Chapter - 1

Basics of Networking
Topics covered:
• Introduction to Network
• Network Types
➢ Connection Types
➢ Physical Topology
➢ Network reachability
• Layered Network Models
➢ OSI Model
➢ Internet Protocol Suite
What is Network (Computer Networking)?
Network or Computer networking refers to interconnection of two or more
computing devices such as computer, laptop, switch, router etc., through wired or wireless for exchange
data and share resources with each other.
Uses Of Computer Network
o Resource sharing: Resource sharing is the sharing of resources such as programs, printers, and data
among the users on the network without the requirement of the physical location of the resource and
user.
o Server-Client model: Computer networking is used in the server-client model. A server is a
central computer used to store the information and maintained by the system administrator. Clients are
the machines used to access the information stored in the server remotely.
o Communication medium: Computer network behaves as a communication medium among the
users. For example, a company contains more than one computer has an email system which the
employees use for daily communication.
o E-commerce: Computer network is also important in businesses. We can do the business over the
internet. For example, amazon.com is doing their business over the internet, i.e., they are doing their
business over the internet.

PUTTASWAMY B S Assistant Professor, Dept. of CS&BS, PESCE, Mandya - 571401

Advantages/Features/ Characteristics Computer Networking
• Communication Efficiency: Networking technology facilitates rapid and effective communication.
For instance, it enables video conferencing, email messaging, and other forms of online communication,
making it an invaluable tool for sharing knowledge and ideas.
• Seamless File Sharing: File sharing stands out as a significant benefit of computer networks, allowing
users to easily share files with one another.
• Simplified Backup and Rollback: Storing files on a centrally located main server simplifies the
backup process, making it easy to secure important data.
• Centralized Software and Hardware Access: Installing applications on the main server enables
users to access them centrally, eliminating the need for individual installations on every machine.
Additionally, hardware resources can be shared across the network.
• Enhanced Security Measures: Networks ensure security by granting appropriate user access to
specific files and applications, bolstering overall data protection.
• Scalability and Considerations: Scalability refers to the ability to expand a network by adding new
components. While this enhances network capabilities, it can reduce connection and data transmission
speeds, leading to potential errors. Employing routing or switching devices can mitigate these
challenges.
• Reliable Data Communication: In the event of hardware failures, computer networks can
seamlessly switch to alternative data communication sources, ensuring uninterrupted connectivity.
Components Of Computer Network:

PUTTASWAMY B S Assistant Professor, Dept. of CS&BS, PESCE, Mandya - 571401

Types of networks:
Computer Networks are classified into different types according to various
parameters. They are,
1. Type of networks based on connection
2. Types of networks based on Physical Topology
3. Types of connection based on reachability of network
These classifications are helpful in deciding the requirements of a network setup and provide insights into
the appropriate selection of a network type for the setup.
Types of networks based on Connection:
Networks can be classified into different types based on how
devices are connected and how data is transmitted across the network. These types focus on the structure,
architecture, and methods of communication within the network. The primary classifications based on
connection are:
1. Point-to-Point network
2. Point-to-Multipoint network
Point-to-Point (P2P) Network:
In networking, a Point-to-Point (P2P) network refers to a direct
connection between two nodes in a network. This connection is established without the use of intermediary
devices such as routers or switches, and data is transmitted directly between the two points or network
segments. Point-to-point networks are wired and wireless types of communication systems.

PUTTASWAMY B S Assistant Professor, Dept. of CS&BS, PESCE, Mandya - 571401

Key Features of Point-to-Point Networks:
1. Direct Connection: Only two devices are involved in communication, with no other network devices
between them.
2. Simple Configuration: P2P networks have simpler configurations compared to multipoint, making
setup and troubleshooting easier.
3. High Performance: here, data travels directly between two nodes without any intermediaries,
performance can be more predictable and latency reduced.
4. Dedicated Bandwidth: All the bandwidth on the connection is dedicated to the communication
between the two nodes, which ensures consistent performance.
5. Security: P2P connections can be more secure because there are fewer devices where data could
potentially be intercepted.
Point-to-Multipoint (P2MP) network:
A Point-to-Multipoint (P2MP) network is a type of network
where a single central node or device (the "point") is connected to multiple endpoints (the "multipoint").
In this setup (client server architecture), one device acts as the server, and the others act as clients, with
communication typically flowing from the central node to multiple remote locations.

Key Features of Point-to-Multipoint Networks:

1. Centralized Communication: The central device (often a server, base station, or router)
communicates with multiple devices simultaneously.
2. Shared Bandwidth: Unlike point-to-point networks, bandwidth in a point-to-multipoint system is
typically shared among all the connected endpoints. The central node manages and allocates the available
bandwidth to each endpoint.
3. Scalability: P2MP networks are scalable because the central device can manage multiple connections
without the need for each endpoint to connect directly to one another. Adding more endpoints to the
network is relatively simple.

PUTTASWAMY B S Assistant Professor, Dept. of CS&BS, PESCE, Mandya - 571401

4. Cost-Effective: It is often more cost-effective for applications requiring communication with multiple
locations (such as broadcasting or surveillance) than creating separate point-to-point connections for
each endpoint.
5. Downstream and Upstream Traffic: Typically, P2MP networks are used for one-to-many
communication (downstream), but they can also support two-way communication (upstream) with
multiple endpoints sending data back to the central node.
Types of networks based on Topology:
In networking, topology refers to the arrangement or layout of
how different devices such as like computers, servers, switches, and routers etc. are connected and how data
flows between them. Network topology can describe both the physical layout of the cables and devices (how
they are physically connected) and the logical layout (how data moves through the network, regardless of
physical connections).
Types of Topologies:
Based on type of physical topology, the network can be classified into six types. They
are,
Sl. No. Name of Topology Sl. No. Name of Topology
1. Bus Topology 4. Tree Topology
2. Star Topology 5. Hybrid Topology
3. Ring Topology 6. Mesh topology
Bus Topology:
Bus topology is one of the simplest forms of network topology where all nodes (Devices
such as Computers, Hubs, Routers, Printers etc.) are connected to a single continuous cable, referred to as
the bus. Data sent from any device travels along this bus until it reaches the destination node. Each device is
linked to the main cable using connectors. For example, if computer A wants to send data to computer B,
the data travels from A to the common cable, which then forwards it to B.

PUTTASWAMY B S Assistant Professor, Dept. of CS&BS, PESCE, Mandya - 571401

Key Features of Bus Topology:
1. Single Backbone: All devices share a common communication line (a coaxial cable or twisted-pair
cable).
2. Terminators: Terminators are placed at both ends of the bus cable to prevent data from reflecting back
on the bus, which would cause collisions.
3. Simple Setup: It's easy to install, requires minimal cable compared to other topologies, and is cost-
effective for small networks.
4. Data Transmission: Only one device can transmit data at a time. The data is broadcasted to all devices,
but only the intended recipient accepts and processes the data.
Advantages of Bus Topology:
• Easy to Install: Less cables are used compared to other topologies. So, easy to install network.
• Cost-Effective: Use less cables and fewer hardware components. So, bus topology network is cost
effective compare to other topologies network.
• Good for Small Networks: in Bus topology network traffic is less compare to another network. So,
Bus topology network is good for small network compare to other types of networks.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology:
• Limited Size: Suppose number of devices increases in Bus network, performance of network can
degrade due to collisions and signal degradation.
• Difficult Troubleshooting: If the main bus cable fails, the entire network goes down, and it can be
difficult to identify the exact failure point.
• Collisions: Since all devices share the same communication medium, data collisions are common,
especially as network traffic grows.
• Scalability Issues: Difficult to expand without significant changes to the network setup.
Uses of Bus Topology:
The Bus Topology is used in Ethernet (10BASE2, 10BASE5) before Star topology
became more common and also used small office networks (few devices need to be connected).
Star topology:
Star topology is one of the most commonly used network topologies in modern networks,
especially in home and office environments. In a star topology, all devices are individually connected to a
central hub, switch, or router via separate communication links. For example, if computer A wants to send
data to computer B, the data travels from A to the switch, which then forwards it to B.

PUTTASWAMY B S Assistant Professor, Dept. of CS&BS, PESCE, Mandya - 571401

Key Features of Star Topology:
1. Centralized Control: All communication between devices passes through a central device (hub or
switch). So, the central device controls and manages the data transmission.
2. Independent Connections: Each device has its own dedicated connection to the central device
(hub), making it independent of other devices.
3. Failure Isolation: If a device fails, it won’t affect the other devices, but if the central hub fails, the
entire network becomes inoperative (defective).
4. Easy to Manage: Adding or removing devices is directly connected to the central hub.so, easy to
manage.
Advantages of Star Topology:
• Easy to Install and Manage: It is easy to identify and troubleshoot problems because each device is
connected separately to the central device (hub).
• Failure Isolation: If any one device or cable fails, it doesn’t affect the entire network, making it more
reliable compare to bus or ring topologies.
• Scalability: It is easy to add more devices without disrupting the network. Just connect the new device
to the hub.
• Better Performance: Data collisions are minimized because each device has its own dedicated
connection to the central hub. The hub can manage traffic efficiently, especially if it's a switch.
Disadvantages of Star Topology:
• Dependency on Central Hub: The entire network’s functionality depends on the central device
(hub). If the central device fails, the entire network goes down.
• Higher Cost: Huge number of cablings are required for setup star network compared to bus topology
since each device needs its own cable to connect to the hub. Also, the hub or switch adds extra cost.
• Limited Cable Length: The distance between devices and the hub is limited by the length of the
cable, which may restrict the physical size of the network.

PUTTASWAMY B S Assistant Professor, Dept. of CS&BS, PESCE, Mandya - 571401

Star Topology is Uses:
The start topology is used to setup network of home and office environments, also
used to establish wi-fi networks and client server networks.
Ring Topology:
Ring topology is a type of network configuration where all computers and other devices
that are connected in a loop (ring) form.in other words, each device is connected to exactly two other
devices, forming a circular pathway for data to travel. In this setup, data flows in one or both directions
around the ring, passing through each device until it reaches its destination. For example, if device A wants
to send data to device D, the data will travel through B and C before reaching D. In a unidirectional ring, this
will always be in one direction, whereas in a bidirectional ring, the data can choose the shortest path.

Key Features of Ring Topology:

1. Circular Arrangement: Each device is connected to two other devices, passing data through each
node in sequence.
2. Data Transmission: Data can travel either in a unidirectional (one direction) or bidirectional
(both directions) manner. In a unidirectional ring, data travels in one direction, while in a bidirectional
ring, data can flow in both directions, reducing the risk of failure.
3. Token Passing: In many ring topologies (like Token Ring networks), a special data packet called a
token is used to control access to the network. Only the device holding the token can send data,
helping to avoid collisions.
Advantages of Ring Topology:
• No Data Collisions: The token-passing protocol ensures that only one device can transmit at a time,
eliminating collisions and improving performance in networks with moderate to heavy traffic.
• Equal Access: All devices in the ring have equal access to the network, compare to star or bus
topologies.
• Easy to Troubleshoot: if a device fails, the network can automatically reroute data in the opposite
direction (if it is a bidirectional ring).

PUTTASWAMY B S Assistant Professor, Dept. of CS&BS, PESCE, Mandya - 571401

Disadvantages of Ring Topology:
• Single Point of Failure: In unidirectional ring topologies, if connection fails, the entire network can
go down. In bidirectional rings, failure on both sides of a device can lead to network disruption.
• Difficult to Scale: Adding or removing devices requires breaking the ring, which can temporarily
disrupt network communication.
• Slower with More Devices: As more devices are added to the ring, each device must process and
pass on the data, which can lead to delays.
Tree Topology:
Tree topology, also called as a hierarchical topology, is a type of network topology where
devices are arranged in the form of a tree structure. It is a combination of star and bus topology. The
structure look like a tree with its branches extending from a root node.

Key Characteristics:
1. Hierarchical Structure: in Tree structure, there is a root node (central node), and all other nodes
are connected in a hierarchical fashion. The higher-level nodes serve as controllers for lower-level
nodes.
2. Parent-Child Relationship: The tree structure topology network is a parent child relationship. Each
node (except the root) has exactly one parent node but may have multiple child nodes.
3. Centralization: The root node controls the entire network, and communication between nodes is
typically directed through it.
4. Expandability: Tree topology supports easy expandability by adding new branches at any level of the
hierarchy.

PUTTASWAMY B S Assistant Professor, Dept. of CS&BS, PESCE, Mandya - 571401

Advantages:
• Scalability: It's easy to add more devices to the network by adding new branches.
• Ease of Troubleshooting: Faults can be traced to specific branches, making troubleshooting more
manageable.
• Segmentation: The network can be logically divided into segments, making it easier to manage.
Disadvantages:
• Single Point of Failure: If the root node or one of the central nodes fails, communication in the
entire network can break down.
• High Maintenance: the network grows, maintaining and managing it can become more complex.
• Expensive: Tree topology can require more cabling and other components compared to other
topologies like bus or star.
Uses of Tree structure topology network: Tree topology network is commonly used in large
organizations or institutions where different departments are connected to a centralized system. It is often
used to connect smaller WAN networks in a hierarchical fashion.
Hybrid Topology:
A hybrid topology is a type of network topology that combines two or more different
types of topologies to meet the specific requirements of an organization. For instance, a network may use
star topology in one part and ring topology in another, connected together to form a larger, more flexible
network. Another example, a star-bus topology is a hybrid topology that combines the star and bus
topologies.
Key Characteristics:
1. Combination of Topologies: A hybrid topology integration of various basic topologies like star, bus,
ring. Each part of the network can operate based on its own topology but works seamlessly with the
others.
2. Customizability: Different departments or branches of an organization may have specific network
needs. A hybrid topology allows for customized configurations depending on those requirements.
Advantages:
• Flexibility: Hybrid topologies offer the flexibility to choose the right type of network for different
parts of the organization based on specific needs.
• Scalability: It can grow easily by integrating new nodes or network segments without disrupting the
entire network.

PUTTASWAMY B S Assistant Professor, Dept. of CS&BS, PESCE, Mandya - 571401

• Fault Tolerance: Since hybrid networks consist of different topologies, a failure in one part may not
affect the others.
Disadvantages:
• Complex Design: The setup and design of a hybrid topology are more complex compared to using a
single topology.
• High Cost: The hybrid topology is a combination of multiple topologies. so, hybrid networks often
require more equipment, higher infrastructure costs, and additional maintenance.
• Difficult Troubleshooting: hybrid topology is integrating with different topologies, diagnosing
problems can become more complicated compare to other topologies network.
Uses of Hybrid topology:
Hybrid topologies are ideal for large organizations with multiple departments,
each of which may have different networking needs. The Hybrid topologies are also used in educational
institutions where different buildings or departments have different networking structures.
Examples of Hybrid Topology:
1. Star-Bus Topology: Combines the bus topology with multiple star topologies, where each star
network is connected to the main bus.

2. Star-Ring Topology: Several star networks are connected using a ring topology for redundancy and
better performance.

PUTTASWAMY B S Assistant Professor, Dept. of CS&BS, PESCE, Mandya - 571401

Mesh Topology:
Mesh topology is a type of network topology where devices are interconnected, either
directly or through multiple paths. In a mesh network, every device can communicate with every other
node, either directly or through some intermediate nodes.

Types of Mesh Topology:

There are two ways (types) of mesh topology. They are,
1. Full Mesh Topology: In this type of network, every node is directly connected to every other node.
This provides the highest level of redundancy and reliability, but also requires more cabling for
connections, which makes it costly and complex for large networks.

2. Partial Mesh Topology: In this type of network, some nodes are connected to all other nodes, while
others are only connected to a few. This reduces the number of connections while still maintaining some
redundancy and improving efficiency.

PUTTASWAMY B S Assistant Professor, Dept. of CS&BS, PESCE, Mandya - 571401

Key Characteristics:
1. Redundancy and Reliability: Inesh topology, if one connection or node fails, data can still be
transmitted through other paths, ensuring the network continues to function.
2. Multiple Paths: Data can take different routes to reach its destination, which improves the overall
performance and reliability of the network.
3. No Central Point of Failure: Unlike star topology (where the central hub is a single point of
failure), mesh topology does not have a centralized node, making it more strong.
Advantages:
• High Fault Tolerance: Since multiple paths exist between nodes, the failure of one connection or
node does not disrupt the entire network.
• High Scalability: Nodes can be added to the network without disrupting the overall performance.
New connections can be established to ensure continued redundancy.
• Fast Communication: In a full mesh topology, the direct connections between nodes can ensure
quick communication, as data does not need to pass through multiple intermediaries.
Disadvantages:
• High Cost: Implementing a full mesh topology requires extensive cabling or wireless connections,
making it expensive, especially for larger networks.
• Complex Setup and Maintenance: The number of connections in a mesh network can make setup
and maintenance complex, requiring significant time and resources.
• Difficult Scalability for Full Mesh: Although partial mesh can be more scalable, full mesh topology
becomes increasingly difficult to scale as the number of devices grows, since each device needs to be
connected to every other device.

PUTTASWAMY B S Assistant Professor, Dept. of CS&BS, PESCE, Mandya - 571401

Based on Reachability:
Reachability means a network can reach, from very small personal spaces to
global distances. Reachability influences the type of network architecture and technology needed to support
communication within a specific range.
According to reachability (also known as geographical scope or Coverage area), networks can be
classified into several types based on the area or distance they cover. These classifications help in
understanding the range of communication and the appropriate technologies used for each network. The
main network types based on reachability (geographical scope) are:
1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
3. Campus Area Network (CAN)
4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
5. Wide Area Network (WAN)
6. Global Area Network (GAN)

Local Area Network (LAN):

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network contained within a small
geographic area, usually within the same building, office, home or campus. In simple words, a Local Area
Network (LAN) is a collection of devices such as computers, printers, and servers etc. are connected
together in a limited geographical area (physical location), typically a single building, office, home, or
campus. LANs are designed for high-speed communication and resource sharing among devices in close
proximity.

PUTTASWAMY B S Assistant Professor, Dept. of CS&BS, PESCE, Mandya - 571401

Key Characteristics of LAN:
o Geographical Scope: Typically limited to a single building, office, home, or campus. Range
typically up to 1 km (can extend in larger campuses with multiple buildings).
o High-Speed Communication: LANs offer high-speed data transfer compared to other types of
networks. Speeds can range from 10 Mbps (older Ethernet) to 1 Gbps, 10 Gbps, and even faster
speeds in modern setups using Gigabit Ethernet and Wi-Fi 6.
o Connectivity: Devices in a LAN are usually connected using Ethernet cables (wired) or Wi-Fi
(wireless). Switches and routers are typically used to connect devices within the LAN and allow
communication with other networks (e.g., the internet).
o Resource Sharing: Devices connected in a LAN can easily share resources such as files, printers,
internet connections, and databases. Centralized services, like file servers and printers, are often shared
within the LAN.
o Topology: The network topology (physical or logical layout) can vary, but common topologies
include star, bus, ring, or mesh. Star topology is most commonly used in modern LANs, where
all devices connect to a central switch or hub.
o Cost-Effective: LANs are generally cost-effective to set up because they cover a small area and do not
require extensive infrastructure or expensive equipment. With the advent of wireless technology (Wi-
Fi), the cost of setting up a LAN has become even more affordable.
Types of LAN:
LANs are classified into two types. They are,
1. Wired LAN
2. Wireless LAN
1. Wired LAN:
o Devices are connected through Ethernet cables.
o Known for stable connections and higher speeds, with lower latency.
o Switches are used to connect devices in a wired LAN.
2. Wireless LAN (WLAN):
o Devices are connected via Wi-Fi.
o Flexible and mobile, allowing devices like smartphones and laptops to connect wirelessly.
o Wi-Fi routers or access points (APs) are used to facilitate wireless communication.

PUTTASWAMY B S Assistant Professor, Dept. of CS&BS, PESCE, Mandya - 571401

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a computer network that
connects devices (or set of LANs) within a metropolitan area, which could be a single large city, multiple
cities and towns, or any given large area with multiple buildings. A MAN is larger than a local area network
(LAN) but smaller than a wide area network (WAN). MANs do not have to be in urban areas; the term
"metropolitan" implies the size of the network, not the demographics of the area that it serves.

Key Characteristics of a MAN:

o Geographical Scope: It is ideal for connecting multiple buildings, campuses, or offices within a city
or metropolitan area, typically covers an area ranging from a few kilometers to up to 100 kilometers in
diameter, making it larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN.
o Speed and Performance: MANs are designed to handle high-speed data transmission, with speeds
often ranging from 10 Mbps to 1 Gbps or even higher. They offer a reliable connection with relatively
low latency, making them suitable for real-time applications like video conferencing.
o Connectivity:
o Fiber Optic Cable: MANs often use fiber-optic cables for fast and high-capacity data transmission.
This allows for large amounts of data to be transmitted quickly over long distances.
o Wireless Connections: Some MANs may also include wireless technologies like microwave,
satellite, or Wi-Fi for certain connections, particularly in difficult-to-reach areas.
o Ownership and Management: A MAN is typically owned and operated by a single organization
(like a city, university, or corporation) or service providers (like telecom companies) who provide
access to businesses and individuals.

PUTTASWAMY B S Assistant Professor, Dept. of CS&BS, PESCE, Mandya - 571401

Wide Area Network (WAN):
A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a large
geographical area such as a region, a country, a continent or even the whole world. WANs are designed to
connect multiple Local Area Networks (LANs) or Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs) together, enabling
communication and data exchange over long distances.

Key Characteristics of a WAN:

o Geographical Coverage: A WAN can cover vast areas, ranging from a region, a country, or even the
entire globe. It is designed to connect LANs or MANs over long distances.
o Ownership: WANs are usually owned and managed by large organizations or service providers such as
Internet Service Providers (ISPs), telecommunications companies, or corporations.
2. Technology and Transmission Media:
o Fiber Optic Cables: Used for high-speed, high-capacity data transfer, offering low latency and
high bandwidth.
o Satellite Communication: Provides coverage to remote areas, using satellites to transmit data.
o Microwave Radio: Used in some WANs for point-to-point communication over long distances.
o Telephone Lines: In some older WANs, traditional telephone lines (using DSL or ISDN) are
used, although they are slower than modern fiber-optic connections.
o VPN (Virtual Private Network): A VPN can be used to create secure and private connections
over the public internet, allowing businesses to securely connect remote sites.

PUTTASWAMY B S Assistant Professor, Dept. of CS&BS, PESCE, Mandya - 571401

3. Speed and Performance:
o WANs typically have lower speeds than LANs and MANs due to the vast distances the data must
travel, but advances in fiber-optic technology have significantly increased WAN speeds.
o Latency (delay) is also higher in WANs compared to LANs because the data has to travel long
distances. This can affect real-time applications like VoIP and video conferencing.
Personal Area Network (PAN):
A Personal Area Network (PAN) is a small-scale network designed for
personal use, typically within a range of a few meters (up to about 10 meters or 30 feet). It is used to
connect devices such as smartphones, tablets, laptops, wearables, and other personal gadgets to exchange
data and share resources like printers or internet connections.

Key Characteristics of a PAN:

o Small Geographical Range: PANs cover a very limited geographical area, usually the space around a
single person (e.g., a room, a desk, or a person’s body). The range of a PAN is generally from 1 meter
to 10 meters.
o Technologies Used:
➢ Bluetooth: The most common technology used for PANs, Bluetooth allows short-range wireless
communication between devices. It's ideal for connecting devices like phones, headsets, wearables,
and laptops.
➢ Wi-Fi: Sometimes used for PANs, especially in cases where devices need to share internet access or
connect at higher speeds than Bluetooth.
➢ Infrared (IR): Although now less commonly used, some older devices still use infrared to create a
PAN, especially for simple data transfer.
➢ USB (Universal Serial Bus): USB cables can create a wired PAN between devices, though this is
less common today due to wireless technologies.

PUTTASWAMY B S Assistant Professor, Dept. of CS&BS, PESCE, Mandya - 571401

 ➢ Zigbee or NFC (Near Field Communication): Less common in PANs, these technologies are
sometimes used for specialized devices like smart cards or home automation systems.
o Data Transfer and Speed:
➢ PANs support relatively low data transfer speeds compared to LANs or WANs, as they are primarily
designed for personal use, such as transferring files, audio, or video between devices.
➢ Bluetooth, for example, typically supports speeds up to 3 Mbps (Bluetooth 4.0) or up to 24 Mbps
(Bluetooth 5.0).
o Communication: Devices in a PAN communicate using short-range wireless communication.
The most common communication protocols are Bluetooth and Wi-Fi Direct, which allow peer-to-
peer connections between devices without needing a router.
Layered Network models:
The interconnection between hosts in computer network, be it a large scale or
a small scale one, is built upon the premise of various task-specific layers. The two are most common layered
model used to understand the behavior (functionalities) of how data transfer between the hosts (nodes or
devices) in a network. They are,
1. OSI model
2. Internet Protocol suite
OSI Model:
OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a Conceptual or theoretical
framework/reference mode created by the International Organization for Standardization in 1984. It
describes how information from one computer moves through a physical medium to another computer. The
OSI model is a 7-layer architecture with each layer having specific functionality to perform. All these 7
layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one device to another device across the globe.

Fig. OSI Reference Model Architecture

PUTTASWAMY B S Assistant Professor, Dept. of CS&BS, PESCE, Mandya - 571401

 (Above figure for understanding functionalities, don’t write in examination)
Layer-7: Application Layer
The application layer is used by end-user software such as web browsers and
email clients. It provides protocols that allow software to send and receive information and present
meaningful data to users. A few examples of application layer protocols are the Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Post Office Protocol (POP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
(SMTP), and Domain Name System (DNS).
Layer-6: Presentation Layer
The presentation layer prepares data for the application layer. It defines how
two devices should encode, encrypt, and compress data so it is received correctly on the other end. The
presentation layer takes any data transmitted by the application layer and prepares it for transmission over
the session layer.
Layer-5: Session Layer
The session layer creates communication channels, called sessions, between
devices. It is responsible for opening sessions, ensuring they remain open and functional while data is being
transferred, and closing them when communication ends. The session layer can also set checkpoints during a
data transfer, if the session is interrupted, devices can resume data transfer from the last checkpoint.
Layer-4: Transport Layer
The transport layer takes data transferred in the session layer and breaks it into
“segments” on the transmitting end. It is responsible for reassembling the segments on the receiving end,
turning it back into data that can be used by the session layer. The transport layer carries out flow control,
sending data at a rate that matches the connection speed of the receiving device, and error control, checking
if data was received incorrectly and if not, requesting it again.

PUTTASWAMY B S Assistant Professor, Dept. of CS&BS, PESCE, Mandya - 571401

Layer-3: Network Layer
The network layer has two main functions. One is breaking up segments into
network packets, and reassembling the packets on the receiving end. The other is routing packets by
discovering the best path across a physical network. The network layer uses network addresses (typically IP
addresses) to route packets to a destination node.
Layer-2: Data Link Layer
The data link layer establishes and terminates a connection between two
physically-connected nodes on a network. It breaks up packets into frames and sends them from source to
destination. This layer is composed of two parts. They are,
➢ Logical Link Control (LLC), which identifies network protocols, performs error checking and
synchronizes frames
➢ Media Access Control (MAC) which uses MAC addresses to connect devices and define permissions to
transmit and receive data.
Layer-1: Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for the physical cable or wireless connection
between network nodes. It defines the connector, the electrical cable or wireless technology connecting the
devices, and is responsible for transmission of the raw data, which is simply a series of 0s and 1s, (bit by bit)
while taking care of bit rate control.
Internet Protocol Suite:
It is another conceptual framework that provides levels of abstraction for ease of
understanding how data transfer from one system to another across globe. It is also called as TCP/Ip model.
The TCP/IP model is a fundamental framework for computer networking. It stands for Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, which are the core protocols of the Internet. This model defines how
data is transmitted over networks, ensuring reliable communication between devices. It consists of four
layers:
1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer
3. Internet Layer
4. Link Layer (Network Access Layer)

PUTTASWAMY B S Assistant Professor, Dept. of CS&BS, PESCE, Mandya - 571401

 Fig. TCP/IP reference model architecture
OSI Model TCP/IP Model (Internet Protocol Suite)

7. Application Layer 4. Application Layer

6. Presentation Layer (Handled within the Application Layer)

5. Session Layer (Handled within the Application Layer)

4. Transport Layer 3. Transport Layer

3. Network Layer 2. Internet Layer

2. Data Link Layer 1. Link Layer

1. Physical Layer 1. Link Layer

PUTTASWAMY B S Assistant Professor, Dept. of CS&BS, PESCE, Mandya - 571401

Application Layer:
The Application Layer in the TCP/IP model is the topmost layer, responsible for
providing network services directly to end-user applications. This layer allows software programs to
communicate with the network, utilizing various protocols to exchange data. It handles the interaction
between user applications and the underlying network, providing services such as email, file transfers, web
browsing, and more.
Function of Application layer:
➢ Network Service Access for Applications: The application layer provides an interface between
the user (or applications) and the network. It enables programs like web browsers, email clients, and
file-sharing tools to access network resources and communicate over the internet.
➢ Data Encoding and Formatting: The application layer ensures that data is properly encoded and
formatted for the specific application. This includes converting data into a form that can be transmitted
across the network and ensuring that it can be understood by the receiving system or application. For
example, in web communications, the application layer uses HTTP to format data in a way that web
servers and browsers can interpret.
➢ Session Management: The application layer may establish, manage, and terminate sessions between
applications on different devices. Sessions are long-lived connections that allow multiple messages or
data exchanges to occur over time. Protocols like Telnet, FTP, and SMTP manage sessions, ensuring a
continuous, reliable exchange of information between clients and servers.
Common Protocols at the Application Layer are HTTP/HTTPS, FTP/SFTP, SMTP, IMAP, DNS,
TELNET/SSH, DHCP, SNMP
Transport Layer:
The Transport Layer in the TCP/IP model is responsible for providing reliable, efficient
data transmission between devices. It serves as an intermediary between the application layer and the
underlying network layers, ensuring that data is properly transmitted, received, and reassembled on the
other end.
The transport layer manages several critical tasks, such as error detection, flow control, and ensuring the
integrity of data being transferred. It also provides end-to-end communication, meaning it enables devices
on different networks to communicate with each other directly. Common Protocols at the transport Layer
are TCP (Transfer Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol).

PUTTASWAMY B S Assistant Professor, Dept. of CS&BS, PESCE, Mandya - 571401

Internet Layer: This layer is responsible for addressing, routing, and packaging data for transfer between
networks. It provides the logical addressing system (IP addresses) and determines the best path to route data
from the source to the destination. Common Protocols at the Internet (Network) Layer are IP (Internet
Protocol (IPv4 and IPv6)), ICMP, ARP, NAT.
Link Layer (also known as Network Access Layer or Data Link Layer): This layer is responsible
for defining how data is physically transmitted over the network's hardware (such as Ethernet, Wi-Fi). It
deals with the physical addressing (MAC addresses) and data framing, allowing packets to be transmitted
between devices on the same local network. Common Protocols at the Link Layer are Ethernet, Point-to-
Point protocol, MAC.
Comparison of OSI reference model and TCP/IP model:

PUTTASWAMY B S Assistant Professor, Dept. of CS&BS, PESCE, Mandya - 571401

PUTTASWAMY B S Assistant Professor, Dept. of CS&BS, PESCE, Mandya - 571401