Operating System Overview

By,
Nabaraj Bahadur Negi
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Outline

 What is an operating system

 Views of operating system
 The history of Operating System
 Evolution of Operating System

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 Introduction
• A modern computer consists of :

• One or more processors ,Main memory ,Disks , Printers, Various

input/output devices

• Managing all these components requires a layer of software – the

operating system

• It is impossible for every application programmer to understand every

detail.

• A layer of computer software is introduced to provide a better, simpler,

cleaner model of the resources and manage them.

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 What is an Operating System?
• An OS is a system program that controls the execution of application
programs and acts as an interface between applications and the computer
hardware.
• The operating system acts as a resources manager and allocates them to
specific programs and users, whenever necessary to perform a particular
task. Therefore operating system is the resource manager.
• A computer system has many resources (hardware and software), which
may be require to complete a task. The commonly required resources are
input/output devices, memory, file storage space, CPU etc.

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• It can be thought of as having three objectives:
• Convenience : An OS makes a computer more convenient to use.
• Efficiency: An OS allows the computer system resources to be used
in an efficient manner.
• Ability to evolve: An OS should be constructed in such a way as to
permit the effective development, testing, and introduction of new
system functions without interfering with service.
• Most computers have two modes of operation: kernel mode and user
mode. The operating system, the most fundamental piece of software,
runs in kernel mode (also called supervisor mode).

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Figure : Where the operating system fits in.

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• The hardware consists of chips, boards, disks, a keyboard, a monitor,
and similar physical objects.
• On top of the hardware is the software.
• OS runs in kernel mode, which has complete access to all the
hardware and can execute any instruction the machine is capable of
executing.
• The rest of the software runs in user mode, in which only a subset of
the machine instructions is available.
• The user interface program, shell or GUI, is the lowest level of user-
mode software, and allows the user to start other programs, such as a
Web browser, email reader, or music player .

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 Computer System Components

• Computer system can be divided into four components

Hardware:

• Provides basic computing resources (CPU, memory, I/O devices).

• Operating System :

• Controls and coordinates the use of hardware among application

programs.

• Application Programs :

• Solve computing problems of users (compilers, database systems, video

games, business programs such as banking software).

• Users : People, machines, other computers

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Two functions:
• From top to down: provide application programmers a clean abstract
set of resources instead of hardware ones.
• From down to top: Manage these hardware resources.

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 The Operating System as a Resource Manager

• Allow multiple programs to run at the same time.

• Manage and protect memory, I/O devices, and other resources.

• Resource management includes multiplexing (sharing) resources in two

different ways:

• In time

• In space
• Modern OS runs multiple programs of multiple users at the same time
• Imagine what would happen if several programs want to print at the same
time?
• How to account the resource usage of each process?
• Resources can be multiplexed:
• How to ensure fairness and efficiency? 10
 The Operating System as an Extended Machine

Figure : Operating systems turn ugly hardware into beautiful abstractions.

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• Abstraction:
• CPU—process
• Storage –- files
• Memory– address space
• 4 types of people:
• Industrial engineer: design hardware
• Kernel designer
• Application programmer: OS’s user
• End users

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 Two Views of Operating System
User View
• The goal of the Operating System is to maximize the work and minimize
the effort of the user.
• Most of the systems are designed to be operated by single user, however in
some systems multiple users can share resources, memory. In these cases
Operating System is designed to handle available resources among
multiple users and CPU efficiently.
• Operating System must be designed by taking both usability and efficient
resource utilization into view.
• In embedded systems(Automated systems) user view is not present.
• There are some devices that contain very less or no user view because
there is no interaction with the users. Examples are embedded computers
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in home devices, automobiles etc.
System View
• The operating system can be viewed as a resource allocator also. A
computer system consists of many resources like - hardware and
software - that must be managed efficiently.
• The operating system acts as the manager of the resources, decides
between conflicting requests, controls the execution of programs, etc.
• It controls application programs that are not part of Kernel.

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 Operating System functions
• Process management:- Process management helps OS to create and
delete processes. It also provides mechanisms for synchronization and
communication among processes.
• Memory management Memory management module performs the task
of allocation and de-allocation of memory space to programs in need of
this resources.
• Device management Device management keeps tracks of all devices.
This module also responsible for this task is known as the I/O controller
• I/O System Management: One of the main objects of any OS is to hide
the peculiarities of that hardware devices from the user.
• Graphics User Interface (GUI) management: Provides and manages the
user interface that interacts with graphics and visual content on a
computing device. 15
• Secondary-Storage management which includes primary storage, secondary
storage, and cache storage.
• Application which allows standard communication between software and
your computer.
• User interface which allows you to communicate with your computer.
• Job accounting: Keeping track of time & resource used by various job and
users.
• Networking: The processors communicate with one another through the
network.
• Security module protects the data and information of a computer system
against malware threat and authorized access.

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 History of Operating Systems

Generations:

• (1945–55) Vacuum Tubes

• (1955–65) Transistors and Batch Systems

• (1965–1980) ICs and Multiprogramming

• (1980–Present) Personal Computers

• (1990-present) Mobile Computers

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 1st: vacuum tubes

 Large and slow

 Engineers design, build, operate and maintain the computer
 All programming is done with machine language, or by wiring
circuits using cables
 insert plugboards into the computer and operate
 The work is mainly numerical calculations

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 2nd: transistors and batch systems

• Also called mainframes

• Computers are managed by professional operators
• To run a job (i.e., a program or set of programs), a programmer
would first write the program on paper (in FORTRAN or
assembler),then punch it on cards.
• Collect a batch of jobs in the input room, then read them into a
magnetic tape; the same for output
• Assembly language and high-level programming languages like
FORTRAN, COBOL were used.

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 3rd: IC and Multiprogramming

• OS/360:

• Aims to adapts 1401/7904, covers all trades of life

• However, OS/360 introduces several key techniques

• Multi-programming: solve the problem of CPU idling

• Spooling: simultaneous peripheral operation on line

• Whenever a job finishes, OS load a new job from disk to

the empty-partition

• High-level languages (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL

PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.)

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3rd: ICs and Multiprogramming

Figure . A multiprogramming system

with three jobs in memory.
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3rd: Ics and Multiprogramming
• Problems:

• 3rd generation OS was well suited for big scientific calculations and
massive data processing

• But many programmers complain a lot… for not be able to debug

quickly…. Why?

• And the solution to this problem would be….?

• Timesharing

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4th: personal computers

• Computers of fourth generation used Very Large Scale Integrated

(VLSI) circuits

• CP/M(Control Program for Microcomputers)

• First disk-based OS

• 1980, IBM PC, Basic Interpreter, DOS, MS-DOS

• GUI--Lisa—Apple: user friendly (UNIX)

• MS-DOS with GUI– Win95/98/me(Millennium Edition)—winNT

• Time sharing, real time networks, distributed operating system were

used.

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5th: Mobile Computers
• VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration)
technology, resulting in the production of microprocessor chips having
ten million electronic components.
• The first real smartphone did not appear until the mid-1990s when Nokia
released the N9000: a phone and a PDA (Personal Digital Assistant).
• Symbian OS popular brands like Samsung, Sony Ericsson, Motorola,
and especially Nokia.
• Other operating systems like RIM’s Blackberry OS (introduced for
smartphones in 2002) and Apple’s iOS (released for the first iPhone in
2007)
• Linux-based operating system released by Google in 2008

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 Types of Operating Systems
1. Mainframe Operating Systems
• The operating systems for mainframes are heavily oriented toward processing
many jobs at once, most of which need prodigious amounts of I/O. They
typically offer three kinds of services: batch, transaction processing, and
timesharing.
• A batch system is one that processes routine jobs without any interactive user
present. Claims processing in an insurance company or sales reporting for a
chain of stores is typically done in batch mode.
• Transaction-processing systems handle large numbers of small requests, for
example, check processing at a bank or airline reservations. Each unit of work is
small, but the system must handle hundreds or thousands per second.
• Timesharing systems allow multiple remote users to run jobs on the computer
at once, such as querying a big database. 25
2. Simple Batch Systems
• To improve utilization, the concept of a batch OS was developed. It
appears that the first batch OS was developed in the mid-1950s.
• In a Batch Operating System, the similar jobs are grouped together into
batches with the help of some operator and these batches are executed one
by one.
• The central idea behind the simple batch-processing scheme is the use of
a piece of software known as the monitor .
• The monitor is always in the main memory and available for execution.
• In this type of system, there is no direct interaction between user and
the computer.
• Instead, the user submits the job on cards or tape to a computer operator,
who batches the jobs together sequentially and places the entire batch on
an input device. 26
• For example, let us assume that we have 10 programs that need to be
executed. Some programs are written in C++, some in C and rest in Java.
Now, every time when we run these programmes individually then we will
have to load the compiler of that particular language and then execute the
code. But what if we make a batch of these 10 programmes.
• The benefit with this approach is that, for the C++ batch, you need to load the
compiler only once. Similarly, for Java and C, the compiler needs to be loaded
only once and the whole batch gets executed.

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• Resident Monitor is software always
in memory
• Monitor reads in job and gives
control
• Job returns control to monitor

Figure : Memory Layout for a Resident Monitor

Advantages:
• The overall time taken by the system to execute all the programmes will be reduced.
• The Batch Operating System can be shared between multiple users.
Disadvantages:
• Manual interventions are required between two batches.
• The CPU utilization is low because the time taken in loading and unloading of
batches is very high as compared to execution time.
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3. Time-Sharing Systems
• In a Multi-tasking Operating System, more than one processes are being
executed at a particular time with the help of the time-sharing concept.
So, in the time sharing environment, we decide a time that is called time
quantum/slicing and when the process starts its execution then the
execution continues for only that amount of time and after that, other
processes will be given chance for that amount of time only.
• In the next cycle, the first process will again come for its execution and it
will be executed for that time quantum only and again next process will
come. This process will continue.
• Time Sharing' is no longer commonly used, it has been replaced by
'Multitasking System’ also known as multitasking.

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• In above figure the user 5 is active but user 1, user 2, user 3, and user 4
are in waiting state whereas user 6 is in ready status.
• As soon as the time slice of user 5 is completed, the control moves on to
the next ready user i.e. user 6. In this state user 2, user 3, user 4, and user
5 are in waiting state and user 1 is in ready state. The process continues in
the same way and so on.
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• The time sharing system provides the direct access to a large number of
users where CPU time is divided among all the users on scheduled
basis.
Advantages:
• Since equal time quantum is given to each process, so each process gets
equal opportunity to execute.
• The CPU will be busy in most of the cases and this is good to have case.
Disadvantages:
• Process having higher priority will not get the chance to be executed
first because the equal opportunity is given to each process.

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4. Server operating System
• They run on servers, which are either very large personal computers,
workstations, or even mainframes.
• They serve multiple users at once over a network and allow the users to
share hardware and software resources. Servers can provide print service,
file service, or Web service.
• Internet providers run many server machines to support their customers
and Websites use servers to store the Web pages and handle the incoming
requests.
• Typical server operating systems are Solaris, FreeBSD, Linux and
Windows Server 201x.

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5. Multiprogramming Operating system

• The I/O devices are much slower than the processor, leaving the processor idle
most of the time waiting for the I/O devices to finish their operations.
• It is used to have several jobs to execute which should be held in main memory. If
several jobs are ready to run at the same time, then the system chooses which one
to run through the process of CPU Scheduling.
• In Multiprogramming system, CPU will never be idle and keeps on processing.
• In Uniprogramming only one program sits in the main memory so it has a small
size. But in the case of multiprogramming main memory needs more space.
• Uniprogramming system runs smoothly as only one task is run at a time. The slow
processor can also work well in Uniprogramming but in multiprogramming
processor needs to be fast. In multiprogramming large space of RAM is needed.
• Fixed-size partition is used in Uniprogramming. Both fixed and variable size
partitions can be used in multiprogramming systems.
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Figure : Multiprogramming Example 34
Example of Uniprogramming
• Batch processing in old computers and
• mobiles
• The old operating system of computers
• Old mobile operating system
Example of Multiprogramming
• Modern operating systems like Windows
• XP and Windows 7,8,10

• The main memory consisting 5 jobs at a time ,the CPU execute one by one.

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6. Multiprocessor Operating system
• Multiprocessor system means, there are more than one processor which
work parallel to perform the required operations.
• It allows the multiple processors, and they are connected with physical
memory, computer buses, clocks, and peripheral devices.
• The main objective of using a multiprocessor operating system is to
increase the execution speed of the system and consume high computing
power.

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Advantages:
• More processes can be executed parallel at the same time, increase
throughput of the system will increase.
• Multiprocessor systems are more reliable. in case of failure of any
one processor will not make the system come to a halt.

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7. Personal Computer Operating Systems
• Modern ones all support multiprogramming, often with dozens of
programs started up at boot time.
• Their job is to provide good support to a single user. They are widely
used for word processing, spreadsheets, games, and Internet access.
• Personal computer operating system are made only for personal. You
can say that your laptops, computer systems, tablets etc.
• Common examples are Linux, FreeBSD, Windows 7, Windows 8, and
Apple’s OS X.

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8. Handheld Systems
• A handheld computer, originally known as a PDA (Personal Digital
Assistant), is a small computer that can be held in your hand during
operation.
• Smartphones and tablets are the best-known examples.
• The conventional Handheld Computer Operating Systems are Android,
iOS, and Windows.
• Most of these devices boast multicore CPUs, GPS, cameras and other
sensors, copious amounts of memory, and sophisticated operating systems.

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9. Embedded Operating Systems
• Embedded systems run on the computers that control devices that are
not generally thought of as computers and which do not accept user-
installed software.
• Typical examples are microwave ovens, TV sets, cars, DVD recorders,
traditional phones, and MP3 players.
• The main property which distinguishes embedded systems from
handhelds is the certainty that no untrusted software will ever run on it.

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10. Real-time operating system (RTOS)
• It is defined as an operating system known to give maximum time for
each of the critical operations that it performs, like OS calls and interrupt
handling.
• It is developed for real-time applications where data should be processed
in a fixed, small duration of time.
• It is used in an environment where multiple processes are supposed to be
accepted and processed in a short time.
• RTOS requires quick input and immediate response, e.g., in a petroleum
refinery, if the temperate gets too high and crosses the threshold value,
there should be an immediate response to this situation to avoid the
explosion. Similarly, this system is used to control scientific instruments,
missile launch systems, traffic lights control systems, air traffic control
systems, etc. 41
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• This system is further divided into two types based on the time constraints:
• Hard Real-Time Systems: These are used for the applications where
timing is critical or response time is a major factor; even a delay of a
fraction of the second can result in a disaster.
• Many of these are found in industrial process control, avionics, military,
airbags and automatic parachutes and similar application areas.
• A soft real time system is a system in which one or more failures to meet
the deadline is not considered as complete system failure but that
performance is considered to be degraded. These systems are referred to
as Soft Real-Time Operating Systems.
• For example: Multimedia streaming, advanced scientific projects,
and virtual reality, smart phones etc.

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11. Smart Card Operating Systems
• The smallest operating systems run on smart cards, which are credit-card-sized
devices containing a CPU chip.
• They have very severe processing power and memory constraints. Some are
powered by contacts in the reader into which they are inserted, but contactless
smart cards are inductively powered, which greatly limits what they can do.
• Some of them can handle only a single function, such as electronic payments, but
others can handle multiple functions. Often these are proprietary systems.
• Some smart cards are Java oriented. This means that the ROM on the smart card
holds an interpreter for the Java Virtual Machine (JVM). Java applets (small
programs) are downloaded to the card and are interpreted by the JVM interpreter.
• Resource management and protection also become an issue when two or more
applets are present at the same time. These issues must be handled by the (usually
extremely primitive) operating system present on the card.
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12. Distributed Operating System
• These types of the operating system is a recent advancement in the world of
computer technology and are being widely accepted all over the world and,
that too, with a great pace.
• Various autonomous interconnected computers communicate with each other
using a shared communication network. Independent systems possess their
own memory unit and CPU. These are referred to as loosely coupled
systems or distributed systems.
• The major benefit of working with these types of the operating system is
that it is always possible that one user can access the files or software which
are not actually present on his system but some other system connected
within this network i.e., remote access is enabled within the devices
connected in that network.

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Advantages:
• Failure of one will not affect the other network communication, as all
systems are independent from each other
• Electronic mail increases the data exchange speed
• Since resources are being shared, computation is highly fast and durable
• Load on host computer reduces
• These systems are easily scalable as many systems can be easily added to the
network
• Delay in data processing reduces
Disadvantages:
• Failure of the main network will stop the entire communication
• To establish distributed systems the language which is used are not well
defined yet
• These types of systems are not readily available as they are very expensive.
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Chapter 1.2: System call and OS Structures

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Outline
 Computer System Organization
 Operating System Services
 System calls
 Operating System Structure
 Client-Server Model
 Virtual Machines
 The Shell

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Computer System Organization

I/O devices

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Operating System Services
• Operating systems provide
– an environment for execution of programs and
– services to programs and users
• Services may differ from one OS to another
• What are the common classes?
– Convenience of the user
– Efficiency of the system

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Overview of Operating System Services

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OS Services for Helping Users
User interface
-Almost all operating systems have a user interface (UI).
–Three forms
• Command-Line (CLI)
–Shell command
• Batch
–Shell script
• Graphics User Interface (GUI)
–Windows system

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Program execution
–Load a program into memory
–Run the program
–End execution
• either normally or
• abnormally (indicating error)
I/O operations -A running program may require I/O, which may involve a
file or an I/O device
–Common I/Os: read, write, etc.
–Special functions: recording CD/DVD

Notes: Users usually cannot control I/O devices directly, so OS provides a

mean to do I/O

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File-system manipulation -The file system is of particular interest
–OS provides a variety of file systems
• Major services
–read and write files and directories
–create and delete files and directories
–search for a given file
–list file Information
–permission management: allow/deny access
Communications: information exchange between processes
–Processes on the same computer
–Processes between computers over a network

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Implementations
–Shared memory
• Two or more processes read/write to a shared section of mem.
–Message passing
• Packets of information are moved between processes by OS
Error detection –OS needs to be constantly aware of possible errors
• Error types
–CPU
–memory hardware: memory error, power failure, etc.
–I/O devices: parity error, connection failure, etc.
–user program: arithmetic overflow, access illegal mem.
• Error handling
–Ensure correct and consistent computing
–Halt the system, terminate an error-causing process etc.
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Resource allocation
–Resources must be allocated to each user/job
–Resource types -CPU cycles, main memory, file storage, I/O devices
–Special allocation code may be required, e.g., CPU scheduling routines depend on
• Speed of the CPU, jobs, number of registers, etc.
Accounting -To keep track of
–which users use how much and what kinds of resources
• Usage
–Accounting for billing users
–Accumulating usage statistics, can be used for
• Reconfiguration of the system
• Improvement of the efficiency

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Protection and security
–Concurrent processes should not interfere w/ each other
–Control the use of computer
•Protection
–Ensure that all access to system resources is controlled
•Security
–User authentication by password to gain access
–Extends to defending external I/O devices from invalid access attempts
User Operating System Interface –CLI(Command line interface or command
interpreter )
–Allows direct command entry
–Included in the kernel or treated as a special program

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• Sometimes multiple flavors implemented –shells
–Linux: multiple shells (C shell, KornShell etc.)
–Third-party shell or free user-written shell
–Most shells provide similar functionality (personal preference) Main
function of CLI
–Get and execute the next user-specified command
–Many commands manipulate files
GUI
• User-friendly graphical user interface
–Mouse-based window-and-menu system (desktopmetaphor)
–Iconsrepresent files, programs, actions, etc

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-Various mouse buttons over objects in the interface cause various actions
(provide information, options, execute function, open directory (known as a
folder)
–Invented at Xerox PARC in early 1970s
• Many systems now include both CLI and GUI interfaces
–Microsoft Windows is GUI with CLI “command”shell
–Apple Mac OS X is “Aqua”GUI interface with UNIX kernel
–Unix and Linux have CLI with optional GUI interfaces (CDE, KDE,
GNOME)
Touchscreen devices require new interfaces
–Mouse not possible or not desired
–Actions and selection based on gestures
–Virtual keyboard for text entry
–Voice commands 59
Choices of Interfaces
• Personal preference
CLI: more efficient, easier for repetitive tasks
–System administrator
–Power users who have deep knowledge of a system
–Shell scripts
GUI: user-friendly
• The design and implementation of user interface is not a direct
function of the OS

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User mode and kernel mode

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System Calls
• Programming interface to the services provided by the OS.
• A system call is a mechanism that provides the interface between a process
and the operating system.
• Implementation language
–Typically written in a high-level language (C or C++)
–Certain low-level tasks (direct hardware access) are written using assembly
language
• Example of using system call
–Read data from a file and copy to another file
–open()+ read() + write()?

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Example of System Calls
• System call sequence to copy the contents of one file to another file

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• Simple programs may make heavy use of the OS
–A system executes thousands of system calls per second
–Not user-friendly
• Each OS has its own name for each system call
–This course/textbook uses generic examples
How to use?
–Mostly accessed by programs via a high-level API rather than direct
system call use
• Why prefer API rather than invoking system call?
–Easy of use: Simple programs may make heavy use of the OS
–Program portability: Compile and run on any system that supports
the same API
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Application Programming Interface (API)
–A set of functions that are available to application programmers
• Three most common APIs
–Win32 API for Windows
–POSIX API for POSIX-based systems
• including virtually all versions of UNIX, Linux, and Mac OS X
–Java API for the Java virtual machine (JVM)
• How to use API?
–Via a library of code provided by OS
–Libc: UNIX/LINUX with C language

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Who invokes system call: System call interface
–Provided by the run-time support system, which is a set of functions built into
libraries within a compiler
• How?
–intercepts function calls in the API
–invokes necessary system calls
• Implementation
–Typically, a number associated with each system call
–System-call interface maintains a table indexed according to the numbers

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 System Calls
• Interface between applications and
the OS.
• Application uses an assembly
instruction to trap into the kernel
• Some higher level languages
provide wrappers for system
calls (e.g., C)or tables or stack.

• Linux has about 300 system calls

• read(), write(), open(), close(),
fork(), exec(), ioctl(),…..

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Implementation Benefits
• The caller needs to know nothing about
–how the system call is implemented
–what it does during execution
–Just needs to obey API and understand what OS will do as a result call
• Most details of OS interface are hidden from programmer by API
–Managed by run-time support library

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System Call Parameter Passing
Three general methods are used to pass parameters between a running
program and the operating system.
–Simplest: pass the parameters in registers
• In some cases, may be more parameters than registers
–Table-based
• Parameters stored in a block, or table, in memory, and address of
block passed as a parameter in a register
• This approach taken by Linux and Solaris
–Stack-based
• Parameters are placed, or pushed, onto the stack by the program and
popped off the stack by the operating system
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Parameter Passing via Table
• Three general methods exist for passing parameters to the OS:
• Parameters can be passed in registers.
• When there are more parameters than registers, parameters can be
stored in a block and the block address can be passed as a
parameter to a register.
• Parameters can also be pushed on or popped off the stack by the
operating system.

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How to Make a System Call in Operating Systems

Figure: The 11 steps in making the system call read(fd, buffer, nbytes).

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• The following actions occur when the user executes the (Unix) system
call
count = read( fd, buffer, nbytes )
• 1-3-the calling program pushes the parameters onto the stack. The first
and third parameters are called by value, but the second one is called by
its address as denoted by the & symbol.
• 4-Call the library routine, which involves pushing the return address on to
the stack and jumping to the routine.
• 5-the library procedure places the system call number in a place where the
operating system expects it, such as a register.
• 6-the library procedure executes a TRAP instruction to switch from user
mode to kernel mode and start execution at a fixed address within the
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kernel.
• 7-the kernel examines the system call number and then dispatches it to
the correct system call handler. This correct number is given in the
table of system call handlers by pointers referenced at the system call
number.
• 8-the system call handler runs.
• 9-the operation is completed, and the user is given back control once
the TRAP instruction is set.
• 10-this procedure returns to the user program, like how all normal
library procedures do.
• 11-the operating system has to clear the stack, so it increments it
enough so that it is empty (The stack is popped ).

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Types of System calls

Here are the five types of system calls used in OS:

• Process Control

• File Management

• Device Management

• Information Maintenance

• Communications

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Process control
• This system calls perform the task of process creation, process
termination, etc. Functions:

• end, abort

• load, execute

• get process attributes, set process attributes

• wait for time

• wait event, signal event

• allocate and free memory

• Dump memory if error

• Debugger for determining bugs, single step execution

• Locks for managing access to shared data between processes 75

File management

• File management system calls handle file manipulation jobs like

creating a file, reading, and writing, etc.

• Functions: -open, close file -read, write, reposition -get and set
file attributes

Device management

• Device management does the job of device manipulation like

reading from device buffers, writing into device buffers, etc.

• Functions: request device, release device -read, write, reposition

• get device attributes, set device attributes

• logically attach or detach devices

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Information maintenance

• It handles information (you can call metadata also) and its transfer between the
OS and the user programs.

• Functions: -get time or date, set time or date -get system data, set system data
-get and set process, file, or device attributes

Communications

• create, delete communications connections

• send, receive messages if message passing model to host name or process

name

• From client to server

• Shared-memory model create and gain access to memory regions

• transfer status information

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• attach and detach remote devices
System Calls for Process Management

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 System Programs
• Provide a convenient environment for program development and execution

• Some of them are simply user interfaces to system calls; others are
considerably more complex

• File management - Create, delete, copy, rename, print, dump, list, and generally
manipulate files and directories

• Status information

• Some ask the system for info - date, time, amount of available memory, disk
space, number of users

• Others provide detailed performance, logging, and debugging information

• Typically, these programs format and print the output to the terminal or other
output devices

• Some systems implement a registry - used to store and retrieve configuration

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information
• File modification

• Text editors to create and modify files

• Special commands to search contents of files or perform transformations

of the text

• Programming-language support - Compilers, assemblers, debuggers and

interpreters sometimes provided

• Program loading and execution- Absolute loaders, relocatable loaders,

linkage editors, and overlay-loaders, debugging systems for higher-level and
machine language

• Communications - Provide the mechanism for creating virtual

connections among processes, users, and computer systems

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 • Allow users to send messages to one another’s screens, browse web pages,
send electronic-mail messages, log in remotely, transfer files from one
machine to another
Background Services
• Launch at boot time
-Some for system startup, then terminate
-Some from system boot to shutdown
• Provide facilities like disk checking, process scheduling, error logging,
printing
• Run in user context not kernel context
• Known as services, subsystems, daemons

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Application programs
• Don’t pertain to system
• Run by users
• Not typically considered part of OS
• Launched by command line, mouse click, finger poke
Operating System Design and Implementation:
 Design and Implementation of OS not “solvable”, but some approaches have
proven successful
 User goals and System goals
• User goals – operating system should be convenient to use, easy to
learn, reliable, safe, and fast
• System goals – operating system should be easy to design, implement,
and maintain, as well as flexible, reliable, error-free, and efficient
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Implementation

• Much variation

• Early OSes in assembly language

• Then system programming languages like Algol, PL/1

• Now C, C++

• Actually usually a mix of languages

• Lowest levels in assembly

• Main body in C

• Systems programs in C, C++, scripting languages like PERL, Python, shell

scripts

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 Operating System Structure

Simple Structure -- MS-DOS

• MS-DOS – written to provide the

most functionality in the least space

• Not divided into modules

• Although MS-DOS has some

structure, its interfaces and
levels of functionality are not
well separated i.e.no CPU
execution mode(user and
kernel)

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 Layered Approach

Figure. Structure of the operating system.

• The layering was done by convention, i.e. there was no enforcement by

hardware and the entire OS is linked together as one program. This is true
of many modern OS systems as well (e.g., linux).

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• Layer 0 - This layer dealt with allocation of the processor, switching
between processes when interrupts occurred or timers expired
• Layer 1 - This layer did the memory management
• Layer 2 - This layer handled the communication between each process
and the operator console
• Layer 3 - This layer took care of managing the I/O devices and
buffering the information streams to and from them
• Layer 4 - On this layer, user programs were found
• Layer 5 - On this layer, the system operator process was located

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Monolithic Approach
• In monolithic kernel the author tells us that it runs every basic system
service in kernel space.

Figure: Monolithic kernel based operating system

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Monolithic kernel
• The entire O.S. is placed inside the kernel
• It runs as a single large process
• As all the services are placed inside the kernel, they have a single
address space
• It is bigger in size
• It is easy to implement/code
• Performance is high (As kernel can invoke any function directly as
everything is placed in the kernel)
• Less Secure (If one service fails, entire system crashes)

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Microkernel Approach

Figure: Micro kernel based operating system

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Microkernel System Structure

Application File Device user

Program System Driver mode

messages messages

Interprocess memory CPU kernel

Communication managment scheduling mode

microkernel

hardware

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Microkernel
• Only bare minimum code is placed inside the kernel (only basic memory
management and Inter Process Communication code) Here the kernel is
broken down into processes called as servers
• As services(Servers provide services) are separated they have different
address spaces -It is smaller in size
• It is tough to implement/code
• Performance is low (As servers are separated, so to invoke services from
other servers IPC(Inter Process Communication) is needed which requires
kernel's permission and thus increases access time and lowers the
performance)
• More Secure (Even if one service crashes, others can function properly
because of separation) 92
Client-Server Model
• A slight variation of the microkernel idea is to distinguish two classes of
processes, the servers, each of which provides some service, and the clients,
which use these services. This model is known as the client-server model.
• In the client-server model, as shown in the figure given below, all the kernel
does is handle the communication between the clients and the servers.

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• By splitting the operating system (OS) up into parts, each of which
only handles one fact of the system, such as file service, terminal
service, process service, or memory service, each part becomes small
and manageable.
• The adaptability of the client-server model, to use in distributed
system is the advantage of this model.

Figure : The client-server model over a network.

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Virtual Machines

Physical Machine

Application

OS

Hardware

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Virtual Machines

Virtual Machine 1 Virtual Machine 2 Virtual Machine 3

Application Application Application

OS OS OS

Virtual Machine Monitor (VMM) (aka Hypervisor)

Hardware

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Virtual Machines
• Virtual machine is an illusion of a real machine. It is created by a real
machine operating system, which make a single real machine appears
to be several real machine.
• The best example of virtual machine architecture is IBM 370
computer.
• Vmware, Java virtual machine, .Net framework etc.
• Use cases
• Resource configuration
• Running multiple OSes, either the same or different OSes
• Run existing OS binaries on different architecture
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VMware Architecture

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The Java Virtual Machine

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 The Shell
• The operating system is the code that carries out the system calls.
• Editors, compilers, assemblers, linkers, and command interpreters
definitely are not part of the operating system, even though they are
important and useful.
• A Shell provides you with an interface to the Unix system.
• Although it is not part of the operating system, it makes heavy use of
many operating system features and thus serves as a good example of
how the system calls can be used.
• It is also the primary interface between a user sitting at his terminal
and the operating system

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• A shell is software that provides an interface between users and
operating system of a computer to access the services of a kernel.
There are two types of shell:
Command-line shell (eg. Bash(sh), Command Prompt(cmd), C shell,
Bourne shell, Korn shell(ksh) etc.)
GUI Shell (eg. Windows Explorer or Windows Shell)

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A Simple Shell

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Modules

• Many modern operating systems implement loadable kernel

modules

• Uses object-oriented approach

• Each core component is separate

• Each talks to the others over known interfaces

• Each is loadable as needed within the kernel

• Overall, similar to layers but with more flexible

• Linux, Solaris, etc

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Solaris Modular Approach

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Hybrid Systems
• Most modern operating systems are actually not one pure model

• Hybrid combines multiple approaches to address performance,

security, usability needs

• Linux and Solaris kernels in kernel address space, so monolithic, plus

modular for dynamic loading of functionality

• Windows mostly monolithic, plus microkernel for different subsystem

personalities

• Apple Mac OS X hybrid, layered, Aqua UI plus Cocoa programming

environment

• Below is kernel consisting of Mach microkernel and BSD Unix parts,

plus I/O kit and dynamically loadable modules (called kernel
extensions) 105
Mac OS X Structure
graphical user interface
Aqua

application environments and services

Java Cocoa Quicktime BSD

kernel environment
BSD

Mach

I/O kit kernel extensions

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 iOS
• Apple mobile OS for iPhone, iPad

• Structured on Mac OS X, added functionality

• Does not run OS X applications natively

• Also runs on different CPU architecture (ARM vs. Intel)

• Cocoa Touch Objective-C API for developing apps

• Media services layer for graphics, audio, video

• Core services provides cloud computing, databases

• Core operating system, based on Mac OS X kernel

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Android
• Developed by Open Handset Alliance (mostly Google)

• Open Source

• Similar stack to IOS

• Based on Linux kernel but modified

• Provides process, memory, device-driver management

• Adds power management

• Runtime environment includes core set of libraries and Dalvik virtual

machine

• Apps developed in Java plus Android API

• Java class files compiled to Java bytecode then translated to

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executable than runs in Dalvik VM
Android ArchitectureApplications

Application Framework

Libraries Android runtime

SQLite openGL Core Libraries

surface media
Dalvik
manager framework
virtual machine
webkit libc

Linux kernel

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Thank You

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