L1 vs L2 learning

1. Initial State: This is the starting point where learners have some basic, underlying knowledge
about language structures and principles. It's what's in their heads when they start learning
their first (L1) or second language (L2).

Example: A baby might not speak yet, but they have some basic understanding of sounds and
patterns they'll use to learn their first words.

2. Intermediate States: This covers all the stages of basic language development. For children,
this includes the changes in what we call "child grammar" as they learn their first language. For
second language learners, this involves developing what’s known as learner language (or
interlanguage). Here, we compare how first and second languages develop and look at what
helps or hinders language learning.

Example: A child learning English starts with simple words like "mama" and "dada" and
gradually builds up to complete sentences. An adult learning English might start with simple
phrases like "hello" and "thank you" and gradually learn more complex grammar and
vocabulary.

3. Final State: This is the end result of learning a first or second language.

Example: An adult fluent in English can read, write, speak, and understand English well.
Similarly, a child who has fully acquired their first language can use it fluently in all aspects of
their life.

The Initial State in L1 Learning

The Initial State in L1 Learning:

Innate Capacity: Children are born with an in-built ability to learn language. This natural skill
helps them easily grasp the sounds (phonology), rules (grammar), and ways of using language
(discourse) of their native tongue.

Example: Think of a baby learning to speak. They start babbling and gradually form words
without being explicitly taught. This is their innate capacity at work.

Role of Social Interaction: Early social interactions are crucial for language learning. Even
without formal lessons, children learn by being around people who speak the language and
engaging in everyday conversations.
Now, imagine a baby babbling to their parents. They might not be saying real words yet, but
they're practicing the sounds and rhythms of their language. This is where social interaction
comes in. Parents, caregivers, and other people around the baby talk to them, sing to them,
and read to them. Through these interactions, the baby learns to understand and produce
language. It's like a fun game of language, where the baby is the eager learner and the people
around them are the playful teachers.

Example: A toddler learns to say "mama" and "dada" by hearing their parents use these words
and seeing the reactions they get. They pick up language through these natural, meaningful
exchanges.

Effortless Mastery: The initial state of L1 learning is marked by a child’s ability to learn language
naturally and unconsciously. They don’t need explicit teaching or strenuous mental effort to
acquire their native language.

The amazing thing about language learning in infancy is that it happens effortlessly. Babies
don't need to study grammar rules or memorize vocabulary lists. They simply absorb language
through exposure and practice. It's like a sponge soaking up water, effortlessly absorbing the
language around them.

Example: A three-year-old can often speak in full sentences and understand complex ideas
without having taken any formal language lessons. They’ve picked it all up naturally from their
environment.

The Initial State in L2 Learning

The Initial State in L2 Learning:

Innate Capacity Debate: There is an ongoing debate about whether the natural ability to learn
languages extends to learning a second language. Some researchers believe this ability
diminishes with age, while others think it remains accessible to adults.

Some believe that the innate language learning ability, often referred to as the Language
Acquisition Device (LAD), is stronger in children. As we get older, this ability may diminish,
making it more challenging to acquire a language. Others argue that adults can still tap into this
innate capacity, especially if they are highly motivated and exposed to the language regularly.

Example: Some researchers argue that while children can effortlessly pick up languages, adults
may struggle more due to this diminished innate capacity. Others believe that adults can still
tap into this ability, but they often use different strategies.
Influence of L1 Knowledge: Prior knowledge of the first language (L1) plays a big role in
learning a second language (L2). Learners can use what they already know about their first
language to help them learn the second one, but it can also sometimes get in the way.

Think of your first language as a foundation upon which you build your second language. Your
L1 knowledge can be both a help and a hindrance.

 Positive Transfer: When the structures of your L1 and L2 are similar, you can transfer
your knowledge and skills. For example, if you know the word "house" in English, you
might be able to easily learn the word "casa" in Spanish.
 Negative Transfer (Interference): Sometimes, your L1 can get in the way of learning
your L2. For instance, if your L1 doesn't have a specific sound, it might be difficult to
produce that sound in your L2.

Example: A Spanish speaker learning English might use their knowledge of Spanish grammar to
help understand English grammar. However, they might also accidentally apply Spanish rules to
English, leading to errors.

Cognitive Advantages: Compared to young children, adults often have more advanced
cognitive skills and social interaction abilities. These advantages can influence how they
approach and navigate the language learning process.

While children have a natural advantage in language acquisition, adult learners have certain
cognitive advantages:

 Metacognitive Awareness: Adults can consciously think about their learning strategies
and adjust them as needed.
 Problem-Solving Skills: Adults can use their problem-solving skills to overcome language
challenges.
 Motivation and Goal Setting: Adults often have specific reasons for learning a language,
which can motivate them to persist

Example: An adult learning French might use their experience with learning strategies and
problem-solving skills to study more effectively. They can also use their social skills to practice
speaking French in conversations with native speakers.

In summary, the initial state in L2 learning involves a mix of debate about innate capacity, the
influence of existing language knowledge, and the cognitive advantages that adults bring to the
learning process.
Analyze the differences in the initial state of L1 and L2 learning. How does the presence or
absence of innate capacity affect the process of acquiring a second language compared to a
first language?

Comparing the Initial States of L1 and L2 Learning

The initial states of first language (L1) and second language (L2) acquisition differ significantly,
primarily due to the presence or absence of innate language learning capacity.
 Initial State of L1 Learning

 Innate Capacity: Children are born with a remarkable innate capacity for language acquisition, often
referred to as the Language Acquisition Device (LAD). This innate capacity allows them to effortlessly
acquire the complex structures of their native language.
 Exposure and Interaction: Early exposure to language-rich environments, particularly through
interaction with caregivers, plays a crucial role in L1 acquisition. Children learn language through natural
exposure and practice.
 Implicit Learning: Children acquire language implicitly, without explicit instruction. They learn through
observation, imitation, and trial and error.

Initial State of L2 Learning

 Diminishing Innate Capacity: While the innate capacity for language learning is present in adults, it may
not be as strong as it is in children. As we age, our brains become less plastic, making it more challenging
to acquire a language at a native-like level.
 Influence of L1: The knowledge and skills acquired in the L1 can both facilitate and hinder L2 acquisition.
Positive transfer occurs when L1 knowledge helps in L2 learning, while negative transfer (interference)
can lead to errors and misunderstandings.
 Explicit Learning: Adult L2 learners often rely on explicit instruction, such as grammar rules, vocabulary
lists, and pronunciation exercises. This can be both helpful and limiting, as it may not always mimic the
natural language acquisition process.
Impact of Prior Knowledge and World Knowledge
 L1 Knowledge: As mentioned earlier, L1 knowledge can both aid and hinder L2 learning. While it can
provide a foundation for language learning, it can also lead to interference and errors.
 World Knowledge: Prior knowledge of the world can facilitate L2 learning. For example, if a learner
already knows about a particular topic, they can more easily understand and remember vocabulary and
concepts related to that topic in the L2.
In conclusion, the initial state of L1 and L2 learning differs significantly. While children are
endowed with a powerful innate language learning capacity, adult L2 learners must rely on
conscious effort, explicit instruction, and the influence of their L1. However, with motivation,
exposure, and effective learning strategies, adult L2 learners can still achieve a high level of
proficiency.

The Intermediate State in L1 Learning

Child Grammar: Children develop their own internal system for language, which is often
creative and not just based on copying adults. This "child grammar" shows how their
understanding of language grows and changes through predictable stages of grammar and
sounds.

Children aren't just parrots, mimicking the language of adults. They actively construct their own
understanding of language rules. For example, a child might say "I goed to the store" instead of "I went
to the store." This might seem like a mistake to us, but it shows that the child is applying a rule, even if
it's not quite correct yet.

Example: A child might say "goed" instead of "went" because they are applying a regular past
tense rule to an irregular verb. This shows they are learning and experimenting with language
rules.

Cognitive Maturation: Language development in children is closely linked to their overall

cognitive development. As they grow and their thinking abilities expand, their language skills
also become more advanced and sophisticated.

As children grow, their brains develop, and so does their language ability. They start to understand more
complex concepts and can express themselves more precisely. For instance, a young child might say
"Mommy go store," but as they get older, they might say "Mommy is going to the store to buy some
milk." This increased complexity is linked to their overall cognitive development.

Example: A toddler might start with simple sentences like "want cookie," but as they get older
and their brain develops, they can create more complex sentences like "I want a cookie because
I'm hungry."

Unconscious Progression: The intermediate state of L1 learning happens largely naturally and
unconsciously. It is driven by the child’s natural growth and constant exposure to the language
in their environment.

The amazing thing about language learning in childhood is that it happens naturally and
effortlessly. Children don't need to study grammar rules or practice vocabulary lists. They learn
through play, interaction, and exposure to language in their daily lives. It's like they're sponges,
soaking up language from their environment.
Example: A child learns to use correct grammar and vocabulary just by listening and interacting
with people around them, without needing formal lessons or intense study. They might say "I
am playing" instead of "me play" as they unconsciously pick up the correct usage.

So, the intermediate state in L1 learning is all about children naturally and spontaneously
developing their language skills through their internal grammar, cognitive growth, and everyday
interactions.

The Intermediate State in L2 Learning

The Intermediate State in L2 Learning:

Learner Language (Interlanguage): L2 learners develop a unique language system known as

"Learner Language" or "Interlanguage." This system is different from both their first language
(L1) and the target second language (L2). It shows how learners are trying to understand and
improve their proficiency in the new language.

Example: A Spanish speaker learning English might say "I go to the store yesterday" because
they are still figuring out how to correctly use past tense in English. This sentence reflects their
interlanguage.

Positive and Negative Transfer: L2 learners often apply structures and patterns from their L1 to
their L2. This can help (positive transfer) or cause errors (negative transfer).

When learning a new language, we often rely on what we already know from our first language.
This can be both helpful and harmful:

 Positive Transfer: If the structures of your L1 and L2 are similar, you can transfer your
knowledge and skills. For example, if you know the word "house" in English, you might
be able to easily learn the word "casa" in Spanish.
 Negative Transfer (Interference): Sometimes, our L1 can get in the way of learning our
L2. For instance, if your L1 doesn't have a specific sound, it might be difficult to produce
that sound in your L2.

Example:

 Positive Transfer: A French speaker uses the word "décembre" for "December" in
English, which works because the words are similar and mean the same thing.
 Negative Transfer: The same French speaker might say "I have 25 years" instead of "I
am 25 years old" because that's how age is expressed in French ("J'ai 25 ans").

Conscious Developmental Process: Unlike young children learning their first language
unconsciously, L2 learners often go through a more conscious and deliberate process. They
 actively use their previous knowledge, cognitive skills, and learning strategies to improve their
proficiency in the new language.

Unlike young children who acquire their first language naturally, adult L2 learners often need to
put in conscious effort to improve their language skills. This involves:

 Practicing: Regular practice, such as speaking, listening, reading, and writing, is essential
for language development.
 Seeking Feedback: Getting feedback from teachers or native speakers can help identify
and correct errors.
 Using Learning Strategies: Effective learning strategies, such as memorization
techniques, note-taking, and language exchange, can boost language learning.

Example: An adult learning German might memorize vocabulary lists, practice grammar
exercises, and use language-learning apps to reinforce their skills. They consciously engage in
these activities to enhance their learning.

So, the intermediate state in L2 learning involves developing a unique language system, dealing
with positive and negative transfers from the first language, and engaging in a conscious,
deliberate learning process.

Evaluate the role of transfer (both positive and negative) in L2 learning. To what extent does
L1 influence the success or failure of L2 acquisition? Provide examples of both types of
transfer and their effects on learner outcomes.

The Role of Transfer in L2 Learning

Transfer, the influence of a previously learned language (L1) on the acquisition of a second
language (L2), plays a significant role in shaping the L2 learning process. It can manifest as both
positive and negative transfer, impacting both the speed and accuracy of L2 acquisition.

Positive Transfer

Positive transfer occurs when knowledge and skills from the L1 facilitate the learning of the L2.
This can happen in various ways:

 Vocabulary: Cognates, or words that are similar in form and meaning in both languages, can be easily
learned and remembered. For example, a Spanish speaker learning English may easily recognize words
like "television" and "information" due to their similarity to Spanish words.
 Grammar: Similar grammatical structures in both languages can be transferred, making it easier to learn
the L2. For example, a French speaker learning Spanish may easily grasp the use of the subjunctive
mood, as both languages have similar constructions.
 Discourse Patterns: Shared discourse patterns and strategies can be applied to the L2, improving
communication skills. For example, a Japanese speaker learning English may use similar politeness
strategies in both languages.

Negative Transfer (Interference)

Negative transfer, or interference, occurs when knowledge from the L1 hinders L2 learning. This
can manifest in various ways:

 Vocabulary: False cognates, or words that look similar but have different meanings, can lead to
misunderstandings. For example, a Spanish speaker learning English may mistakenly use the word
"embarrassed" when they mean "shy," as the Spanish word "embarazada" means "pregnant."
 Grammar: Differences in grammar rules between the L1 and L2 can lead to errors in the L2. For example,
a Chinese speaker learning English may incorrectly use word order, placing adjectives after nouns.
 Pronunciation: The phonological system of the L1 can influence the pronunciation of the L2, leading to
accent and pronunciation errors. For example, a Japanese speaker learning English may have difficulty
producing certain English sounds, such as /l/ and /r/.
Impact of Transfer on L2 Proficiency and Accuracy
The extent to which transfer affects L2 learning depends on various factors, including the
similarity between the L1 and L2, the learner's proficiency level, and the specific linguistic
features involved. Positive transfer can accelerate language learning and improve accuracy,
while negative transfer can hinder progress and lead to errors.

To mitigate the negative effects of L1 interference and maximize the benefits of positive
transfer, language learners and teachers can employ various strategies, such as explicit
instruction, contrastive analysis, and error correction. By understanding the role of transfer in
L2 learning, learners can become more aware of potential challenges and opportunities, leading
to more effective language acquisition.
Developmental Processes in L1 and L2
L1 Learning: Language development in a first language (L1) happens naturally and without
conscious effort. It's driven by the child's natural growth and their interactions with people
around them.

Example: A toddler learns to say "mommy" and "daddy" simply by hearing these words
repeatedly from their parents and siblings, without needing formal lessons.

Cross-Linguistic Influence: When learning a second language (L2), learners use what they
already know from their first language. This can help or sometimes cause problems as they
apply their L1 knowledge to the L2.

Example: A Spanish speaker might use the word "casa" (house) when speaking English,
benefiting from the similarity. However, they might also say "blue house" as "house blue"
because that's how it’s structured in Spanish, leading to an error.

L2 Learning: Learning a second language is more intentional and deliberate. It is influenced by

the learner's existing knowledge of their first language, their thinking skills, and the strategies
they use to learn.

Example: An adult learning French might consciously study grammar rules, practice
pronunciation, and use language apps, drawing on their prior knowledge of language learning
techniques.

Necessary Conditions for L1 and L2 Learning

Language Input: Language input is crucial for both L1 (first language) and L2 (second language)
learning. This means learners need to be exposed to the language they are trying to learn.

Example: A child needs to hear people speaking around them to learn their first language.
Similarly, someone learning French needs to hear or read French to improve.

L1 Learning: For children learning their first language, direct and reciprocal interactions with
others are essential. They can't learn their first language just by listening to the radio or
watching TV. They need to engage in conversations and meaningful exchanges.

Example: A toddler learns to speak by interacting with their parents, siblings, and caregivers.
They pick up words and sentences by talking with others, not just by passive listening.

L2 Learning: For second language learners, face-to-face social interaction helps but isn't
absolutely necessary. It's possible to reach a high level of proficiency in a second language
through exposure to media like radio, television, or books, especially if the learner is highly
motivated.

Example: Someone living in a remote area might learn English very well by watching English TV
shows, listening to English music, and reading English books, even without speaking directly to
native speakers.

So, while both first and second language learners need exposure to the language, children need
direct interactions, whereas adults can also benefit greatly from media and written texts

Facilitating Conditions for L2 Learning

Unlike first language (L1) learning, which happens naturally in children, the success and speed
of second language (L2) learning can be influenced by several social and individual factors.
These factors help answer the big question: why are some L2 learners more successful than
others?

Key Facilitating Conditions:

1. Feedback:
o Correcting learners' errors can help them improve.
o Example: If a learner says "She go to school," a teacher might correct it to "She
goes to school," helping the learner understand the correct usage.
2. Aptitude:
o This includes abilities like memory capacity and analytic skills.
o Example: A student with a good memory might quickly learn new vocabulary,
and someone with strong analytic skills might easily grasp grammar rules.
3. Motivation:
o The need and desire to learn the language.
o Example: An immigrant motivated to learn English to get a job or interact with
their community is likely to learn faster and more effectively.
4. Instruction:
o Formal teaching in school settings.
o Example: Taking a Spanish class with a structured curriculum and regular
assessments can provide a clear path for learning and improvement.

In summary, while children pick up their first language effortlessly and naturally, learning a
second language can be helped or hindered by feedback, personal aptitude, motivation, and
formal instruction. These factors can make a big difference in how quickly and well someone
learns a new language.

The Final State in L1 Learning

The Final State in L1 Learning Native Competence The final state in L1 learning is typically
native-like proficiency, where the child has mastered the core phonological, grammatical, and
lexical systems of their language. Early Mastery By around 5 or 6 years old, children have
internalized the fundamental structures of their native language and can communicate
effectively in a wide range of contexts. Continuous Development Even after achieving native
competence, L1 learners continue to expand their vocabulary and develop specialized language
registers, such as academic or formal styles.humanize above , make it simple and give example

Native Competence: By the final stage of learning their first language (L1), children usually
reach native-like proficiency. This means they have mastered the basic sounds (phonology),
rules (grammar), and words (vocabulary) of their language.

Example: A 6-year-old can speak English fluently, using correct grammar and vocabulary just
like an adult native speaker.

Early Mastery: By around 5 or 6 years old, children have internalized the fundamental
structures of their native language. They can communicate effectively in various situations,
whether at home, school, or on the playground.

Example: A 5-year-old can ask for a snack, tell a story, or follow instructions during a game,
showing they understand and use their language well.

Continuous Development: Even after reaching native competence, L1 learners keep expanding
their vocabulary and learning new language styles, like academic or formal speech.

Example: A teenager might learn new words related to science and literature in school, and an
adult might develop a professional vocabulary for their job.

So, by the final state of L1 learning, children are fluent in their language and keep improving
and expanding their skills as they grow.

The Final State in L2 Learning

Multilingual Competence: At the final stage of learning a second language (L2), learners often
have strong skills in multiple languages, but not necessarily the same level of fluency as a native
speaker.

Example: A German speaker learning English might be very fluent and able to communicate
effectively, but may still have a slight accent or occasionally make grammar mistakes.

Fossilization: This is when L2 learners stop making progress and keep certain habits from their
first language, causing a plateau in their learning.
Example: A Spanish speaker might consistently say "He come to the house" instead of "He
comes to the house," even after years of learning English, because they’ve fossilized this error.

Near-Native Proficiency: Some learners may reach a level of proficiency that is very close to a
native speaker, but this is relatively rare and depends on factors like the quality of language
input they receive and how motivated they are to learn.

Example: A person who has lived in a foreign country for many years and uses the language
daily might speak with hardly any noticeable difference from native speakers, but achieving this
level of fluency is uncommon and requires a lot of dedication and exposure.

The Role of Transfer in L2 Learning

Positive Transfer: This happens when rules or structures from the learner's first language (L1)
help facilitate the acquisition of the second language (L2).

Example: A Spanish speaker might find it easier to learn Italian because both languages share
similar grammar rules and vocabulary.

Negative Transfer: This occurs when the influence of L1 causes errors or interference in the
learner's L2 production.

Example: A German speaker might say "I have hunger" instead of "I am hungry" in English
because that's how it's expressed in German ("Ich habe Hunger").

Grammatical Errors: Directly transferring L1 grammatical structures to L2 can lead to errors,

such as incorrect word order or verb forms.

Example: A Chinese speaker might place adjectives after nouns in English (like "apple red"
instead of "red apple") because that's the order in Chinese.

Pronunciation Issues: The learner's L1 phonological system can cause them to have a "foreign
accent" when speaking the L2.

Example: A French speaker might struggle with the English "th" sound, pronouncing it as "z"
instead, leading to words like "this" sounding like "zis."

In summary, transfer in L2 learning can either help (positive transfer) or hinder (negative
transfer) the process, affecting grammar, pronunciation, and overall fluency.