The cell

 The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms . it is :
1. Microscopic.
2. Membrane bound.
3. Contains membrane bound compartments [organelles ] which serve specific functions.
4. Contains the necessary genetic structures [ DNA] for reproduction.
5. Consumes substances.
6. Synthesize molecules.
 Generally there are 2 types of cells : prokaryotes and eukaryotes :
1. The prokaryotes :
 Found in single cell organisms : bacteria –viruses.
 They lack :
1. Nucleus but have nuclear body .
2. Nuclear envelope.
3. Cytoplasm .
2. The eukaryotes
 Found in multicellular organisms.
 They are 4 types : animals – plants – fungi – protozoa.
 They consist of :
1. Cell membrane.
2. Nucleus.
3. Cytoplasm containing membrane –bound organelles.

characteristic prokaryotes eukaryotes

Organization Single cell Single - multicellular
Organism Viruses - bacteria Animal-plant-fungi-protozoa
Size 1-10 micron 10 – 100 micron
Nucleus No nucleus –has nuclear body Nucleus with nuclear envelope
DNA Circular Linear [chromosomes]
Ribosomes 70 s 80 s
Mitochondria none 1 – 100
Proteins No histone proteins Histone proteins in the nucleus
Organelles Very few Highly structures
Movement Cilia- flagella [flagellin] Cilia – flagella [tubulin]
Division Binary fission Meiosis- mitosis

The cell membrane

 Is unit membrane .
 It is made of lipids and proteins that are arranged in a fluid mosaic form of lipid bilayer in which
there are proteins.
 It is :
1. 7.5 nm thick [range 6-10 nm]
2. Semipermeable .
3. Can alter shape .
 In the E.M. it appears as trilaminar structure :
1. An electron –light area : represents the fatty acids of the lipids .sandwiched between
2. 2 electron – dense areas : represent the proteins and the polar ends of the lipid bilayer .
1. The lipids :
 Include the
1. Glycero phospholipids [phosphoglycerides]
2. Sphingolipids [sphingomyelin]
3. Cholesterol
 They form self-sealing bilayers
 They are amphipathic molecules with hydrophobic and hydrophilic moieties.
 The hydrophobic groups , the long fatty acyl chains form the core with the polar hydrophilic groups
lining both surfaces [inner and outer]

1. The phospholipids
 Forms 2 sheets . each sheet is one molecule thick.
 They include the :
1. Phosphatidyl choline [lecithin] 5. Phosphatidyl glycerol
2. Phosphatidyl ethanolamine [cephalin] 6. Diphosphatidyl glycerol
3. Phosphatidyl serine 7. Phosphatidic acid
4. Phosphatidyl inositol
 Each molecule consists of :
1. A 3 - carbon back bone [glycerol]
2. 2 fatty acid chains [one saturated and one unsaturated]
3. A phosphate head [which can be further esterified]
 The molecules resemble cloth pins in shape
1. The head ends
 Hydrophilic [ polar]
 Contain phosphate heads
 Located on the membrane surfaces [inner – outer]
2. The tail ends
 Hydrophobic[non-polar]
 Contain the fatty acid chains
 Located in the water –poor interior of the membrane
 The phospholipids are amphipathic .They are the only membrane lipids in prokaryotes.

2. The cholesterol
 Amphipathic [hydrophilic and hydrophobic portions]
 Functions :
1. Stabilizes the membrane by interacting with the adjacent hydrophobic chains of the
phospholipids stiffening thus the area and decreasing the lipid fluidity [ i.e. they increase the
melting point ]
2. Converted to vitamin D by ultraviolet light [ in skin cells].
3. Modified to form steroid hormones.
4. Modified to form bile acids which contribute to fat digestion.

3. The glycolipids
 Amphipathic.
 Located on the outer surface of the membrane.
 Serve cell –cell and cell- environment contact.

2. The proteins
 Are separate globular units in the membrane.
 They are 2 types : integral and peripheral proteins
 1. The integral proteins
 Extend through the membrane [ transmembrane]
 Amphipathic . have :
1. Hydrophobic central portion : anchored to the lipid bilayer by hydrophobic bonds.
2. Hydrophilic end portions : protrude into the aqueous solution of the intracellular and
extracellular fluids.
Thus they demonstrate asymmetrical orientation in the membrane
 They act as transmembrane proteins and ion channels
 Can be removed by denaturation of the membrane using detergents e.g. organic solvents - Naᶧ
tetradicyl sulphonate.
 E.g. of integral proteins :
1. Hormone receptors
2. Ion channels
3. N aᶧ - Kᶧ ATPase
4. Gap junction proteins
5. Histocompatability antigens
2. The peripheral proteins
 Located on either surface of the membrane.
 Act as enzymes – receptors – antigens and cell adhesion molecules.
 The membrane proteins are :
1. Amphipathic.
2. Some have lipids [ lipoproteins] others have carbohydrates [glycoproteins].
3. They make up ½ of the membrane mass [ one molecule protein : 50 molecules lipid].
4. Some anchor to the cytoskeleton.
5. Others are mobile. They move laterally and rotate. Their movement is controlled by microtubules
and microfilaments
6. The polypeptide chain extends across the lipid bilayer once or several times.
 Function of the cell membrane protein : they act as
1. Structural proteins.
2. Pumps for active transport.
3. Carriers : transport by facilitated diffusion.
4. Channels for passive transport.
5. Receptors : bind ligands → initiate responses.
6. Enzymes : catalyze reactions.
7. Antigens : process antibodies – distinguish self from non self.
8. Cell adhesion molecules.
9. Cell to cell interaction and recognition.

Cell membrane carbohydrates:

 Comprise 5- 10 % of cell membrane
 Consists of glycolipids and glycoproteins
 Form the glycocalyx coat on the membrane surface which :
1. Is responsible for the immunologic characteristics of the cell.
2. Carries the surface receptors involved in molecular recognition.

Properties of the cell membrane

1. Protective barrier.
2. Structurally and functionally asymmetrical .this is due to the asymmetrical orientation of the
membrane proteins.
3. Polarized with the interior negative relative to the exterior.
4. Has different enzymes at different surfaces.
 5. Dynamic ,its components are constantly renewed.

Function of the cell membrane

1. Intracellular homeostasis by its transport mechanisms.
2. Cell adhesiveness: by its cell adhesion molecules.
3. Cell movement : by pseudopodia.
4. Cell growth : cells at the wound edges proliferate and move to fill the gap. Contact of like cells.
from opposite sides inhibits cell division. This contact inhibition is the function of the cell
membrane .
Alteration of cell membrane and release of the cells from inhibition and thus onset of cell growth
is induced by :
1. Injury
2. Viral infection
3. Malignant transformation
4. Treatment with proteolytic enzymes
5. Cell recognition : it contains the HLA [ major histocompatibility ] system → an antigen system by
which the body recognizes its own cells and tolerate them, and alien cells to attack them.
6. Receptor function.
7. Enzyme function : the proteins act as enzymes.

Membrane fluidity
 Due to movement of both the proteins and lipids .
1. The proteins have patching and capping movements.
2. The lipids have flip flap movements- lateral movement and rotation.
 The degree of membrane fluidity is determines in part by the :
1. Number of double binds [desaturation] in the fatty acid chains of the phospholipids :
↑ desaturation → ↑ fluidity.
2. Length of the fatty acid chains : ↑ length → ↓ fluidity .
3. Temperature : ↑temperature → ↑fluidity.
4. Cholesterol : ↑ cholesterol → ↓ fluidity .

The cell surface

 Covered by loose matrix [ the glycocalyx] made of :
1. Collagen 4. lamenin
2. Entacin 5. proteoglycan
3. Fibronectin 6 . carbohydrates of the glycoproteins and glycolipids
 Has polyanionic charge .
 Substances entering or leaving the cell must first pass through this matrix .

The cell membrane receptors

 Classified according to signal transduction mechanism to : ionotropic-catalytic and G-protein linked
1. The Ionotropic [ Ion channel – linked] receptors
 Coupled directly to ligand – gated ion channels
 E. g.
1. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
2. Ionotropic glutamate receptors
3. γ- amino butyric acid [GABA] A receptors

2. the catalytic receptors

 have a cytoplasmic catalytic region that behaves as tyrosine kinase.
 The tyrosine kinase receptors consist of :
 1. A tyrosine kinase domain
2. A hormone binding domain
3. A carboxy terminal segment with multiple tyrosines for autophosphorylation
 The activation of signaling by tyrosine kinase receptor involves :
1. Ligand – induced oligomerization of the receptor
2. Transphosphorylation of the activation loop
3. Phosphorylation of additional sites and recruitment of proteins to the receptor
complex
4. Phosphorylation of substrates
3. The G-protein linked receptors
 GTP –binding protein
 Involved in transduction of hormonal signals
 Structurally the membrane receptors comprise of the following groups depending on the number
of times they span the membrane
1. Single trans-luminal domain receptors
 Directly or indirectly coupled with intracellular kinase enzymes
 Include the :
1. Tyrosine kinase receptor family which include the :
1. Epithelial growth factors
2. Fibroblast growth factors
3. Insulin-like growth factors
2. Cytokine receptor super family
3. Guanyl cyclase receptor family
4. Phosphotyrosine phosphate family
2. Four transmembrane domain receptors
 Form ligand –gated ion channels
3. Seven transmembrane domain receptors
 Associated with GTP – activated protein [G- protein] coupled receptors

The intercellular junction

 Cells are interconnected by cell junctions

 Types of the intercellular junctions are 3
1. Occludens type
 Here the membranes of adjacent cells fuse at points
 Include the tight junctions
2. Adherens type
 Here the membranes adhere to each other
 Include the zonulae Adherens- the desmosomes
3. Nexus type
 Here adjacent membranes communicate via channels
 Include the gap junctions
1. The tight junctions [zonulae occludens ]
 Here the ridges of the membranes of adjacent cells fuse at points .
 Between the sites of fusion the intercellular space exist
 The ridges are made of the proteins singulin – ZO 1
 Tight junction are located at the apical and the basolateral borders of the cells in the :
1. Intestinal mucosa
2. Kidney tubules
3. Bladder wall
 4. Choroid plexus
5. Sertoli cells
 Functions of tight junctions :
1.They glue the cells together
2. They form barrier to solute movement between the cells i.e. they prevent pericellular
diffusion of water and ions
3. They prevent movement of apical proteins thus they maintain cell polarity
2. The Zonulae Adherens
 These are bands situated deep to and continuous with the basal side of the tight junctions
 They are the site of attachment of the
1. Cell adhesion molecules uvomorulin – lamenin
2. Intracellular microfilament actin
3. The desmosomes
 Spot- like membrane thickenings separated by intercellular space
1. Cytoplasmic fibrils attach to the thickenings
2. Filamentous material [cadherins – extracellular parts of the transmembrane proteins ] fill the
intercellular space and glue the cells together
4. The hemidesmosomes
 Half desmosomes
 Biochemically distinct from the desmosomes
 Attach to the intermediate filaments
 Anchor cells to the underlying basal lamina
5. The focal adhesions
 Dense plaques where the transmembrane proteins [ integrin ] link the extracellular matrix to the
microfilaments
 They attach the cells to their basal lamina
6. The gap junctions
 Consist of tubes [connexons] which span the membranes of adjacent cells and the 2-4 nm
intercellular space
 Each connexon is made of 6 protein subunits [ connexins]
 They permit the passage of substances