Republic of the Philippines

UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

University Town, Northern Samar

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Civil Engineering Department

ROCKS AND TYPES OF MINERALS

Submitted by:

DUMALAON, HARRY JUN M.

LAURIAGA, NICOLE MA. TRIXIA A.

ONOR, JAN CESAR P.

ANDRADE, CHRISVER BRENT D.

VILLANUEVA, NESSAN M.

Group 2

Submitted to:

RICK GONZAGA
Professor
 ROCKS AND TYPES OF MINERALS

I. DISCUSSION

Objectives:

 Determine the difference between rocks and minerals

 Found out the composition of minerals
 Categorize the physical properties of minerals
 Determine the type of minerals and rocks and its classifications
 Find out the uses of rocks and minerals in relation to civil engineering
works

WHAT ARE ROCKS AND MINERALS?

Rocks and minerals, though often overlooked, form the very foundation of our
planet. They hold within them a wealth of history, science, and practical applications
that have shaped the course of human development and continue to play a vital role
in various fields. In this discussion, we delve into the fascinating world of rocks and
minerals, exploring their definitions, significance, discoveries, and the individuals
who have propelled our understanding of these geological wonders.

 Rocks: Rocks are solid, naturally occurring substances made up of minerals,

mineraloids, or organic materials. They are classified into three main types:
igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Generally, rocks consist of
aggregates of mineral matter. However, there are exceptions: coal, which is
largely composed of organic compounds and thus not classified as a mineral,
and volcanic glass (obsidian), which is a glassy material with an irregular
atomic arrangement that does not fit the mineral definition. Key properties
used to characterize rocks include color, texture (coarse-grained or fine-
grained), and their mineralogical and chemical compositions.

 Minerals: Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic substances with a

specific chemical composition and an ordered internal structure. They are the
building blocks of rocks and are crucial in geological and industrial processes.
Minerals typically have a definite chemical composition and crystal structure,
like quartz or feldspar. Although most minerals are inorganic, some naturally
occurring substances of organic origin, such as asphalt or coal, are also
included in this category. The Earth’s minerals can exist as single elements or
compounds. By definition, a mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic
substance with a distinct chemical composition and an ordered atomic
structure.
 WHY STUDY ROCKS?

We study rocks to understand Earth's 4.6-billion-year history and the

development of its biosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere. This
research extends beyond Earth, providing insights from meteorites, Moon samples,
and Martian rocks. Economically, rocks are vital for resources like coal, oil, and
minerals, which support industries and construction. Additionally, rock studies help
address environmental challenges, such as carbon dioxide storage and radioactive
waste disposal, and are crucial for locating and managing groundwater resources.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MINERALS

Building Blocks of Minerals

There are around four thousand different minerals in the world. Each mineral
is defined by its particular chemical composition and crystal structure. Minerals are
made up of chemical elements. A CHEMICAL ELEMENT is a substance that is
made up of only one kind of atom. An atom is the smallest unit of any chemical
element. They are the building blocks that make up each chemical element and are
far too small to see with the naked eye. There are 118 types of atoms, and because
each chemical element is made up of only one kind of atom, there are 118 chemical
elements. The atoms in a mineral are arranged in an organized atomic structure.
They connect together to form molecules, and the molecules stack together in a
regular pattern to form a crystal. The shape of a crystal depends on the way the
molecules are stacked up inside it.

Composition of Minerals
Mineral has a specific chemical composition or a restricted range of chemical
composition. The composition of a mineral can be expressed as a CHEMICAL
FORMULA, which simply gives the analysis of the types and amounts of elements
present in a mineral. QUARTZ is a good example of a mineral with a specific
chemical composition, SiO2. The chemical formula means that in quartz, the ratio
O:Si is always 2:1. Another example is a HERMATITE which has a chemical formula
of Fe2O3. The letters describe the element type (Fe = iron, O = oxygen), and the
subscripted numbers describe the amount of those atoms in each molecule. A
Hematite molecule has 2 iron (Fe) atoms and 3 oxygen (O) atoms. That means in
Hematite, the ratio O:Fe is always 3:2. If there is no number written after an element,
it means there is only one atom of that element present.

Radicals (Polyatomic Ions)

 These are the special types of compounds. They act as if they were a single
element when they join other elements to form molecules. There are many radicals,
some of the most familiar are the:
Carbonate Radical CO3
Sulfate Radical SO4
Chromate Radical CrO4
Hydroxyl Radical OH

Radicals are treated like any element when written in a chemical formula.
Radicals are sometimes surrounded with a parenthesis when written in a chemical
formula, and the number after the parenthesis describes how many of these radicals
are present within each mineral's molecular breakdown. If there is no subscripted
number written after a radical, that means there is only one radical present in that
mineral's molecule.

Hydrous Minerals
Minerals containing water in their structure are known as hydrous minerals.
The hydrous mineral Gypsum has a chemical formula of "CaSO4 · 2H2O". The large
number 2 in front of the H2O signifies that there are two water (H2O) molecules for
every molecule of CaSO4. The dot in between CaSO4 and 2H2O indicates that
these are two separate molecules, but they are rationally proportionate.

The letter "n" is used to describe a variable amount of water in the structure of
a mineral. For example, the hydrous mineral Opal has a loosely defined composition
with an inconsistent amount of water in its structure, thus its chemical formula is
written as "SiO2 · nH2O".

Mineral Series
A number of minerals contain a varying amount of two or more elements. For
example, the mineral Aurichalcite, which has a chemical formula of
(Zn,Cu)5(CO3)2(OH)6 contains an unspecific varying amount of zinc (Zn) and
copper (Cu). This is indicated by comma separating the Zn from the Cu. If a
chemical formula with two elements in parenthesis is separated by a comma, the
number of those elements vary. Aurichalcite has a variable amount of zinc of copper
where the combination of both these elements totals five. The more dominant
element is usually listed first.

Often, when the elements in a mineral vary, a series is formed. A series

consists of a group of minerals in which one of the elements varies. For example, the
Spinel series contains four members, with a series formula of (Mg,Zn,Fe,Mn)Al2O4.
There are four end members of this series, which are listed below. Intermediary
forms that are a combination of two or more also exist.

Spinal MgAl2O4 Magnesium Spinal

Gahnite ZnAl2O4 Zinc Spinal
Hercynite FeAl2O4 Iron Spinal
Galaxite MnAl2O4 Manganese Spinal

Atomical Variations
There are certain elements that come in slight modifications. Some elements
have different amounts of electrons in atoms of the same element. Some minerals,
such as Babingtonite, contain two types of the same element. The chemical formula
for Babingtonite is written Ca2Fe2+Fe3+SiO14(OH). The superscript form of 2+ and
3+ next to the iron (Fe) distinguishes the different types of iron. 2+ means the iron
has 2 more electrons than protons, and 3+ means it has three more electrons. The
number of electrons affects the chemical bonding of any element with variable
electrons. Anytime there is more than one variable atom in a molecule, a superscript
number representing the type of atom (i.e. how many electrons over protons) is
written after the element symbol.

Chemical Formula Variables

The chemical formula of some minerals may be written in different formats
and styles. For example, the chemical formula for the mineral Dioptase is usually
written CuSiO2(OH)2. However, its formula may also be written H2CuSiO4. Both
formulas mean the exact same thing, as there is an equal amount of all the atoms in
both formulas.

Sometimes a formula may be reduced or expanded by using multiplication or

division. (A reduced formula is known as an empirical formula in chemistry.) For
example, the chemical formula of Sodalite is commonly written as Na4Al3Si3O12Cl.
The silicon and oxygen form a radical, so they are bound together as a single atom.
Since the amount of silicon and oxygen is divisible by three (Si3÷3O12÷3 = SiO4),
the chemical formula can also be written as Na4Al3(SiO4)3Cl.

Variable Formulas

Some minerals may contain an element that partially replaces an inherent

element. For example, the mineral Adamite, Zn2(AsO4)(OH), often contains small
amounts of Cu (copper) and Co (cobalt) replacing some Zn (zinc). These elements
are not mentioned in the chemical formula, as they do not compromise a significant
portion and are only occasionally present. Therefore, an additional formula, known
as the variable formula has been developed for this guide to state the occasional
presence of these elements.
The variable formula displays the regular formula with the additional elements
that are occasionally present. The inherent element is listed first in the parenthesis,
and the occasional replacement elements are listed after and underlined. For
example, the variable formula of Adamite is (Zn,Cu,Co)2(AsO4)(OH). The Zn (zinc)
is always present, and the Cu and Co may be present in small amounts or may not
be.

Some minerals without a variable formula may still have variable elements,
but those elements are too rare or insignificant to be reckoned. For example, the
mineral Fluorite occasionally has contained traces of Ce (cerium) and Y (yttrium), but
there is no variable formula since these combinations are too uncommon.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

Minerals are naturally occurring, inorganic solids with a definite chemical
composition and a crystal lattice structure. Minerals can be identified by their
physical characteristics. The physical properties of minerals are related to their
chemical composition and bonding.

The characteristics of minerals in terms of their physical properties include the

following:

1. COLOR
- Color is often useful, but should not be relied upon because different
minerals may be the same in terms of the color. Additionally, some minerals come in
many different colors. Quartz, for example, may be clear, white, gray, brown, yellow,
pink, red, or orange. So, color can help, but do not rely on color as the determining
property. Figure 1 shows one sample of quartz that is colorless and another quartz
that is purple. A tiny amount of iron makes the quartz purple. Many minerals are
colored by chemical impurities.
 Figure 1 Purple quartz, known as amethyst, and clear quartz are the same mineral despite the
different colors

2. LUSTER

Luster describes the reflection of light off a mineral’s surface. Mineralogists

have special terms to describe luster. One simple way to classify luster is based on
whether the mineral is metallic or non-metallic. Minerals that are opaque and shiny,
such as pyrite, have a metallic luster. Minerals such as quartz have a non-metallic
luster. Luster is how the surface of a mineral reflects light. It is not the same thing as
color, so it is crucial to distinguish luster from color. For example, a mineral
described as “shiny yellow” is being described in terms of luster (“shiny”) and color
(“yellow”), which are two different physical properties. Standard names for luster
include metallic, glassy, pearly, silky, greasy, and dull. It is often useful to first
determine if a mineral has a metallic luster. A metallic luster means shiny like
polished metal. For example, cleaned polished pieces of chrome, steel, titanium,
copper, and brass all exhibit metallic luster as do many other minerals. Of the
nonmetallic lusters, glassy is the most common and means the surface of the
mineral reflects light like glass. Pearly luster is important in identifying the feldspars,
which are the most common type of mineral. Pearly luster refers to a subtle
iridescence or color play in the reflected light, same way pearls reflect light. Silky
means reflecting light with a silk-like sheen. Greasy luster looks similar to the luster
of solidified bacon grease. Minerals with dull luster reflect very little light. Identifying
luster takes a little practice. Remember to distinguish luster from color.

Table 1 Different types of non-metallic luster are described in

table 1.
3. STREAK

Streak is the color of a mineral’s powder. Streak is a more reliable property

than color because streak does not vary. Minerals that are the same color may have
a different colored streak. Many minerals, such as the quartz in the figure 1, do not
have streak.

To check streak, scrape the mineral across an unglazed porcelain plate.

Yellow-gold pyrite has a blackish streak, another indicator that pyrite is not gold,
which has a golden yellow streak.

Figure 2 Figure 2. The streak of hematite across an unglazed

porcelain plate is red-brown.

4. HARDNESS

Hardness is the strength with which a mineral resists its surface being
scraped or punctured. In working with hand samples without specialized tools,
mineral hardness is specified by the Mohs hardness scale. The Mohs hardness
scale is based on 10 reference minerals, from talc the softest (Mohs hardness of 1),
to diamond the hardest (Mohs hardness of 10). It is a relative, or nonlinear, scale. A
hardness of 2.5 simply means that the mineral is harder than gypsum (Mohs
hardness of 2) and softer than calcite (Mohs hardness of 3). To compare the
hardness of two minerals, see which mineral scratches the surface of the other.
5. CLEAVAGE

Cleavage is the
tendency of a mineral to
break along certain planes
to make smooth
surfaces. Halite breaks between
layers of sodium and
chlorine to form cubes with
smooth surfaces (figure
3).

Figure 3 A close-up view of sodium chloride in a water

bubble aboard the International Space Station.

A mineral that naturally breaks into perfectly flat surfaces is exhibiting

cleavage. Not all minerals have cleavage. A cleavage represents a direction of
weakness in the crystal lattice.

6. FRACTURE

Fracture is a break in a mineral that is not along a cleavage plane. Fracture is

not always the same in the same mineral because fracture is not determined by the
structure of the mineral. Metals usually fracture into jagged edges. If a mineral
splinters like wood, it may be fibrous. Some minerals, such as quartz, form smooth
curved surfaces when they fracture. Irregular fracture is a standard term for fractures
that do not exhibit any of the qualities of the other fracture types. In introductory
geology, the key fracture types to remember are irregular, which most minerals
exhibit, and conchoidal, seen in quartz.
7. DENSITY

Density is the mass per unit volume of a mineral. It can provide information
about the composition and chemical structure of a mineral. Different minerals can
have significantly different densities due to variations in their chemical composition.

8. CRYSTAL SHAPE

All minerals are crystalline, but only some have the opportunity to exhibit the
shapes of their crystals, their crystal forms. Many minerals in an introductory geology
lab do not exhibit their crystal form. If a mineral has space while it grows, it may form
natural crystals, with a crystal shape reflecting the geometry of the mineral’s internal
crystal lattice. The shape of a crystal follows the symmetry of its crystal lattice.
Quartz, for instance, forms six-sided crystals, showing the hexagonal symmetry of its
crystal lattice. There are two complicating factors to remember here: (1) minerals do
not always form nice crystals when they grow, and (2) a crystal face is different from
a cleavage surface. A crystal face forms during the growth of the mineral. A cleavage
surface is formed when the mineral is broken.

CRYSTAL HABIT

In nature perfect crystals are rare. The faces that develop on a crystal
depend on the space available for the crystals to grow. If crystals grow into one
another or in a restricted environment, it is possible that no well-formed crystal faces
will be developed. However, crystals sometimes develop certain forms more
commonly than others, although the symmetry may not be readily apparent from
these common forms. The term used to describe general shape of a crystal is habit.
Some Common Crystal Habits are as Follows:

Individual Crystals

 Cubic - cube shapes

 Octahedral - shaped like octahedrons, as described above.
 Tabular - rectangular shaped
 Acicular - long, slender crystals
 Prismatic - abundance of prism face
 Bladed - like a wedge or knife blade

Groups of Distinct Crystals

 Dendritic - tree-like growth

 Reticulated - lattice-like groups of slender crystals
 Radiated - radiating groups of crystals
 Fibrous - elongated clusters of fibers
 Botryoidal - smooth bulbous or globular shapes
 Globular - radiating individual crystals that form spherical groups
 Drusy - small crystals that cover a surface
 Stellated - radiating individuals that form a star-like shape

Some minerals characteristically show one or more of these habits, so habit

can sometimes be a powerful diagnostic tool.

ROCK-FORMING MINERALS
Rock-forming minerals are minerals that are commonly found in the Earth’s
crust and are responsible for the formation of various types of rocks. These minerals
make up the majority of the Earth’s crust and are the building blocks of rocks, which
are aggregates of minerals. Rock-forming minerals are typically silicate minerals,
which are composed of silicon (Si) and oxygen (O), along with other elements such
as aluminum (Al), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), sodium
(Na), iron (Fe), and others. These minerals are typically solid, crystalline, and
naturally occurring, and they play a crucial role in the geology and geosciences, as
they help scientists understand the processes that shape the Earth’s crust, such as
igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic processes. Examples of rock-forming
minerals include quartz, feldspars, micas, amphiboles, pyroxenes, calcite, and
others.

Importance of rock-forming minerals in the formation of rocks

Rock-forming minerals are of great importance in the formation of rocks as

they are the primary constituents that make up the different types of rocks found in
the Earth’s crust. Here are some key reasons why rock-forming minerals are
important in the formation of rocks:

1. Composition
Rock-forming minerals determine the composition of rocks. Different
minerals have unique chemical and physical properties that influence the
overall characteristics of rocks, such as their color, texture, hardness, and
density. The combination and arrangement of different minerals in a rock
determine its mineralogical composition and, in turn, its classification and
characteristics.

2. Rock Classification
Rock-forming minerals are used to classify rocks into different types based
on their mineralogical composition. For example, igneous rocks are classified
into different types such as basalt, granite, andesite, etc., based on the types
and proportions of minerals present. Similarly, sedimentary
rocks like sandstone, limestone, and shale are classified based on the mineral
content and texture of the rock. The presence or absence of certain rock-
forming minerals can provide insights into the origin, history, and geologic
environment of rocks.

3. Rock Formation Processes

Rock-forming minerals are crucial in the formation of rocks through
various geologic processes. For example, in igneous rock formation, minerals
crystallize from molten magma or lava as they cool and solidify, determining
the mineral assemblage and texture of the resulting rock. In sedimentary
rock formation, minerals are deposited and lithified through processes such
as weathering, erosion, transportation, and diagenesis, forming sedimentary
rocks with specific mineralogical characteristics. In metamorphic
rock formation, existing minerals in a pre-existing rock can undergo
mineralogical changes due to heat, pressure, and chemical reactions,
resulting in the formation of new minerals and the transformation of the
original rock into a metamorphic rock.

4. Properties and Behavior of Rocks

 The properties and behavior of rocks, such as their strength, durability,
weathering resistance, and deformation, are influenced by the mineralogical
composition of rock-forming minerals. For example, rocks rich in hard and
resistant minerals like quartz tend to be more durable and weathering
resistant compared to rocks composed of softer minerals like clay minerals.
The mineralogical composition also affects the mechanical behavior of rocks,
such as their response to stress, deformation, and failure.

5. Economic Significance
Rock-forming minerals have significant economic importance as they
are used as raw materials in various industries. Minerals like quartz,
feldspars, and mica are used in ceramics, glassmaking, and electronics.
Minerals like calcite, dolomite, and gypsum are used in the production of
cement, plaster, and fertilizers. Minerals like hematite and magnetite are
important sources of iron, while minerals like bauxite are used for aluminum
production. Understanding the occurrence, distribution, and characteristics of
rock-forming minerals is crucial for resource exploration, extraction, and
utilization.

Basic Composition and Characteristics of Rock-Forming Minerals

Rock-forming minerals are typically silicate minerals, which are composed of

silicon (Si) and oxygen (O), along with other elements such as aluminum (Al),
calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), sodium (Na), iron (Fe), and others.
These minerals exhibit a wide range of characteristics, including:

1. Chemical Composition
Rock-forming minerals have specific chemical compositions that
distinguish them from other minerals. For example, quartz (SiO2) is
composed of silicon and oxygen only, while feldspars (e.g., plagioclase
and orthoclase) are silicate minerals that contain additional elements like
aluminum, sodium, and potassium. The chemical composition of rock-forming
minerals affects their physical properties and behavior, such as their melting
and crystallization temperatures, solubility, and reactivity.

2. Crystalline Structure
Rock-forming minerals typically have a well-defined crystalline
structure, with atoms arranged in a regular, repeating pattern. The
arrangement of atoms determines the mineral’s crystal lattice, which
influences its physical properties such as hardness, cleavage, and fracture.
The crystalline structure also affects how minerals interact with light, leading
 to their characteristic optical properties, such as color, transparency, and
pleochroism.

3. Physical Properties
Rock-forming minerals exhibit a wide range of physical properties.
These include color, luster (e.g., metallic, vitreous, pearly), hardness
(measured on the Mohs scale), cleavage (the tendency to break along
specific planes), fracture (the pattern of breakage), and density. These
properties are used to identify and characterize minerals in the field and in the
laboratory.

4. Texture
Rock-forming minerals contribute to the texture of rocks, which refers
to the size, shape, and arrangement of mineral grains in a rock. The texture of
rocks, such as coarse-grained (e.g., granite), fine-grained (e.g., basalt), or
porphyritic (containing large and small mineral grains), is influenced by the
mineral composition and the processes involved in rock formation, such as
cooling and crystallization of magma or sedimentation and lithification of
sedimentary particles.

5. Occurrence and Abundance

Rock-forming minerals are abundant and widely distributed in the
Earth’s crust. Some minerals, such as quartz and feldspars, are ubiquitous
and found in a wide range of rocks, while others, such
as olivine and pyroxene, are more restricted in their occurrence. The
abundance and distribution of rock-forming minerals are influenced by factors
such as geologic processes, mineral formation conditions, and tectonic
settings.

6. Role in Rock Formation

Rock-forming minerals are the primary constituents that make up
rocks, and their presence and proportions determine the mineralogical
composition and characteristics of rocks. Different minerals have different
roles in rock formation processes. For example, minerals like quartz,
feldspars, and micas are commonly found in igneous, sedimentary,
and metamorphic rocks, while minerals like calcite and dolomite are
commonly found in sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. The mineralogical
composition of rocks provides insights into their formation processes, geologic
history, and environmental conditions.

Common Rock-Forming Minerals

 There are numerous rock-forming minerals that are commonly found in rocks.
Some of the most common rock-forming minerals include:

1. Quartz (SiO2): Quartz is one of the most abundant minerals on Earth and is a
major component of many rocks, including granite, quartzite, and sandstone.
It is known for its hardness, resistance to weathering, and wide range of
colors and crystal forms.

2. Feldspars: Feldspars are a group of rock-forming minerals that make up a

significant portion of the Earth’s crust. The most common types of feldspars
are orthoclase, plagioclase, and microcline. Feldspars are important
components of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks, and their
composition and proportions can provide clues about the rock’s origin and
history.

3. Mica: Mica is a group of sheet silicate minerals,

including muscovite and biotite, known for their excellent cleavage and
distinctive platy appearance. Mica minerals are common in metamorphic
rocks and can also occur in igneous and sedimentary rocks.

4. Amphibole: Amphibole minerals, such as hornblende and actinolite, are

common in many types of rocks, including igneous, metamorphic, and some
sedimentary rocks. They are characterized by their elongated crystal shapes
and typically dark color.

5. Pyroxene: Pyroxene minerals, such as augite and diopside, are common in

igneous and some metamorphic rocks. They are typically dark-colored and
have a prismatic crystal shape.

6. Calcite (CaCO3): Calcite is a common mineral that forms in sedimentary

rocks, such as limestone and marble. It is known for its rhombohedral crystal
shape and effervescence in the presence of weak acids.

7. Olivine: Olivine minerals, such as forsterite and fayalite, are common in mafic
and ultramafic igneous rocks, such as basalt and peridotite. Olivine is typically
green in color and has a granular appearance.

8. Clay minerals: Clay minerals, such as kaolinite, montmorillonite, and illite,

are common in sedimentary rocks, particularly shales. They have a layered
structure and are important components of soil and sediment.

9. Carbonates: Carbonate minerals, such as calcite, dolomite, and aragonite,

are common in sedimentary rocks, particularly limestones and dolostones.
They are known for their characteristic reaction with acids and are important
for understanding sedimentary environments and processes.
 10. Hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4): These iron oxide minerals are
common in many types of rocks and are important for their magnetic
properties. They can be found in igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary
rocks

NON-METALLIC MINERALS
What are Non-metallic Minerals?

Non-metallic minerals, which do not serve as raw materials for metal

extraction and lack metallic properties such as conductivity and malleability, are
nonetheless economically significant. These minerals include essential resources
like stone, clay, sand, and salt, as well as materials used in the production of
cement, ceramics, glass, and fertilizers. Their diverse applications highlight their
importance across various industries, despite their inability to generate new products
when melted.

METALLIC & NON-METALLIC MINERALS

When we talk about the difference between metallic and non-metallic minerals one
that sticks out, in particular, is that metallic minerals are usually obtained from ores
while non-metallic minerals are procured from industrial rocks and minerals.
However, we will look at some of the other key differences between metallic and
non-metallic minerals below.

Difference between Metallic and Non-metallic Minerals

Metallic Non-Metallic

Metallic Minerals are minerals in which Non-metallic minerals do not contain

metal elements are present in their raw any metal substances in them
form.

When metallic minerals are melted a In the case of non-metallic minerals,

new product is formed you don’t get any new product after
such a process.

Metallic minerals are usually found in Non-metallic minerals are often found
igneous and metamorphic rock embedded in young fold mountains and
formations. sedimentary rocks.

Metallic minerals are good conductors Non-metallic minerals are not good
of electricity as well as heat. insulators of electricity and heat.

Metallic minerals have high malleability Non-metallic minerals, lack malleability

and ductility. and ductility and these minerals break
 down easily.

EXAMPLES OF NON-METALLIC MINERALS

1. MICA
Mica is a non-metallic mineral that is widely used in various industries.
Mica is a transparent mineral found in igneous rocks. Individual mica crystals
can be easily divided into super-thin elastic plates. There are two main types
of mica- muscovite and biotite. The electrical insulation of electronic devices is
the primary application for sheets and blocks of mica. Additionally, it serves as
a cement and asphalt filler as well as a foundation for foundations. It is the
ideal toothpaste and cosmetic due to its shiny, sparkly appearance.

Uses of Mica
 It is used in wallpapers to provide luster.
 It is also used in electrical condensers, insulating sheets between commutator
segments, and heating components.

2. ASBESTOS
Asbestos is a fibrous silicate mineral found in igneous rocks. There are
two main ores of asbestos- chrysotile and actinolite. Asbestos is fireproof,
heat resistant, and has low electrical conductivity.

Uses of Asbestos
Asbestos is a naturally occurring mineral that was widely used in various
industries due to its strong fibrous structure, heat resistance, and chemical
stability. Some of the common uses of asbestos include:
 Vinyl floor tiles, vinyl sheet flooring backing, and adhesives.
 Panels for roofing and siding.
 Walls and ceilings with textured paint and patching materials.
 Asbestos paper, millboard, or cement sheets should be used to protect the
walls and floors surrounding wood-burning stoves.

3. LIMESTONE
Limestone is a sedimentary rock that is composed primarily of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3). The majority of its uses are in construction. Clay and
powdered limestone are heated and used to create cement. It is a crucial
component of toothpaste. Limestone is also used to clean pollutants out of
blast furnaces used to make steel. The majority of limestone is produced in
 Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh. China, the
United States, and India are the top three global producers of limestone.

Uses of Limestone
 Limestone is widely distributed and is a valuable natural resource that has
many uses in various industries, including:
 Limestone is used as a building material and as an aggregate in the
production of concrete, mortar, and cement.
 It is used to improve soil quality by increasing its pH and reducing the effects
of soil acidification.
 Limestone is used as a flux to remove impurities in the production of iron and
steel.
 Limestone is used as a raw material in the production of various chemicals,
including calcium oxide (quicklime), calcium hydroxide (slaked lime), and
calcium carbonate.
 Limestone is also used in the production of glass, paint, paper, and sugar,
among other products.

4. MAGNESITE
Magnesite is a mineral composed of magnesium carbonate (MgCO3).
Magnesite serves as a refractory material, a catalyst, a filler, and a raw
ingredient in the manufacture of synthetic rubber, magnesium compounds,
and fertilizers. The top producer is Russia, followed by Slovakia and China.

Uses of Magnesite
 Magnesite is a white or greyish mineral that occurs naturally and can also be
produced through industrial processes. Some of the common uses of
magnesite include:
 Magnesite is used in the production of refractory materials, which are used to
withstand high temperatures and corrosive conditions in furnaces, kilns, and
other industrial applications.
 Magnesite is used as a source of magnesium oxide (MgO), which is used in
the production of various chemicals, including fertilizers, abrasives, and
construction materials.

5. KYANITE
Kyanite is a mineral that is composed of aluminum silicate (Al2SiO5). It
is a blue or greenish mineral. Due to its resistance to high temperatures,
kyanite, which is found in metamorphic aluminous rock, is largely employed in
the cement, glass, and ceramic industries. With three grades of kyanite
 present here, India is the world leader in kyanite deposition. The best grade of
kyanite is guaranteed by a higher aluminum content. The three states that
generate the most kyanite in India are Jharkhand, Maharashtra, and
Karnataka. Switzerland, Brazil, Russia, Kenya, Nepal, and Tanzania all have
significant deposits.

Uses of Kyanite
 Kyanite is used in the production of refractory materials.
 It is used as an abrasive material, due to its hardness and toughness.
 Kyanite is used as a raw material in the production of ceramics, especially in
the production of high-temperature insulation ceramics.
 Kyanite is also used as a gemstone and as a mineral specimen in the jewelry
and ornamental stone industries.

6. GYPSUM
Gypsum is a soft sulfate mineral composed of calcium sulfate dihydrate
(CaSO4·2H2O). Gypsum is a white, opaque compound made of hydrated
calcium sulphate. It is mostly utilized in fertilizers that contain ammonium
sulphate and in the cement industry. Additionally, it helps the soil retain
moisture and absorb nitrogen in agriculture. In terms of output, Rajasthan is
first, followed by Tamil Nadu, Jammu & Kashmir, Gujarat, and Uttar Pradesh.
Iran and the United States are the next two biggest producers after China.

Uses of Gypsum
 Gypsum is a naturally occurring mineral that is widely distributed and is one of
the most common minerals on Earth. Some of the common uses of gypsum
include:
 Gypsum is used as a building material in the construction of walls, ceilings,
and roofs, as well as in the production of plaster, drywall, and joint
compounds.
 It is used as a soil amendment to improve soil structure, and fertility, and to
reduce soil salinity.
 It is used in the production of dental and surgical casts and molds.
 It is used as a raw material in the production of various chemicals, including
sulfuric acid and calcium sulfate.
 It is also used in the production of blackboard chalk, and ceramics, and in the
food industry as a firming agent for fruits and vegetables.

TYPES OF ROCKS

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
 Sedimentary rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks or pieces of once-living
organisms. They form from deposits that accumulate on the Earth's surface.
Sedimentary rocks often have distinctive layering or bedding. Many of the
picturesque views of the desert southwest show mesas and arches made of layered
sedimentary rock.
 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
 Biologic Sedimentary Rocks

IGNEOUS ROCKS
Igneous rocks (from the Latin word for fire) form when hot, molten rock
crystallizes and solidifies. The melt originates deep within the Earth near active plate
boundaries or hot spots, then rises toward the surface. Igneous rocks are divided
into two groups, intrusive or extrusive, depending upon where the molten rock
solidifies.
 Intrusive Igneous Rocks
 Extrusive Igneous Rocks

METAMORPHIC ROCK
Metamorphic rocks started out as some other type of rock, but have been
substantially changed from their original igneous, sedimentary, or earlier
metamorphic form. Metamorphic rocks form when rocks are subjected to high heat,
high pressure, hot mineral-rich fluids or, more commonly, some combination of these
factors. Conditions like these are found deep within the Earth or where tectonic
plates meet.
 Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
 Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks:

KINDS OF ROCKS BODIES

When discussing the geological formations and features on Earth's surface,

we can categorize rock bodies into various types based on their size, shape, and
characteristics. These rock bodies are essential components of the Earth's crust and
play a significant role in shaping landscapes and geological processes. Here are
some common kinds of rock bodies:

OUTCROPS
  Definition: Outcrops are exposed sections of rock formations that are visible at
the Earth's surface. They can be found in various sizes, from small roadside
exposures to extensive cliff faces.
 Significance: Outcrops provide geologists with valuable information about the
underlying rock types, structures, and the geological history of an area. They
are like windows into the Earth's subsurface.

INTRUSIONS
 Definition: Intrusions are igneous rock bodies that have solidified beneath the
Earth's surface. They form when molten magma rises from the Earth's mantle
and cools and solidifies within the crust.
 Types: Intrusions can take various forms, including dikes (vertical intrusions
that cut across existing rock layers), sills (horizontal intrusions that parallel
existing layers), and batholiths (large, deep-seated intrusive bodies).
 Examples: The Sierra Nevada Batholith in California is a well-known example
of a batholith, while the Palisades Sill along the Hudson River in New York is
a famous sill intrusion.

EXTRUSIVE FEATURES
 Definition: These are volcanic landforms that result from the eruption of
magma onto the Earth's surface. Extrusive features can include volcanic
cones, lava flows, and volcanic plateaus.
 Significance: These features are often associated with active volcanoes and
are responsible for shaping landscapes and adding new layers of rock to the
Earth's surface.

FOLDED STRUCTURES
 Definition: Folded structures are rock layers that have been deformed by
tectonic forces, causing them to bend and fold. These structures can vary in
size, from small-scale folds to large mountain ranges.
 Examples: The Appalachian Mountains in eastern North America and the
Himalayan Mountain range in Asia are prominent examples of folded
mountain structures.

FAULTS
 Definition: Faults are fractures or zones of weakness in the Earth's crust along
which rocks have moved relative to each other. They can vary in size and
orientation.
  Types: Faults can be classified into different types, including normal faults
(where rocks move apart), reverse faults (where rocks move together), and
strike-slip faults (where rocks slide past each other horizontally).
 Significance: Faults are essential in the study of plate tectonics and can result
in earthquakes when stress along the fault is released.

PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, AND RATE WEATHERING

What is weathering?
Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks, soil, and minerals through
contact with the Earth's atmosphere, water, and biological organisms.

PHYSICAL WEATHERING
Physical weathering, also known as mechanical weathering, is the breakdown
of rocks into smaller pieces without changing their chemical composition.

Examples of Physical Weathering:

1. FROST WEDGING
Water seeps into cracks in rocks, freezes, and expands. This expansion
puts pressure on the rock, causing it to fracture. Repeated freezing and thawing
cycles can significantly weaken and break down rocks.

2. THERMAL EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION

Rocks expand when heated and contract when cooled. This constant
change in volume can cause stress on the rock, leading to cracks and eventually
breaking. This process is particularly effective in areas with large temperature
fluctuations, such as deserts.

3. ABRASION
Rocks are worn down by the friction of other rocks, sand, or water. This
can occur during windstorms, glacial movement, or the transportation of sediment
by rivers.

4. ROOT WEDGING
Plant roots grow into cracks in rocks, exerting pressure as they expand.
This pressure can eventually break the rock apart.

5. SALT WEDGING
 Salt crystals form in rock pores and cracks when water evaporates. As the
crystals grow, they exert pressure on the rock, causing it to fracture.

CHEMICAL WEATHERING

Chemical weathering involves the breakdown of rocks through chemical

reactions. These reactions change the chemical composition of the rock, resulting in
the formation of new minerals or the weakening of the original rock structure.

Examples of Chemical Weathering:

1. HYDROLYSIS
Water reacts with minerals in rocks, breaking down the mineral structure.
This is particularly effective on silicate minerals, which are common in many
rocks.

2. OXIDATION
Oxygen in the air reacts with minerals in rocks, forming oxides. This
process is responsible for the formation of rust on iron-containing rocks.

3. CARBONATION
Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere dissolves in rainwater, forming carbonic
acid. This acid reacts with carbonate minerals, such as limestone, dissolving
them and forming caves and sinkholes.

4. ACID RAIN
Industrial emissions release sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the
atmosphere. These gases react with water vapor to form sulfuric acid and nitric
acid, which fall to the ground as acid rain. Acid rain accelerates chemical
weathering, damaging buildings and monuments made of limestone and marble.

Rate of Weathering is Influenced by Several Factors, Including:

1. CLIMATE
Temperature, rainfall, and humidity play a significant role in weathering.
Warm, humid climates promote chemical weathering, while cold, dry climates favor
physical weathering.

2. ROCK TYPE
Some rocks are more resistant to weathering than others. For example,
granite is very resistant to weathering, while limestone is easily weathered by
acid rain.

3. SURFACE AREA
 A larger surface area allows for more contact between the rock and
weathering agents, increasing the rate of weathering.

4. TOPOGRAPHY
Steep slopes promote erosion and weathering, while flat surfaces are
more resistant.

APPLICATION OF ROCK AND MINERALS TO CE PROBLEMS

Rocks and minerals play a crucial role in civil engineering, providing the
foundational materials and resources necessary for the construction and
maintenance of infrastructure. Here's a detailed discussion of the applications of
rocks and minerals in civil engineering:

AGGREGATE MATERIALS
 Purpose: Aggregates are granular materials used as a primary component in
concrete, asphalt, and road construction. They provide strength, stability, and
durability to these structures.
 Types: Common aggregates include crushed stone, gravel, sand, and
recycled concrete.
 Application: Aggregates are used in the construction of roads, bridges,
buildings, and other infrastructure projects to create strong and stable
foundations.

DIMENSION STONE
 Purpose: Dimension stones, such as granite, marble, and limestone, are used
for their aesthetic and structural qualities in building facades, monuments, and
interior finishes.
 Application: These stones are extensively used in architectural projects,
adding both visual appeal and durability to structures.

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
 Purpose: Various types of rocks, including limestone, gypsum, and shale, are
used in the production of cement, plaster, and building materials.
 Application: Cement is a fundamental component of concrete, which is widely
used in the construction of structures like bridges, dams, and buildings.
FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
 Purpose: Geological assessments are essential for designing foundations that
can support the loads of buildings and other structures.
 Application: Geotechnical engineers study the properties of subsurface rocks
and soil to determine the best foundation design, including considerations for
settlement, bearing capacity, and stability.

ROCK MECHANICS
 Purpose: Understanding the mechanical properties of rocks is crucial for
designing tunnels, mines, and underground structures.
 Application: Rock mechanics is applied to the design of tunnels for
transportation (e.g., subways and highways), mines, and other subsurface
constructions to ensure structural stability and safety.
GEOLOGIC HAZARD ASSESSMENT
 Purpose: Geologists assess the risks of geological hazards such as
landslides, rockfalls, and earthquakes to prevent potential disasters.
 Application: In civil engineering, this information is used to design structures
that can withstand these hazards or to choose safe locations for construction.

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

 Purpose: Understanding the geological formations beneath a site is vital for
the planning and construction of reservoirs, dams, and water supply systems.
 Application: Geological studies aid in selecting suitable sites for water storage
facilities and ensuring their stability over time.

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
 Purpose: Rocks and minerals can influence environmental aspects such as
groundwater quality and soil stability.
 Application: Geologists and civil engineers work together to assess and
mitigate potential environmental impacts of construction projects, ensuring the
protection of natural resources.

WASTE DISPOSAL
 Purpose: Rocks and minerals can impact the design and safety of waste
disposal facilities, including landfills and hazardous waste repositories.
 Application: Engineers and geologists evaluate geological conditions to select
safe locations for waste disposal facilities and implement containment
measures to prevent contamination.

II. TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS

A. Enumeration (20 points)
1. At least 5 physical properties of minerals.
 2. 10 common rock forming minerals.
3. At least 5 non-metallic minerals.

B. Essay (10 points)

1. What is the difference between rocks and minerals?
2. What is the difference between metallic minerals and non-
metallic minerals?

III. REFERENCES

Lumen Waymaker, Module 2: Rock Forming Minerals. Reading: Physical

Characteristics of Minerals. Retrieved from:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geo/chapter/reading-physical-characteristics-of-
minerals/

University of Wisconsin, Madison, Materials Research Science and Engineering.

Common Rock-Forming Minerals: Identification. Retrieved from:
https://www.appstate.edu/~abbottrn/mnrl-id/

Nelson, S. A. (2013), Tulane University, Minerology. Physical Properties of Minerals.

Retrieved from: https://www2.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens211/physprop.htm

Minerals.net. The Mineral & Gemstone Kingdom. Retrieved from:

https://m.minerals.net/resource/Chemical_Properties.aspx

University of Oxford. Museum of Natural History. “Atoms, Molecules an the rest”.

Retrieved from: https://learningzone.oumnh.ox.ac.uk/atoms-molecules-and-the-rest

Zamboni, J. (2021), ‘Sciencing’. Retrieved from: https://sciencing.com/physical-

chemical-weathering-646861.html

Rock Forming Minerals, Geology Science Retrieved from:

https://geolodyscience.com/geology/rock-forming-minerals/