Frameworks in Second Language Acquisition

Different approaches to studying SLA can be categorized based on linguistic, psychological, and
social frameworks. These perspectives are interconnected and will each be covered in their own
chapter.

Theoretical Frameworks:

Before the 1960s: Interest in L2 learning was mostly tied to teaching foreign languages. Two
dominant models were:

 Structuralism: Focused on describing speech production, including phonology (sounds),

morphology (word formation), syntax (grammar), semantics (meaning), and lexicon
(vocabulary).
o Example: Analyzing the sound patterns and sentence structures of English.
 Behaviorism: Emphasized habit formation through Stimulus-Response-Reinforcement
(S-R-R). Learning happens when responses to stimuli are reinforced.
o Example: Repeating sentences until they become automatic responses.

Audiolingual Method: Combining Structuralism and Behaviorism, this method emphasized

repetition and habit formation. It was widely used for language teaching until the 1980s.

 Example: Using drills to practice saying, "This is a pen," over and over to form a habit.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory: Introduced in 1962, it stressed the importance of social

interaction in the learning process. This theory highlighted that learning occurs through
interactions with others.

 Example: A child learning language by conversing with parents and peers.

These historical and theoretical frameworks laid the foundation for modern SLA approaches,
which focus on the role of input (exposure to language) and interaction in learning a second
language.

Example Summary: Before the 1960s, language learning focused on habit formation through
repetition (Behaviorism) and describing language structures (Structuralism). The Audiolingual
Method combined these ideas. Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory later emphasized social
interaction as crucial for learning. These ideas continue to influence how we understand and
teach second languages today.

1. Linguistic Frameworks in SLA

Two Approaches to Studying SLA from a Linguistic Perspective:
 1. Internal Focus: Based on the work of Noam Chomsky and his followers, this
approach aims to understand speakers’ internalized, underlying knowledge of
language, known as linguistic competence. It's about what people know in their
heads about their language, not just how they use it.

Internal Focus: The Language Inside Our Heads

 Universal Grammar (UG): This theory suggests that humans are born with a universal grammar,
a set of innate linguistic principles. When learning a language, we simply activate the relevant
parameters within this universal grammar.
 Transformational-Generative Grammar: This framework explores the underlying rules that
govern language structure. It helps us understand how learners acquire complex grammatical
structures.
 Principles and Parameters: This theory builds on UG, suggesting that language acquisition
involves setting specific parameters within universal principles. For example, learners may need
to determine the word order of a language (subject-verb-object or subject-object-verb).

2.

Example: Imagine you know that in English, adjectives usually come before nouns (like "red
apple" instead of "apple red"). This knowledge is part of your linguistic competence.

3. External Focus: This approach looks at how language is used in real-life

situations, emphasizing the functions of language as learners produce it at
different stages of their development.

 Functionalism: This approach emphasizes the role of language in communication. It looks at

how learners use language to achieve specific goals, such as expressing needs, sharing
information, and building relationships.

 Communicative Competence: This concept suggests that language competence involves

more than just grammar and vocabulary. It also includes the ability to use language appropriately
in different social contexts.

Example: A learner might start using simple sentences like "I go" and progress to more complex
ones like "I am going to the store." This progression reflects the external focus on language use.

In simple terms, the internal focus is about understanding the rules and knowledge in our heads,
while the external focus is about how we actually use language in different contexts.

Internal Focus in SLA:

Transformational-Generative Grammar (Chomsky 1957, 1965): This framework
revolutionized linguistic theory and significantly impacted the study of both first and second
languages. Chomsky argued that the behaviorist theory of language acquisition was incorrect
because it couldn't explain the creative aspects of our language ability. He introduced the idea of
an innate capacity for language acquisition, meaning children are born with a natural ability to
learn languages. This concept has heavily influenced linguistic perspectives on SLA.

 Innate Language Acquisition Device (LAD): Chomsky proposed that humans are born with
a specialized language learning mechanism. This LAD allows us to acquire complex language
structures effortlessly.

 Universal Grammar (UG): This is a set of universal principles and parameters that underlie
all human languages. Children are born with this innate knowledge, and they simply need to
"set" the parameters to match the specific language they're exposed to.

Example: Imagine a child saying "I goed to the park" instead of "I went to the park." They're not
just repeating what they hear but applying a general rule they've figured out, showing creative
use of language.

Principles and Parameters Model & Minimalist Program: These models, also by Chomsky,
expanded on the idea of innate capacity. They introduced more abstract ideas like general
principles and constraints common to all human languages, known as Universal Grammar. The
Minimalist Program added distinctions between different categories of language development,
such as vocabulary (lexicon) and grammar (syntax), and emphasized learning the specific
features of words.

This theory builds on TGG, suggesting that language acquisition involves setting specific
parameters within universal principles. For example, a language might have a parameter for
word order (subject-verb-object or subject-object-verb).

Implications for Second Language Acquisition

 Critical Period Hypothesis: This idea suggests that there's a specific window of time
during childhood when language acquisition is most efficient. After this period, language
learning becomes more difficult.
 Universal Grammar and L2 Acquisition: While UG primarily explains first language
acquisition, it has also been applied to second language learning. Some researchers argue
that L2 learners can tap into their innate language learning abilities to acquire a new
language.
 The Role of Input: While innate language ability is important, input from the
environment is also crucial. Learners need to be exposed to the target language to activate
their language acquisition device.

Example: A child learning different sentence structures in both English and Spanish might apply
certain universal grammar principles to both languages but also learn the specific rules that differ
between the two.
Minimalist Program
This approach looks at how different parts of language, such as vocabulary (lexicon) and word
formation (morphology), grammar (syntax) and meaning (semantics), and meaning and social
use (pragmatics or discourse), interact with each other. Some of these interactions can be more
challenging for L2 learners and might cause delays or interference between languages.

The Minimalist Program is a more recent linguistic theory proposed by Noam Chomsky. It aims
to simplify the complex structures of language by focusing on the core elements necessary for
communication.

Key Concepts of the Minimalist Program

 Lexical Categories: These are the building blocks of language, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives,
and adverbs.
 Functional Categories: These categories, like tense, number, and agreement, provide the
grammatical structure of language.

The Minimalist Program suggests that language learning involves acquiring the ability to
combine lexical and functional categories in meaningful ways. By focusing on feature
specification, the theory emphasizes the importance of understanding the properties of words and
how they interact with grammatical rules.

Example: An English speaker learning French might struggle with the different ways the two
languages handle subject-verb agreement, leading to mistakes or slower progress.

In simpler terms, Chomsky's theories focus on the internal knowledge and rules about language
that people have in their heads. They explain how this knowledge is innate and develops in both
first and second language learning, highlighting the complexities and interactions between
different aspects of language.

External Focus in SLA:

Functionalism: Functionalism, dating back to the early 20th century with roots in the Prague
School of Eastern Europe, differs from Chomskyan frameworks. It emphasizes the information
content of language and considers language primarily as a system of communication.

External Focus: Language as a Tool for Communication

While internalist approaches like Chomsky's focus on the innate linguistic abilities of
humans, externalist approaches, rooted in Functionalism, emphasize the social and
communicative functions of language.
 Functionalism: Language as a Tool for Communication

Functionalist approaches view language as a tool for expressing meaning and achieving
communicative goals. They highlight the importance of:

 Context: The social and cultural context in which language is used.

 Meaning: The underlying meaning that speakers intend to convey.
 Function: The purpose of language in different situations.

Key Functionalist Frameworks

 Communicative Competence: This framework emphasizes the importance of both linguistic

competence and pragmatic competence. It suggests that learners need to develop the ability to
use language appropriately in different social contexts.
 Functional Grammar: This approach focuses on the relationship between language form and
meaning. It emphasizes the role of context and discourse in shaping language use.
 Task-Based Language Teaching: This pedagogical approach is based on the idea that
language learning is most effective when learners are engaged in meaningful tasks. It focuses
on developing communicative competence through authentic language use.
Implications for Second Language Acquisition
Functionalist approaches have significant implications for second language teaching
and learning:

 Learner-Centered Instruction: By focusing on the learner's needs and interests, teachers can
create more engaging and effective learning experiences.
 Authentic Language Use: Exposure to authentic language materials, such as movies, songs,
and news articles, can help learners develop a deeper understanding of language in context.
 Communicative Tasks: Engaging in communicative tasks, such as role-plays, discussions,
and presentations, can help learners practice using language in real-world situations.
By combining the insights from both internalist and externalist perspectives, we can gain
a more comprehensive understanding of the complex process of second language
acquisition.
Key Points in Functionalism:

1. Information Content:
o Focuses on the meaning and information conveyed in utterances.
o Example: In a conversation, the emphasis is on what is being communicated, like
the message "I'm hungry" being understood and acted upon.
2. Language as Communication:
o Views language mainly as a tool for communication.
o Example: Using phrases like "How are you?" not just as a greeting but to
establish a connection and show care.
3. Similarities and Differences Among Languages:
o Some approaches look at how the similarities and differences between languages
affect the sequence and difficulty of learning them.
o Example: A Spanish speaker might find it easier to learn Italian due to
similarities in vocabulary and grammar compared to learning Chinese, which is
very different.
4. Mapping Functions and Forms:
o Emphasizes the process of learners mapping linguistic functions to forms based
on their communicative needs.
o Example: A learner might learn to say "Can I have..." because they frequently
need to ask for things, mapping the function (requesting) to the form (the phrase).
5. Structuring Information:
o Focuses on how learners organize and structure information in their second
language.
o Example: An English learner might first use simple structures like "I eat" and
later progress to more complex ones like "I am eating dinner with my family."

These approaches have greatly influenced the study of SLA in Europe and are widely adopted
around the world.

In simple terms, functionalism looks at language as a tool for communication, focusing on the
meaning and information conveyed, and how learners use language to meet their communicative
needs.

Chomsky's Internal Focus on Linguistic Competence

Noam Chomsky’s work in linguistics has deeply influenced how we understand language
learning, especially second language acquisition (SLA). His theories emphasize that humans
have an innate ability to learn languages, and this idea has evolved over time.

Transformational-Generative Grammar (1957): This theory marked a major shift from the
behaviorist views of the mid-20th century, which focused on habit formation through repetition.
Chomsky argued that humans have a built-in "language acquisition device," a natural ability to
effortlessly learn languages. He introduced the idea of "universal grammar," suggesting that all
human languages share a common underlying structure, despite their differences.
Example: Imagine a child learning to form sentences like "The cat is on the mat." According to
Chomsky, the child uses an innate understanding of sentence structure common to all languages
to create this sentence, not just imitation and repetition.

Principles and Parameters Model: This model builds on Chomsky’s earlier work by
introducing the idea that all languages have universal principles, but each language also has
specific rules (parameters) that learners must figure out. This helps explain how people learn
different languages.

Example: A learner might understand the universal principle that sentences need a subject and a
verb, but then they need to learn the specific rules for word order in English versus Japanese.
English typically follows a Subject-Verb-Object order ("I eat apples"), while Japanese often uses
a Subject-Object-Verb order ("I apples eat").

In simpler terms, Chomsky’s theories suggest that our ability to learn languages is hard-wired
into our brains, and we use this natural talent to navigate the complexities of different languages
by understanding both universal rules and specific language variations. This approach helps
teachers and researchers better support language learners.

Minimalist Program:

The Minimalist Program is Chomsky's latest theory, focusing on two main categories in
language: lexical (words and their meanings) and functional (grammar and structure). It
emphasizes the importance of specifying features in vocabulary and grammar to understand how
language learners develop these skills.

Example: A learner might need to understand not only what "run" means (lexical) but also how
to use it correctly in a sentence, like "She is running" (functional).

Insights from the Minimalist Program:

1. Nuanced Understanding of Language Acquisition:

o This theory offers a deeper understanding of the cognitive processes involved in
learning a new language.
o Example: It explains how learners figure out complex grammatical structures in
their second language.
2. Informing Pedagogical Strategies:
o Insights from this theory can help teachers design better language teaching
methods and curriculums.
o Example: Teachers might create lessons that focus on both vocabulary and
grammar rules to help students understand and use the language effectively.
3. Enhancing Research Methodologies:
o Linguistic approaches offer a way for researchers to study how universal language
principles and specific language rules interact in SLA.
o Example: Researchers can investigate how learners from different language
backgrounds acquire new languages and the common challenges they face.
 4. Emphasizing Feature Specification:
o The Minimalist Program's focus on features in vocabulary and grammar can help
learners build more nuanced proficiency in their second language.
o Example: Understanding the subtle differences in how verbs are used in English
compared to their first language can improve a learner's accuracy and fluency.

In simpler terms, the Minimalist Program helps us understand the detailed processes behind
language learning, guiding teachers and researchers to support language learners more
effectively.

Functionalism and the External Focus in Linguistics:

Functionalism in Linguistics: Functionalism, originating from the Prague School, offers a

different perspective from Chomsky's theories by viewing language primarily as a tool for
communication. It focuses on the external, social functions of language rather than the internal
knowledge of language rules.

Example: Instead of just knowing grammar rules, functionalists are interested in how people use
language to achieve their communicative goals, like asking for help or telling a story.

Key Insights of Functionalism:

1. Language in Real-World Contexts:

o Functionalists argue that language can’t be fully understood without looking at
how it’s used in everyday situations.
o Example: Observing how people greet each other in different cultures to
understand the social rules behind greetings.
2. Communicative Needs and Sociocultural Factors:
o They highlight how language structures are shaped by the need to communicate
and the cultural contexts in which people live.
o Example: In some cultures, polite language might be more elaborate to show
respect, influencing how people structure their sentences.

Impact on SLA Research:

Understanding Pragmatic Competence: Functionalism emphasizes understanding how L2

learners develop the ability to use language appropriately in different contexts, not just learning
grammar and vocabulary.

Example: Learning when to say "Can I?" versus "May I?" in English depending on the formality
of the situation.

Insights into Language Learning Tasks: Functionalist approaches have provided insights into
how difficult language learning tasks are and the order in which learners typically acquire
language skills.
Example: Research might show that learners find it easier to learn basic greetings before
mastering complex sentence structures.

Pedagogical Implications:

Focus on Communicative Competence: Functionalism has influenced language teaching

methods to focus on the ability to use language effectively in real-life situations.

Example: A task-based learning approach where students complete activities like ordering food
in a restaurant role-play to practice language in context.

Task-Based Learning: This approach helps learners not just with accuracy but also with using
language effectively in various social and cultural settings.

Example: Students might participate in group discussions, debates, or storytelling exercises to

develop their language skills in a practical and engaging way.

In summary, functionalism provides a valuable perspective on how language is used in real-

world contexts, highlighting the importance of communicative goals, social interactions, and
cultural influences in second language acquisition.

2. Psychological Frameworks in SLA

When we think about learning a new language, we often wonder how our brains work to make it
possible. Psychologists have been studying this fascinating process for many years.

The Brain's Role in Language Learning

Just like our bodies need exercise to stay healthy, our brains need to be active to learn a new
language. Scientists have discovered that specific areas of the brain are involved in language
processing. When we learn a new language, these areas become more active and connected.

The study of how language is represented and processed in the brain has intrigued biologists and
psychologists since the 19th century. The field of neurolinguistics began to influence cognitive
perspectives on SLA in the 1960s. Lenneberg (1967) proposed that there is a critical period for
language acquisition based on neurological factors, suggesting that age can affect SLA. Modern
brain imaging techniques and studies on multilingual patients have significantly advanced our
understanding in this area.

Example: Researchers might use MRI scans to observe how different parts of the brain are
activated when learning a new language, helping them understand why younger learners might
pick up languages more easily than adults.
The Learning Process: Building the Language House

Think of learning a language as building a house. First, we lay the foundation by learning the
basic building blocks: sounds, words, and simple sentences. Then, we start to build the walls and
roof by learning more complex grammar rules and vocabulary.

Information Processing: This approach to language learning is like a computer processing

information. We take in language input, process it, and store it in our memory. Over time, we
become more efficient at processing language.

Connectionism: This theory suggests that language learning is like building a network of
connections between words, phrases, and meanings. The more we practice, the stronger these
connections become.

Individual Differences: Why We Learn at Different Speeds

Not everyone learns a language at the same pace. Some people are natural language learners,
while others find it more challenging. Factors like motivation, personality, and learning style can
all influence how quickly and effectively we learn a language.

By understanding the psychological processes involved in language learning, we can develop

more effective teaching methods and strategies to help learners of all ages and abilities.

Social Frameworks in SLA: The Social Side of Language Learning

Imagine learning a language in a vacuum. It's hard to picture, right? Language isn't just about
grammar rules and vocabulary. It's deeply rooted in social interactions, cultural norms, and
personal experiences.

Social Frameworks in Second Language Acquisition (SLA) explore the social side of language
learning, emphasizing the importance of context, culture, and community.

Microsocial Perspectives: Small-Scale Social Interactions

Let's zoom in on smaller social interactions. Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory highlights the
role of social interaction in learning. Think of a child learning a language from their parents. The
parents provide support and guidance, helping the child to gradually develop their language
skills. This process is known as scaffolding.

Variation Theory and Accommodation Theory explore how people adjust their language use
based on the social situation. For example, you might speak differently to a friend than to a
professor. These theories help us understand how language learners adapt their language use to
fit different social contexts.
Macrosocial Perspectives: The Bigger Picture

Now, let's zoom out to the broader social context. Ethnography of Communication examines
how language is used in specific cultural contexts. It helps us understand the cultural nuances
and expectations that shape language use.

Acculturation Theory and Social Psychology explore how factors like identity, status, and
cultural values influence language learning. For example, a learner's motivation to learn a
language may be influenced by their cultural background and personal goals.

Implications for SLA

Understanding the social dimensions of language learning has significant implications for
language teaching and learning:

 Creating Authentic Learning Environments: Language classrooms should be designed to mimic

real-world language use, providing opportunities for learners to interact with each other and
with native speakers.
 Considering Cultural Factors: Teachers should be aware of the cultural backgrounds of their
learners and incorporate culturally relevant materials and activities into their lessons.
 Fostering Social Interaction: Encouraging peer-to-peer interaction and group work can create
opportunities for learners to practice language use in meaningful contexts.

By recognizing the social and cultural factors that influence language learning, we can create
more effective and engaging language learning experiences.