments used to inspect and measure gear tooth profiles,
ensuring that they adhere to specified tolerances and geometric requirements. These devices leverage optical

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technology to provide accurate measurements and visual assessments of gear teeth. Here are some common
types and features of optical gear tooth measuring devices:

1. Profile Projector

Description:

 A profile projector, also known as a shadowgraph, projects a magnified image of the gear tooth profile
onto a screen.

Key Features:

 Magnification: Allows detailed inspection of gear teeth profiles.

 Projection Screen: Displays the magnified image for comparison.
 Measurement Scales: Provides precision for measuring dimensions and deviations.
 Comparison Tools: Overlay master drawings or templates to identify errors.

Advantages:

 High-resolution imaging for accurate profile analysis.

 Ability to inspect complex gear tooth geometries.

2. Optical Gear Tooth Tester

Description:

 An optical gear tooth tester is a specialized device for measuring the geometry of gear teeth, including
pitch, profile, and runout errors.

Key Features:

 Optical Sensors: Use high-resolution cameras or sensors to capture the gear tooth profile.
 Measurement Software: Analyzes data and compares it to theoretical profiles.
 Projection System: May include a projection system for visual inspection and comparison.

Advantages:

 Provides detailed measurements and error analysis.

 Automated data collection and analysis for efficiency.

3. Optical Comparator

Description:

 An optical comparator uses a magnifying lens to project a shadow of the gear tooth profile onto a screen
for comparison with a master template.

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Key Features:

 Projector Lens: Magnifies the gear tooth profile for detailed inspection.
 Graduated Screen: Allows for precise measurement of deviations.
 Overlay Templates: Use master templates or drawings for comparison.

Advantages:

 Simple and effective for visual inspection and measurement.

 Suitable for checking basic gear tooth profiles and errors.

4. Optical Measuring Microscope

Description:

 An optical measuring microscope provides high magnification and precision for measuring gear tooth
profiles and dimensions.

Key Features:

 High Magnification: Allows for detailed inspection of small gear features.

 Measurement Scales: Integrated scales for accurate measurements.
 Image Capture: Digital imaging capabilities for documentation and analysis.

Advantages:

 High precision for fine measurements and inspections.

 Useful for analyzing intricate details and small features.

5. Laser-Based Optical Gear Measurement Systems

Description:

 Laser-based systems use lasers to scan and measure the gear tooth profile with high accuracy.

Key Features:

 Laser Scanners: Capture precise 3D profiles of gear teeth.

 Software Analysis: Advanced software analyzes laser data for errors and deviations.
 High-Speed Measurement: Provides fast and accurate measurements.

Advantages:

 High accuracy and resolution for detailed gear analysis.

 Ability to measure complex geometries and multiple gears quickly.

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Applications of Optical Gear Tooth Measuring Devices

1. Gear Manufacturing:
o Ensures that gear teeth are produced within specified tolerances and geometric requirements.
2. Quality Control:
o Used in quality control processes to verify the accuracy and precision of gear profiles.
3. Gear Inspection and Maintenance:
o Helps identify wear, damage, or deviations in existing gears, enabling corrective actions.
4. Research and Development:
o Supports the development of new gear designs and testing of prototype gears.

Summary

Optical gear tooth measuring devices are essential tools in gear manufacturing and quality control, providing
accurate and detailed measurements of gear tooth profiles. These devices use various optical technologies,
including profile projectors, optical comparators, measuring microscopes, and laser-based systems, to inspect
and analyze gear teeth. By identifying and quantifying errors such as profile deviations, pitch errors, and runout,
these devices help ensure the proper function, performance, and longevity of gear systems.

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