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Mining of Massive Datasets

Jure Leskovec, Anand Rajaraman, Jeff Ullman
Stanford University
http://www.mmds.org
 Classic model of algorithms
▪ You get to see the entire input, then compute
some function of it
▪ In this context, “offline algorithm”

 Online Algorithms
▪ You get to see the input one piece at a time, and
need to make irrevocable decisions along the way
▪ Similar to the data stream model

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 2

 1 a

2 b

3 c

Boys 4 d Girls

Nodes: Boys and Girls; Edges: Preferences

Goal: Match boys to girls so that maximum
number of preferences is satisfied

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 4

 1 a

2 b

3 c

Boys 4 d Girls

M = {(1,a),(2,b),(3,d)} is a matching
Cardinality of matching = |M| = 3

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 5

 1 a

2 b

3 c

Boys 4 d Girls

M = {(1,c),(2,b),(3,d),(4,a)} is a
perfect matching
Perfect matching … all vertices of the graph are matched
Maximum matching … a matching that contains the largest possible number of matches
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 6
 Problem: Find a maximum matching for a
given bipartite graph
▪ A perfect one if it exists

 There is a polynomial-time offline algorithm

based on augmenting paths (Hopcroft & Karp 1973,
see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hopcroft-Karp_algorithm)

 But what if we do not know the entire

graph upfront?

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 7

 Initially, we are given the set boys
 In each round, one girl’s choices are revealed
▪ That is, girl’s edges are revealed
 At that time, we have to decide to either:
▪ Pair the girl with a boy
▪ Do not pair the girl with any boy

 Example of application:
Assigning tasks to servers

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 8

1 a
(1,a)
2 b (2,b)
c
(3,d)
3

4 d

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 9

 Greedy algorithm for the online graph
matching problem:
▪ Pair the new girl with any eligible boy
▪ If there is none, do not pair girl

 How good is the algorithm?

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 10

 For input I, suppose greedy produces
matching Mgreedy while an optimal
matching is Mopt

Competitive ratio =
minall possible inputs I (|Mgreedy|/|Mopt|)
(what is greedy’s worst performance over all possible inputs I)

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 11

 Mopt
 Consider a case: Mgreedy≠ Mopt 1 a

 Consider the set G of girls 2 b

matched in Mopt but not in Mgreedy 3 c
 Then every boy B adjacent to girls 4 d
in G is already matched in Mgreedy: B={ } G={ }

▪ If there would exist such non-matched

(by Mgreedy) boy adjacent to a non-matched
girl then greedy would have matched them
 Since boys B are already matched in Mgreedy then
(1) |Mgreedy|≥ |B|
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 12
 Mopt
1 a
 Summary so far:
▪ Girls G matched in Mopt but not in Mgreedy2 b
3
▪ (1) |Mgreedy|≥ |B| c

 There are at least |G| such boys 4 d

(|G|  |B|) otherwise the optimal B={ } G={ }

algorithm couldn’t have matched all girls in G

▪ So: |G|  |B|  |Mgreedy|
 By definition of G also: |Mopt|  |Mgreedy| + |G|
▪ Worst case is when |G| = |B| = |Mgreedy|
 |Mopt|  2|Mgreedy| then |Mgreedy|/|Mopt|  1/2
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 13
1 a
(1,a)
2 b (2,b)
3 c

4 d

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 14

 Banner ads (1995-2001)
▪ Initial form of web advertising
▪ Popular websites charged
X$ for every 1,000
“impressions” of the ad
▪ Called “CPM” rate
CPM…cost per mille
(Cost per thousand impressions) Mille…thousand in Latin
▪ Modeled similar to TV, magazine ads
▪ From untargeted to demographically targeted
▪ Low click-through rates
▪ Low ROI for advertisers
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 16
 Introduced by Overture around 2000
▪ Advertisers bid on search keywords
▪ When someone searches for that keyword, the
highest bidder’s ad is shown
▪ Advertiser is charged only if the ad is clicked on

 Similar model adopted by Google with some

changes around 2002
▪ Called Adwords

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 17

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 18
 Performance-based advertising works!
▪ Multi-billion-dollar industry

 Interesting problem:
What ads to show for a given query?
▪ (Today’s lecture)

 If I am an advertiser, which search terms

should I bid on and how much should I bid?
▪ (Not focus of today’s lecture)

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 19

 Given:
▪ 1. A set of bids by advertisers for search queries
▪ 2. A click-through rate for each advertiser-query pair
▪ 3. A budget for each advertiser (say for 1 month)
▪ 4. A limit on the number of ads to be displayed with
each search query
 Respond to each search query with a set of
advertisers such that:
▪ 1. The size of the set is no larger than the limit on the
number of ads per query
▪ 2. Each advertiser has bid on the search query
▪ 3. Each advertiser has enough budget left to pay for
the ad if it is clicked upon
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 20
 A stream of queries arrives at the search
engine: q1, q2, …
 Several advertisers bid on each query
 When query qi arrives, search engine must
pick a subset of advertisers whose ads are
shown
 Goal: Maximize search engine’s revenues
▪ Simple solution: Instead of raw bids, use the
“expected revenue per click” (i.e., Bid*CTR)
 Clearly we need an online algorithm!
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 21
Advertiser Bid CTR Bid * CTR

A $1.00 1% 1 cent

B $0.75 2% 1.5 cents

C $0.50 2.5% 1.125 cents

Click through Expected
rate revenue

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 22

Advertiser Bid CTR Bid * CTR

B $0.75 2% 1.5 cents

C $0.50 2.5% 1.125 cents

A $1.00 1% 1 cent

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 23

 Two complications:
▪ Budget
▪ CTR of an ad is unknown

 Each advertiser has a limited budget

▪ Search engine guarantees that the advertiser
will not be charged more than their daily budget

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 24

 CTR: Each ad has a different likelihood of
being clicked
▪ Advertiser 1 bids $2, click probability = 0.1
▪ Advertiser 2 bids $1, click probability = 0.5
▪ Clickthrough rate (CTR) is measured historically
▪ Very hard problem: Exploration vs. exploitation
Exploit: Should we keep showing an ad for which we have
good estimates of click-through rate
or
Explore: Shall we show a brand new ad to get a better
sense of its click-through rate

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 25

 Our setting: Simplified environment
▪ There is 1 ad shown for each query
▪ All advertisers have the same budget B
▪ All ads are equally likely to be clicked
▪ Value of each ad is the same (=1)

 Simplest algorithm is greedy:

▪ For a query pick any advertiser who has
bid 1 for that query
▪ Competitive ratio of greedy is 1/2

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 26

 Two advertisers A and B
▪ A bids on query x, B bids on x and y
▪ Both have budgets of $4
 Query stream: x x x x y y y y
▪ Worst case greedy choice: B B B B _ _ _ _
▪ Optimal: A A A A B B B B
▪ Competitive ratio = ½
 This is the worst case!
▪ Note: Greedy algorithm is deterministic – it always
resolves draws in the same way

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 27

 BALANCE Algorithm by Mehta, Saberi,
Vazirani, and Vazirani
▪ For each query, pick the advertiser with the
largest unspent budget
▪ Break ties arbitrarily (but in a deterministic way)

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 28

 Two advertisers A and B
▪ A bids on query x, B bids on x and y
▪ Both have budgets of $4

 Query stream: x x x x y y y y

 BALANCE choice: A B A B B B _ _
▪ Optimal: A A A A B B B B

 In general: For BALANCE on 2 advertisers

Competitive ratio = ¾
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 29
 Consider simple case (w.l.o.g.):
▪ 2 advertisers, A1 and A2, each with budget B (1)
▪ Optimal solution exhausts both advertisers’ budgets
 BALANCE must exhaust at least one
advertiser’s budget:
▪ If not, we can allocate more queries
▪ Whenever BALANCE makes a mistake (both advertisers bid
on the query), advertiser’s unspent budget only decreases
▪ Since optimal exhausts both budgets, one will for sure get
exhausted
▪ Assume BALANCE exhausts A2’s budget,
but allocates x queries fewer than the optimal
▪ Revenue: BAL = 2B - x
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 30
 Queries allocated to A1 in the optimal solution
B
Queries allocated to A2 in the optimal solution

A1 A2
Optimal revenue = 2B
Assume Balance gives revenue = 2B-x = B+y
x
B
Unassigned queries should be assigned to A2
y x (if we could assign to A1 we would since we still have the budget)
Goal: Show we have y  x
A1 A2 Not Case 1) ≤ ½ of A1’s queries got assigned to A2
used then 𝒚 𝑩/𝟐
Case 2) > ½ of A1’s queries got assigned to A2
x then 𝒙 ≤ 𝑩/𝟐 and 𝒙 + 𝒚 = 𝑩
B Balance revenue is minimum for 𝒙 = 𝒚 = 𝑩/𝟐
y Minimum Balance revenue = 𝟑𝑩/𝟐
x
Competitive Ratio = 3/4
A1 A2 Not BALANCE exhausts A2’s budget
used J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 31
 In the general case, worst competitive ratio
of BALANCE is 1–1/e = approx. 0.63
▪ Interestingly, no online algorithm has a better
competitive ratio!

 Let’s see the worst case example that gives

this ratio

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 32

 N advertisers: A1, A2, … AN
▪ Each with budget B > N
 Queries:
▪ N∙B queries appear in N rounds of B queries each
 Bidding:
▪ Round 1 queries: bidders A1, A2, …, AN
▪ Round 2 queries: bidders A2, A3, …, AN
▪ Round i queries: bidders Ai, …, AN
 Optimum allocation:
Allocate round i queries to Ai
▪ Optimum revenue N∙B
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 33
 … B/(N-2)
B/(N-1)
B/N
A1 A2 A3 AN-1 AN

BALANCE assigns each of the queries in round 1 to N advertisers.

After k rounds, sum of allocations to each of advertisers Ak,…,AN is
𝒌−𝟏 𝑩
𝑺𝒌 = 𝑺𝒌+𝟏 = ⋯ = 𝑺𝑵 = 𝒊=𝟏 σ
𝑵−(𝒊−𝟏)

If we find the smallest k such that Sk  B, then after k rounds

we cannot allocate any queries to any advertiser
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 34
B/1 B/2 B/3 … B/(N-(k-1)) … B/(N-1) B/N
S1
S2

Sk = B

1/1 1/2 1/3 … 1/(N-(k-1)) … 1/(N-1) 1/N

S1
S2

Sk = 1

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 35

 Fact: 𝑯𝒏 = σ𝒏𝒊=𝟏 𝟏/𝒊 ≈ 𝐥𝐧 𝒏 for large n
▪ Result due to Euler
1/1 1/2 1/3 … 1/(N-(k-1)) … 1/(N-1) 1/N
ln(N)

ln(N)-1 Sk = 1
𝑵
 𝑺𝒌 = 𝟏 implies: 𝑯𝑵−𝒌 = 𝒍𝒏(𝑵) − 𝟏 = 𝒍𝒏( )
𝒆
 We also know: 𝑯𝑵−𝒌 = 𝒍𝒏(𝑵 − 𝒌)
𝑵
 So: 𝑵 − 𝒌 = N terms sum to ln(N).
𝒆 Last k terms sum to 1.
𝟏
 Then: 𝒌 = 𝑵(𝟏 − ) First N-k terms sum
𝒆 to ln(N-k) but also to ln(N)-1
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 36
 So after the first k=N(1-1/e) rounds, we
cannot allocate a query to any advertiser

 Revenue = B∙N (1-1/e)

 Competitive ratio = 1-1/e

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 37

 Arbitrary bids and arbitrary budgets!
 Consider we have 1 query q, advertiser i
▪ Bid = xi
▪ Budget = bi
 In a general setting BALANCE can be terrible
▪ Consider two advertisers A1 and A2
▪ A1: x1 = 1, b1 = 110
▪ A2: x2 = 10, b2 = 100
▪ Consider we see 10 instances of q
▪ BALANCE always selects A1 and earns 10
▪ Optimal earns 100
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 38
 Arbitrary bids: consider query q, bidder i
▪ Bid = xi
▪ Budget = bi
▪ Amount spent so far = mi
▪ Fraction of budget left over fi = 1-mi/bi
▪ Define i(q) = xi(1-e-fi)

 Allocate query q to bidder i with largest

value of i(q)
 Same competitive ratio (1-1/e)

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org 39