CLOUD CONPUTING UNIT-I

PART-1 Systems Modeling, Clustering and virtualization: Scalable Computing over the Internet,
Technologies for Network based systems, System models for Distributed and Cloud Computing, Software
environments for distributed systems and clouds, Performance, Security And Energy Efficiency.

1.1 SCALABLE COMPUTING OVER THE INTERNET

1.1.1 The age of Internet Computing

 Billions of people use the Internet every day. As a result, supercomputer sites and
large data centers must provide high-performance computing (HPC) services to huge
numbers of Internet users concurrently, but its no longer optimal for measuring
system performance.
 The emergence of computing clouds instead demands high throughput computing
(HTC) systems built with parallel and distributed computing technologies. With
upgrade of data centers using fast servers, storage systems, and high bandwidth
networks for emerging new technologies

1.1.2 The Platform Evolution

 Computer technology has gone through five generations of development, with each
generation lasting from 10 to 20 years. Successive generations are overlapped in
about 10 years, were built to satisfy the demands of large businesses and government
organizations. Since 1990, the use of both HPC and HTC systems hidden in.

High-Performance Computing:

 For many years, HPC systems emphasize the raw speed performance, which has
been increased to Pflops in 2010. This improvement was driven mainly by the
demands from scientific, engineering, and manufacturing communities.
 For example, the Top 500 most powerful computer systems in the world are measured
by floating-point speed in Linpack benchmark results. However, the number of
supercomputer users is limited to less than 10% of all computer users.
  Today, the majority of computer users are using desktop computers or large servers
when they conduct Internet searches and market-driven computing tasks.

High-Throughput Computing:

 The development of market-oriented high-end computing systems is undergoing a

strategic change from an HPC paradigm to an HTC paradigm. This HTC paradigm
pays more attention to high-flux computing.
 The main application for high-flux computing is in Internet searches and web services
by millions or more users simultaneously. The performance goal thus shifts to
measure high throughput or the number of tasks completed per unit of time.
 HTC technology needs to not only improve in terms of batch processing speed, but
also address the acute problems of cost, energy savings, security, and reliability at
many data and enterprise computing centers.

COMPUTING PARADIGM DISTINCTIONS

 Centralized computing: This is a computing paradigm by which all computer

resources are centralized in one physical system. All resources (processors, memory,
and storage) are fully shared and tightly coupled within one integrated OS. Many data
centers and supercomputers are centralized systems.
 Parallel computing: In parallel computing, all processors are either tightly coupled
with centralized shared memory or loosely coupled with distributed memory. Some
authors refer to this discipline as parallel processing. Interprocessor communication is
accomplished through shared memory or via message passing. A computer system
capable of parallel computing is commonly known as a parallel computer
 Distributed computing: A distributed system consists of multiple autonomous
computers, each having its own private memory, communicating through a computer
network. Information exchange in a distributed system is accomplished through
message passing. A computer program that runs in a distributed system is known as a
distributed program.
 Cloud computing: An Internet cloud of resources can be either a centralized or a
distributed computing system. The cloud applies parallel or distributed computing, or
both. Clouds can be built with physical or virtualized resources over large data centers
that are centralized or distributed. Some authors consider cloud computing to be a
form of utility computing or service computing.

1.1.3 Scalable Computing Trends and New Paradigms.

It’s important to understand how distributed systems emphasize both resource

distribution and concurrency or high degree of parallelism (DoP).

Degrees of Parallelism:
 Bit-level parallelism (BLP): It converts bit-serial processing to word-level
processing gradually. Over the years, users graduated from 4-bit microprocessors
to 8,16,32, and 64-bitCPUs.
 Instruction-level parallelism (ILP): The processor executes multiple instructions
simultaneously.
 Ex: Pipelining, supercomputing, VLIW (very long instruction word), and
multithreading.
 Data-level Parallelism (DLP): Here, instructions are given like arrays (single
instruction, multiple data SIMD). More hardware support is needed.
 Task-level Parallelism (TLP): It is a process of execution where different
threads (functions) are distributed across multiple processors in parallel
computing environments
 Job-level Parallelism (JLP): Job level parallelism is the highest level of
parallelism where we concentrate on a lab or computer center to execute as many
jobs as possible in any given time period

1.1.4 The Internet of Things (IoT) and Cyber-Physical Systems

The IoT refers the networked interconnection of everyday objects, tools, devices or
computers. It can be seen as a wireless network of sensors that interconnect all things we use
in our daily life. RFID and GPS are also used here. The IoT demands universal addressability
of all the objects or things that may be steady or moving.
Cyber-Physical System (CPS) is the result of interaction between computational
processes and the physical world. A CPS integrates “cyber” (heterogeneous, asynchronous)
with “physical” (concurrent and information-dense) objects. A CPS merges the “3C”
technologies of computation, communication, and control into an intelligent closed feedback
system between the physical world and the information world, a concept which is actively
explored in the United States
1.2 TECHNOLOGIES FOR NETWORK BASED SYSTEMS

With the concept of scalable computing under our belt, it’s time to explore hardware,
software, and network technologies for distributed computing system design and applications.

1.2.1 Multi-core CPUs and Multithreading Technologies

Over the last 30 years the speed of the chips and their capacity to handle variety of jobs
has increased at an exceptional rate. This is crucial to both HPC and HTC system
development. Note that the processor speed is measured in MIPS (millions of instructions
per second) and the utilized network bandwidth is measured in Mbps or Gbps.
Multi-core CPU:
A multi-core processor is a single computing component with two or more independent
actual processing units (called "cores"), which are units that read and execute program
instructions (Ex: add, move data, and branch). The multiple cores can run multiple
instructions at the same time, increasing overall speed for programs open to parallel
computing.
1.2.2 GPU Computing to Exascale and Beyond
Many-core GPU:
Graphics Processing Units are specialist multi-core processors designed for a high
degree of parallel processing, containing a large number of simpler, independent processor
cores. Many-core processors are used extensively in embedded computers and high-
performance computing. (Main frames, super computers).
A GPU is a graphics co-processor mounted on a computer’s graphics card to perform
high level graphics tasks in video editing apps. A modern GPU chip can be built with
hundreds of processing cores.This can be termed as massive parallelism at multicore and
multi-threading levels.
GPU Programming Model
The interaction between a CPU and GPU in performing parallel execution of floating-point
operations concurrently is shown in below figure. The CPU instructs the GPU to perform
massive data processing where the bandwidth must be matched between main memory and
GPU memory. The major benefits of GPU over CPU are power and massive parallelism.

1.2.3 Memory, Storage and Wide Area Network

 Memory Technology:
The traditional RAMs in computers are all DRAMs. For hard drives, capacity
increased from 260 MB to 3 TB and lately 5 TB (by Seagate). Static RAM and is
'static' because the memory does not have to be continuously refreshed like
Dynamic RAM. SRAM is faster but also more expensive and is used inside the CPU.
Faster processor speed and higher memory capacity will result in a wider gap between
processors and memory, which is an ever-existing problem.

 Disks and Storage Technology:

The rapid growth of flash memory and solid-state drives (SSD) also has an impact
on the future of HPC and HTC systems. An SSD can handle 300,000 to 1 million write
cycles per block, increasing the speed and performance. Power consumption should
also be taken care-of before planning any increase of capacity.

 System-Area Interconnects:
The nodes in small clusters are interconnected by an Ethernet switch or a LAN. As
shown below,where a LAN is used to connect clients to servers. A Storage Area
Network (SAN) connects servers to network storage like disk arrays. Network Attached
Storage (NAS) connects clients directly to disk arrays. All these types of network
appear in a large cluster built with commercial network components (Cisco, Juniper). If
 not much data is shared (overlapped), we can build a small cluster with an Ethernet
Switch + copper cables to link to the end machines (clients/servers).

 Wide Area Network (WAN):

We can also notice the rapid growth of Ethernet bandwidth from 10 Mbps to 1
Gbps and still increasing. Different bandwidths are needed for local, national, and
international levels of networks. It is also estimated that computers will be used
concurrently in the coming future and higher bandwidth will certainly add more speed
and capacity to aid the cloud/distributed computing. Note that most data centers use
gigabit Ethernet as interconnect in their server clusters.

1.2.4 Virtual Machines and Middleware

A typical computer has a single OS image at a time. This leads to a rigid architecture that
tightly couples apps to a specific hardware platform i.e., an app working on a system might
not work on another system with another OS (non-portable).
To build large clusters, grids and clouds, we need to increase the capacity of computing,
storage and networking resources in a Virtualized manner. A cloud of limited resources
should aggregate all these dynamically to bring out the expected results.

As seen in above figure, the Host machine is equipped with a physical hardware. The
Virtual Machine is built with virtual resources managed by a guest OS to run a specific
application (Ex: VMware to run Ubuntu for Hadoop). Between the VMs and the host
platform we need a middleware called VM Monitor (VMM). A hypervisor (VMM) is a
program that allows different operating systems to share a single hardware host. This
approach is called bare-metal VM because a hypervisor handles CPU, memory and I/O
directly. VM can also be implemented with a dual mode as shown above. Here, part of VMM
runs under user level and another part runs under supervisor level.
VM Primitive operations: A VMM operation provides VM abstraction to the guest OS. The
VMM can also export an abstraction at full virtualization so that a standard OS can run it as it
would on physical hardware. Low level VMM operations are indicated by Mendel
Rosenblum.

1.2.5 Data Center Virtualization for Cloud Computing:

Data Center is a centralised repository and distribution of data and information
organised around a particular concept. A typical data center may have a capacity in Petabytes.
Cloud architecture is built with products like hardware and network devices. Low-cost
terabyte disks and gigabit Ethernet are used to build data centers. A data center takes into
consideration the performance/price ratio instead of only speed.
 Data Center Growth and Cost Breakdown: Large data centers are built with
thousands of servers and smaller ones have hundreds of the same. The cost of
maintaining a data center has increased and much of this money is spent on
management and maintenance which did not increase with time. Electricity and
cooling also consume much of the allocated finance.

 Low Cost Design Philosophy: High-end switches or routers that provide high
bandwidth networks cost more and do not match the financial design of cloud
computing. For a fixed budget, typical switches and networks are more desirable.

 Convergence of Technologies: CC is enabled by the convergence of technologies in

four areas:
 Hardware virtualization and multi-core chips
 Utility and grid computing
 SOA, Web 2.0 and Web Service integration
 Autonomic Computing and Data Center Automation

Web 2.0 is the second stage of the development of the Internet, where static pages
transformed into dynamic and the growth of social media.
Data is increasing by leaps and bounds every day, coming from sensors, simulations, web
services, mobile services and so on. Storage, acquisition and access of this huge amount of
data sets requires standard tools that support high performance, scalable file systems, DBs,
algorithms and visualization. With science becoming data-centric, storage and analysis of the
data plays a huge role in the appropriate usage of the data-intensive technologies.
1.3 SYSTEM MODELS FOR DISTRIBUTED AND CLOUD COMPUTING

Distributed and Cloud Computing systems are built over a large number of independent
computer nodes, which are interconnected by SAN, LAN or WAN. Few LAN switches can
easily connect hundreds of machines as a working cluster.
1.3.1 Clusters of Cooperative Computers
A computing cluster consists of inter-connected standalone computers which work jointly as
a single integrated computing resource. Particularly, this approach yields good results in
handling heavy workloads with large datasets.
Cluster Architecture: The Figure below shows the architecture of a typical server cluster
that has low latency and high bandwidth network. For building a large cluster, an
interconnection network can be utilized using Gigabit Ethernet, Myrinet or Infini Brand
switches.

Through a hierarchical construction using SAN, LAN or WAN, scalable clusters can be built
with increasing number of nodes. The concerned cluster is connected to the Internet through a
VPN (Virtual Private Network) gateway, which has an IP address to locate the cluster.
Generally, most clusters have loosely connected nodes, which are autonomous with their own
OS.
Major Cluster Design Issues: A cluster-wide OSs or a single OS controlling the cluster
virtually is not yet available. This makes the designing and achievement of SSI difficult and
expensive. All the apps should rely upon the middleware to bring out the coupling between
the machines in cluster or between the clusters
1.3.2 Grid Computing Infrastructures
Grid computing is designed to allow close interaction among applications running on distant
computers simultaneously.
Computational Grids: Provides an infrastructure that couples computers,
software/hardware, sensors and others together. The grid can be constructed across LAN,
WAN and other networks on a regional, national or global scale. They are also termed as
virtual platforms. Computers, workstations, servers and clusters are used in a grid. Note that
PCs, laptops and others can be viewed as access devices to a grid system. Figure below
shows an example grid built by different organisations over multiple systems of different
types, with different operating systems.
Grid Families: Grid technology demands new distributed computing models,
software/middleware support, network protocols, and hardware infrastructures. National grid
projects are followed by industrial grid platforms by IBM, Microsoft, HP, Dell-EMC, Cisco,
and Oracle.
1.3.3 Peer-to-Peer Network Families

P2P Systems: In a P2P system, every node acts as both a client and a server, providing part
of the system resources. Peer machines are simply client computers connected to the Internet.
All client machines act autonomously to join or leave the system freely. This implies that no
master-slave relationship exists among the peers. No central coordination or central database
is needed. In other words, no peer machine has a global view of the entire P2P system. The
system is self-organizing with distributed control.

Overlay Networks: An overlay network is a virtual network formed by mapping each

physical machine with its ID, through a virtual mapping. If a new peer joins the system, its
peer ID is added as a node in the overlay network. The P2P overlay network distinguishes the
logical connectivity among the peers.

P2P Application Families: There exist 4 types of P2P networks: distributed file sharing,
collaborative platform, distributed P2P computing and others. Ex: BitTorrent, Napster,
Skype, Geonome, JXTA, .NET etc.

1.3.4 Cloud Computing Over the Internet

Cloud Computing is defined by IBM as- “A cloud is a pool of virtualized computer

resources. A cloud can host a variety of different workloads that include batch-style backend
jobs and interactive and user-facing applications”.

A cloud allows workloads to be deployed and scaled out through rapid provisioning of
physical or virtual systems. The cloud supports redundant, self-recovering, and highly
scalable programming models that allow workloads to recover from software or hardware
failures. The cloud system also monitors the resource use in such a way that allocations can
be rebalanced when required.

Internet Clouds: The idea in CC is to move desktop computing to a service-oriented

platform using server clusters and huge DBs at data centers. CC benefits both users and
providers by using its low cost and simple resources through machine virtualization. Many
user applications are satisfied simultaneously by CC and finally, its design should satisfy the
security norms, be trustworthy and dependable. CC is viewed in two ways: a centralized
resource pool or a server cluster practising distributed computing.

THE CLOUD LANDSCAPE

A distributed computing system is controlled by companies or organisations. But these

traditional systems encounter several bottlenecks like constant maintenance, poor utilization,
and increasing costs and updates of software or hardware. To get rid of these, CC should be
utilized as on-demand computing.

Cloud Computing offers different types of computing as services:

 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): This model provides different infrastructures

like servers, storage, networks and the data center fabric (here, databases) to the user
on demand. A typical user can deploy and run multiple VMs where guest operating
systems can be used for specific applications. Note that that the user cannot manage
or control the cloud infrastructure but can specify when tor request and release the
concerned resources. Ex: AWS, MS Azure, Cisco Metapod, Google Compute
Engine etc.
  Platform as a Service (PaaS): In this model, the user can install his own apps onto
a virtualized cloud platform. PaaS includes middleware, DBs, development tools,
and some computing languages. It includes both hardware and software. The
provider supplies the API and the software tools (ex: Java, Python, .NET). The user
need not manage the cloud infrastructure which is taken care of by the provider.

 Software as a Service (SaaS): It is browser-initiated application software paid

cloud customers. This model is used in business processes, industry applications,
CRM, ERP, HR and collaborative (joint) applications. Ex: Google Apps, Twitter,
Facebook, Cloudera, Salesforce etc.

1.4 SOFTWARE ENVIRONMENTS FOR DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS AND CLOUDS

1.4.1 Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA)

In grids/web services, Java, and CORBA, an entity is, respectively, a service, a Java object,
and a CORBA distributed object in a variety of languages. These architectures build on the
traditional seven Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) layers that provide the base
networking abstractions. On top of this we have a base software environment, which would
be .NET or Apache Axis for web services, the Java Virtual Machine for Java, and a broker
network for CORBA. On top of this base environment one would build a higher level
environment reflecting the special features of the distributed computing environment.

 The Evolution of SOA: The service-oriented architecture (SOA) has evolved over
the years. SOA applies to building grids, clouds, grids of clouds, clouds of grids,
clouds of clouds (also known as interclouds), and systems of systems in general. A
large number of sensors provide data-collection services, denoted in the figure as SS
(sensor service).
A sensor can be a ZigBee device, a Bluetooth device, a WiFi access point, a personal
computer, a GPA, or a wireless phone, among other things. Raw data is collected by sensor
services. All the SS devices interact with large or small computers, many forms of grids,
databases, the compute cloud, the storage cloud, the filter cloud, the discovery cloud, and so
on. Filter services (fs in the figure) are used to eliminate unwanted raw data, in order to
respond to specific requests from the web, the grid, or web services.

1.4.2 Trends toward Distributed Operating Systems

A distributed system inherently has multiple system images. This is mainly due to the fact
that all node machines run with an independent operating system. To promote resource
sharing and fast communication among node machines, it is best to have a distributed OS that
manages all resources coherently and efficiently. Such a system is most likely to be a closed
system, and it will likely rely on message passing and RPCs for internode communications. It
should be pointed out that a distributed OS is crucial for upgrading the performance,
efficiency, and flexibility of distributed applications.

(a) Amoeba versus DCE

(b) MOSIX2 for Linux Clusters

1.4.3 Parallel and Distributed Programming Models

In this section, we will explore programming models for distributed computing with expected
scalable performance and application flexibility.

 Message-Passing Interface (MPI): MPI is a library of sub-programs that can be

called from C or FORTRAN to write parallel programs running on a distributed
system. The goal here is to represent clusters, grid systems, and P2P systems with
upgraded web services and other utility apps. Distributed programming can also be
supported by Parallel Virtual Machine (PVM)

 MapReduce: it is a web programming model for scalable data processing on large

data clusters. It is applied mainly in web-scale search and cloud computing apps. The
user specifies a Map function to generate a set of intermediate key/value pairs. Then
the user applies a Reduce function to merge all intermediate values with the same
(intermediate) key. MapReduce is highly scalable to explore high degrees of
parallelism at different job levels and can handle terabytes of data on thousands of
 client machines. Many MapReduce programs can be executed simultaneously. Ex:
Google’s clusters.

 Hadoop Library: Hadoop enables users to write and run apps over vast amounts of
distributed data. Users can easily scale Hadoop to store and process Petabytes of data
in the web space. The package is economical (open source), efficient (high level of
parallelism) and is reliable (keeps multiple data copies).

1.5 PERFORMANCE, SECURITY AND ENERGY EFFICIENCY

Coverage includes scalability, availability, programming models, and security issues in

clusters, grids, P2P networks, and Internet clouds.

1.5.1 Performance Metrics and Scalability Analysis

Performance metrics are needed to measure various distributed systems. In this section, we
will discuss various dimensions of scalability and performance laws. Then we will examine
system scalability against OS images and the limiting factors encountered.

Dimensions of Scalability: System scaling can increase or decrease resources depending on

different practical factors.
 Size Scalability: This targets higher performance or more functionality by
increasing the machine size (cache, processors, memory etc.). We can determine
the size scalability by counting the number of processors installed. That is more
processors => more ‘size’.

 Software Scalability: Upgrades in OS/compilers, adding mathematical libraries,

installing new apps, and using more user friendly environments are the factors
considered in determining software scalability.

 Application Scalability: This refers to matching problem size scalability

(increasing data) with machine size scalability (effectively use the resources to
obtain the best result possible).

 Technology Scalability: Here, systems that can adapt to changes in different

aspects of technology like component or network are considered.

Amdahl’s Law:
Consider the execution of a given program on a uniprocessor workstation with a total
execution time of T minutes. Say the program is running in parallel with other servers on a
cluster of many processing nodes. Assume that a fraction α of the code must be executed
sequentially (sequential bottleneck). Hence, (1-α) of the code can be compiled for parallel
execution by n processors. The total execution time of the program is calculated by αT + (1-
α) T/n where the first term is for sequential execution time on a single processor and the
second term is for parallel execution time on n parallel nodes.
Speedup S= T/[αT + (1-α) T/n] = 1/[ α + (1-α)/n]
The maximum speedup of n can be obtained only if α is reduced to zero or the code can be
parallelized with α = 0.
1.5.2 Fault Tolerance and System Availability
In addition to performance, system availability and application flexibility are two other
important design goals in a distributed computing system.

System Availability: High availability (HA) is needed in all clusters, grids, P2P networks
and cloud systems. A system is highly available if it has a long mean time to failure (MTTF)
and a short mean time to repair (MTTR).
System Availability = MTTF/(MTTF + MTTR)
System availability depends on many factors like hardware, software and network
components. Any failure that will lead to the failure of the total system is known as a single
point of failure. It is the general goal of any manufacturer or user to bring out a system with
no single point of failure. For achieving this goal, the factors that need to be considered are:
adding hardware redundancy, increasing component reliability and designing testability.

1.5.3 Network Threats and Data Integrity

This section introduces system vulnerability, network threats, defense countermeasures, and
copyright protection in distributed or cloud computing systems.

 Threats to networks and systems: The Figure below presents a summary of various
attack types and the damaged caused by them to the users. Information leaks lead to a
loss of confidentiality. Loss of data integrity can be caused by user alteration, Trojan
horses, service spoofing attacks, and Denial of Service (DoS) – this leads of loss of
Internet connections and system operations. Users need to protect clusters, grids, clouds
and P2P systems from malicious intrusions that may destroy hosts, network and storage
resources.

 Security Responsibilities: The main responsibilities include confidentiality, integrity

and availability for most Internet service providers and cloud users. In the order of
SaaS, PaaS and IaaS, the providers increase/transfer security control to the users. IN
brief, the SaaS model relies on the cloud provider for all the security features. On the
other hand, IaaS wants the users to take control of all security functions, but their
availability is still decided by the providers. Finally, the PaaS model divides the
 security aspects in this way: data integrity and availability is with the provider while
confidentiality and privacy control is the burden of the users.

 Copyright Protection: Collusive (secret agreement) piracy is the main source of

copyright violation within the boundary of a P2P network. Clients may illegally share
their software, allotted only to them, with others thus triggering piracy. One can
develop a proactive (control the situation before damage happens) content poisoning
scheme to stop colluders (conspirers) and pirates, detect them and stop them to
proceed in their illegal work.

 System Defence Technologies: There exist three generations of network defence. In

the first generation, tools were designed to prevent intrusions. These tools established
themselves as access control policies, cryptographic systems etc. but an intruder can
always slip into the system since there existed a weak link every time. The second
generation detected intrusions in a timely manner to enforce remedies. Ex: Firewalls,
intrusion detection systems (IDS), public key infrastructure (PKI) services (banking,
e-commerce), reputation systems etc. The third generation provides more intelligent
responses to intrusions.

 Data Protection Infrastructure: Security infrastructure is required to protect web

and cloud services. At the user level, one needs to perform trust negotiation and
reputation aggregation over all users. At the app end, we need to establish security
precautions and intrusion detection systems to restrain virus, worm, malware, and
DDoS attacks. Piracy and copyright violations should also be detected and contained.
These can be studied in detail later when the three types of clouds are encountered
and the general services offered by the cloud are discussed.
1.5.4 Energy Efficiency in Distributed Computing

Primary performance goals in conventional parallel and distributed computing systems are
high performance and high throughput, considering some form of performance reliability
(e.g., fault tolerance and security

 Energy Consumption of Unused Servers

To run a server farm (data center) a company has to spend a huge amount of money for
hardware, software, operational support, and energy every year. Therefore, companies should
thoroughly identify whether their installed server farm (more specifically, the volume of
provisioned resources) is at an appropriate level, particularly in terms of utilization. It was
estimated in the past that, on average, one-sixth (15 percent) of the full-time servers in a
company are left powered on without being actively used (i.e., they are idling) on a daily
basis. This indicates that with 44 million servers in the world, around 4.7 million servers are
not doing any useful work.

 Reducing Energy in Active Servers

In addition to identifying unused/underutilized servers for energy savings, it is also necessary

to apply appropriate techniques to decrease energy consumption in active distributed systems
with negligible influence on their performance.