Unit 3

1. Define game formally with important elements:

1. Initial State (S₀): The state that defines how the game is set up at the beginning.
2. Players: Defines which player has the move in each state.
3. Actions (A): The set of all possible actions a player can take at a given state.
4. Result Function: Defines the transition model, the result of an action on a given
state.
5. Terminal Test: A function that determines if the game has ended in a particular
state (terminal states).
6. Utility Function: Also called a payoff function, it assigns a value to terminal
states indicating outcomes (e.g., win, lose, draw).
7. Game Tree: A conceptual tree structure representing all possible moves and
states in the game​(Artificial Intelligence…).

2. Importance of optimal decisions in games:

1. Maximizing outcomes: Optimal decisions ensure that the player achieves the
best possible result.
2. Adversarial nature: Since both players are assumed to play optimally, these
decisions provide a strategy to counter the opponent's optimal moves.
3. Prevents loss: In a zero-sum game, optimal decisions minimize the worst-case
loss for a player.
4. Strategic planning: Players must plan ahead, considering future possible moves
by both themselves and their opponents.
5. Handling complexity: Optimal decisions help manage complex games with
many potential states and moves.
6. Game evaluation: They guide evaluating states to estimate how good or bad a
move is without exploring the entire game tree.
7. Benchmarking: Optimal decisions form the basis for evaluating suboptimal
strategies against perfect play​(Artificial Intelligence…)​(Artificial Intelligence…).

3. Explanation of Ply and Minimax w.r.t. optimal decisions:

Ply:

1. Definition: A "ply" is one player's move in a game. A full turn consists of two ply.
2. Game Depth: Ply is used to measure the depth of search trees (the number of
half-moves made).
 3. Limit of Search: Algorithms like minimax often calculate moves up to a certain
ply depth, depending on computational resources.
4. Decision Evaluation: The higher the number of ply evaluated, the better the
decisions, as more future moves are considered.
5. Search Tree Representation: In games like chess, deeper ply searches provide
more strategic depth but increase complexity.
6. Time Complexity: With each additional ply, the number of possible game states
explored grows exponentially.
7. Influence on Search Algorithms: Ply depth impacts the effectiveness and
efficiency of algorithms like alpha-beta pruning​(Artificial Intelligence…)​(Artificial
Intelligence…).

Minimax:

1. Optimal Strategy: The minimax algorithm is designed to find the optimal move by
considering both players' possible actions.
2. Recursive Algorithm: Minimax works recursively, evaluating the utility values of
terminal nodes and backing them up through the game tree.
3. Maximizing Utility: The MAX player aims to maximize the minimum utility that
the MIN player can force.
4. Minimizing Utility: MIN tries to minimize the maximum gain for MAX by
choosing the lowest utility value available.
5. Depth-first Search: Minimax performs a complete depth-first search through the
game tree to find the best move.
6. Utility Propagation: Utility values are propagated from terminal nodes to root,
ensuring optimal decision-making.
7. Exponential Complexity: The time complexity of minimax is O(b^m), where b is
the branching factor and m is the depth

4. State and explain the Minimax algorithm:

1. Purpose: The minimax algorithm is used to determine the optimal move for a
player assuming that both players play optimally.
2. Recursive Computation: It recursively computes the minimax values of each
successor state, starting from the leaves of the game tree and backing them up
to the root.
3. Utility Function: The value of a terminal state is determined by the utility
function. For intermediate states, MAX selects the move with the maximum
value, while MIN selects the move with the minimum value.
4. Depth-First Search: The algorithm performs a complete depth-first search
through the entire game tree.
 5. Decision Process: At each node, MAX tries to maximize the utility, and MIN tries
to minimize it, leading to an optimal strategy.
6. Complexity: The time complexity is O(bm)O(b^m)O(bm), where bbb is the
branching factor, and mmm is the depth of the tree. The space complexity is
O(m)O(m)O(m) if actions are generated one at a time.
7. Example: If MAX has three possible moves leading to utilities 3, 2, and 1, it will
choose the move that leads to 3​(Artificial Intelligence…)​(Artificial Intelligence…).

5. State and explain the Alpha-Beta Pruning algorithm:

1. Purpose: Alpha-beta pruning is an optimization of the minimax algorithm,

reducing the number of nodes evaluated in the game tree without affecting the
final decision.
2. Alpha and Beta Values: Alpha represents the best value that the maximizer
(MAX) can guarantee, while Beta represents the best value that the minimizer
(MIN) can guarantee.
3. Pruning Condition: If at any point the value of a node is worse than the current
alpha or beta value, the algorithm stops evaluating further descendants of that
node (prunes the branch).
4. Efficiency: With good move ordering, alpha-beta pruning reduces the number of
nodes evaluated from O(bm)O(b^m)O(bm) to O(bm/2)O(b^{m/2})O(bm/2),
effectively doubling the depth of search compared to minimax.
5. Move Ordering: The effectiveness of alpha-beta pruning is highly dependent on
the order in which the successors of each node are examined.
6. Practical Example: In chess, alpha-beta pruning helps search deeper into the
game tree by skipping suboptimal branches early in the search.
7. Application: It is widely used in AI game programs to enhance performance in
games like chess and checkers​(Artificial Intelligence…)​(Artificial Intelligence…).

6. Explain the contribution of AI in the algorithm of stochastic games:

1. Handling Uncertainty: In stochastic games, AI must handle uncertainty due to

random elements like dice rolls (e.g., in backgammon). This introduces chance
nodes in addition to MAX and MIN nodes.
2. Chance Nodes: AI algorithms are extended to account for these nodes, which
have probabilistic outcomes rather than deterministic ones.
3. Evaluation Strategy: AI uses techniques like expectimax, which calculates the
expected value of moves by averaging over all possible outcomes of the chance
nodes.
4. Combining Luck and Skill: AI must balance between random elements and
skillful play, as stochastic games combine both.
 5. Backpropagation of Values: Like minimax, the values are propagated back
through the tree, but expectimax averages the values at chance nodes rather
than taking the minimum or maximum.
6. Example: In backgammon, AI programs evaluate positions based on dice rolls,
and strategies are adapted according to probabilistic outcomes.
7. Practical AI Programs: AI for stochastic games is used in systems like neural
networks or Monte Carlo simulations to improve decision-making in uncertain
environments​(Artificial Intelligence…)​(Artificial Intelligence…).

7. Explain state-of-the-art game programs with various games:

1. Chess (Deep Blue): IBM's Deep Blue is one of the most famous chess
programs, which defeated world champion Garry Kasparov. It used parallel
computing and specialized processors to analyze up to 30 billion positions per
move.
2. Hydra: A successor to Deep Blue, Hydra utilized multiple processors and
advanced pruning heuristics to reduce the effective branching factor, allowing
deep searches in chess games.
3. Checkers: Checkers has been completely solved using endgame databases that
calculate the optimal move for every position.
4. Othello (Logistello): The Othello-playing program Logistello used probabilistic
cuts and alpha-beta pruning to enhance its ability to search large game trees
efficiently.
5. Go: AI programs like AlphaGo, developed by DeepMind, combined deep learning
and Monte Carlo Tree Search to master the game of Go, a much more complex
game than chess.
6. Poker: AI programs for poker, such as Libratus, rely on solving partially
observable decision problems and incorporate bluffing strategies.
7. Role of AI: These game programs showcase the integration of advanced search
algorithms, heuristic evaluations, and learning techniques in mastering complex
games​(Artificial Intelligence…)​(Artificial Intelligence…).

8. Write a short note on a Knowledge-based Agent:

1. Knowledge Base (KB): A knowledge-based agent has a knowledge base (KB)

consisting of facts about the world expressed in a formal language.
2. Inference: The agent uses an inference engine to derive new facts from the
knowledge base, enabling decision-making based on logical reasoning.
3. TELL and ASK: The agent updates its knowledge base using the TELL
operation and queries it using the ASK operation to decide actions.
 4. Perception and Action: It processes percepts from the environment and
chooses actions based on its current knowledge and reasoning.
5. Declarative Approach: The knowledge base can be built incrementally by
adding facts, allowing the agent to learn new information over time.
6. Autonomy: Knowledge-based agents can be autonomous, making decisions
without needing detailed instructions from humans.
7. Applications: These agents are used in various domains, including automated
reasoning, problem-solving in complex environments, and intelligent systems​

9. Explain Wumpus world game with diagram and agent program of it:

1. Environment: The Wumpus world consists of a 4x4 grid of rooms connected by

passageways. It contains hazards like a Wumpus and pits, with one square
holding gold​(Artificial Intelligence…).
2. Performance Measure: The agent gets +1000 points for exiting with gold, -1000
points for falling into a pit or being eaten, -1 point per move, and -10 for using an
arrow​(Artificial Intelligence…).
3. Percepts: The agent has five sensors detecting Stench (near Wumpus), Breeze
(near pit), Glitter (near gold), Bump (into a wall), and Scream (Wumpus
killed)​(Artificial Intelligence…).
4. Actions: The agent can move forward, turn left or right, grab gold, shoot an
arrow, or climb out​(Artificial Intelligence…).
5. Agent Program: The agent uses logical reasoning, based on percepts, to
deduce the presence of hazards and navigate safely​(Artificial Intelligence…).
6. Diagram: The environment is often illustrated with symbols: P for pits, W for
Wumpus, and G for gold​(Artificial Intelligence…).
7. Challenge: The agent begins with no knowledge of the world and must infer safe
routes to find the gold using logical deduction​(Artificial Intelligence…).

10. Write a short note on Propositional Logic:

1. Definition: Propositional logic is a formal language used to represent knowledge

and make inferences. It deals with propositions that can be either true or
false​(Artificial Intelligence…).
2. Atomic Sentences: These consist of proposition symbols like P, Q, R, which
represent statements that are either true or false​(Artificial Intelligence…).
3. Connectives: Propositional logic uses connectives like ¬ (not), ∧ (and), ∨ (or),
⇒ (implies), and ⇔ (if and only if) to form complex sentences​(Artificial
Intelligence…)​(Artificial Intelligence…).
 4. Truth Tables: These are used to define the semantics of each connective. For
example, the truth table for ∧ states that P ∧ Q is true if both P and Q are
true​(Artificial Intelligence…).
5. Inference: Logical inference in propositional logic involves deriving new
sentences (conclusions) from existing ones based on the truth values​(Artificial
Intelligence…).
6. Application: It's used in AI for knowledge representation and reasoning,
especially in games like the Wumpus world​(Artificial Intelligence…).
7. Limitations: Propositional logic cannot express relationships between objects or
handle variables, limiting its expressiveness compared to first-order logic​(Artificial
Intelligence…).

11. Explain semantics and atomic sentences w.r.t. A.I.:

1. Semantics: In AI, the semantics of propositional logic define the meaning of

sentences based on the truth values of the atomic propositions they
contain​(Artificial Intelligence…).
2. Truth Assignment: The semantics specify how to compute the truth value of any
complex sentence based on the truth assignments of the atomic
sentences​(Artificial Intelligence…).
3. Atomic Sentences: These are the basic building blocks of propositional logic,
consisting of single symbols like P1,2 that represent simple facts​(Artificial
Intelligence…).
4. Complex Sentences: Atomic sentences can be combined using logical
connectives to form more complex expressions that describe the relationships
between facts​(Artificial Intelligence…)​(Artificial Intelligence…).
5. Model: A model is an assignment of truth values to all atomic sentences, and the
truth of a complex sentence depends on the model in which it is
evaluated​(Artificial Intelligence…).
6. Inference in AI: The agent can use semantics to deduce new information by
reasoning about the truth of complex sentences based on the truth of atomic
ones​(Artificial Intelligence…).
7. Example: In Wumpus world, an atomic sentence could be P1,2, meaning "There
is a pit in [1,2]". A complex sentence might be ¬P1,2 ("There is no pit in
[1,2]")​(Artificial Intelligence…).

12. Explain how Propositional Logic is used to solve Wumpus world

problem:
 1. Knowledge Representation: The Wumpus world uses propositional logic to
represent knowledge about the environment, such as the presence of a pit or a
Wumpus in a given square​(Artificial Intelligence…)​(Artificial Intelligence…).
2. Inference: The agent uses logical inference to deduce the location of pits and
the Wumpus based on percepts like Breeze and Stench​(Artificial Intelligence…).
3. Rules: Propositional logic rules like Breeze ⇔ (Pit adjacent) allow the agent to
reason about the environment and make safe moves​(Artificial
Intelligence…)​(Artificial Intelligence…).
4. Safe Movement: The agent only moves into a square if it can infer, using
propositional logic, that the square is safe (i.e., no pit, no Wumpus)​(Artificial
Intelligence…).
5. Updating Knowledge Base: The agent continuously updates its knowledge
base with new percepts and uses logical deduction to refine its understanding of
the world​(Artificial Intelligence…).
6. Decision Making: Logical reasoning allows the agent to make decisions about
when to shoot an arrow, where to move next, and when to grab the gold​(Artificial
Intelligence…).
7. Combining Percepts: By combining multiple percepts, such as detecting both
Breeze and Stench, the agent can make more complex inferences about multiple
hazards​

13. Explain how Propositional Logic is used to solve Wumpus world

problem:
Commutativity:

● α∧β≡β∧α\alpha \land \beta \equiv \beta \land \alphaα∧β≡β∧α: The order of

conjunctions can be swapped without changing the truth value.
● α∨β≡β∨α\alpha \lor \beta \equiv \beta \lor \alphaα∨β≡β∨α: Similarly, disjunctions
are commutative​(Artificial Intelligence…).

Associativity:

● (α∧β)∧γ≡α∧(β∧γ)(\alpha \land \beta) \land \gamma \equiv \alpha \land (\beta

\land \gamma)(α∧β)∧γ≡α∧(β∧γ): Conjunctions can be grouped in any manner
without affecting the outcome.
● (α∨β)∨γ≡α∨(β∨γ)(\alpha \lor \beta) \lor \gamma \equiv \alpha \lor (\beta \lor
\gamma)(α∨β)∨γ≡α∨(β∨γ): The same holds for disjunctions​(Artificial Intelligence…).

Double Negation:

● ¬(¬α)≡α\neg(\neg \alpha) \equiv \alpha¬(¬α)≡α: Negating a proposition twice yields the

original proposition, a fundamental equivalence​(Artificial Intelligence…).
Contraposition:

● α⇒β≡¬β⇒¬α\alpha \Rightarrow \beta \equiv \neg \beta \Rightarrow \neg

\alphaα⇒β≡¬β⇒¬α: The contrapositive of an implication is logically equivalent to the
original implication​(Artificial Intelligence…).

Implication Elimination:

● α⇒β≡¬α∨β\alpha \Rightarrow \beta \equiv \neg \alpha \lor \betaα⇒β≡¬α∨β: This

transforms an implication into a disjunction, making logical inference simpler​(Artificial
Intelligence…).

De Morgan’s Laws:

● ¬(α∧β)≡¬α∨¬β\neg (\alpha \land \beta) \equiv \neg \alpha \lor \neg

\beta¬(α∧β)≡¬α∨¬β: The negation of a conjunction is equivalent to the disjunction of
negations.
● ¬(α∨β)≡¬α∧¬β\neg (\alpha \lor \beta) \equiv \neg \alpha \land \neg
\beta¬(α∨β)≡¬α∧¬β: The negation of a disjunction is equivalent to the conjunction of
negations​(Artificial Intelligence…)​(Artificial Intelligence…).

Distributivity:

● α∧(β∨γ)≡(α∧β)∨(α∧γ)\alpha \land (\beta \lor \gamma) \equiv (\alpha \land \beta)

\lor (\alpha \land \gamma)α∧(β∨γ)≡(α∧β)∨(α∧γ): Conjunction distributes over
disjunction.
● α∨(β∧γ)≡(α∨β)∧(α∨γ)\alpha \lor (\beta \land \gamma) \equiv (\alpha \lor \beta)
\land (\alpha \lor \gamma)α∨(β∧γ)≡(α∨β)∧(α∨γ): Disjunction distributes over
conjunction​

14. Explain state-of-the-art game programs with various games:

1. Chess (Deep Blue): IBM's Deep Blue became famous after defeating world chess
champion Garry Kasparov. It used parallel processing, specialized VLSI chips for move
generation, and evaluated up to 30 billion positions per move​(Artificial Intelligence…).
2. Hydra: Hydra succeeded Deep Blue and was designed for advanced chess play. It used
a combination of massive parallel processing and customized algorithms to dominate in
chess​(Artificial Intelligence…).
3. Othello (Logistello): The Logistello program utilized probabilistic cutting algorithms, like
PROBCUT, to evaluate potential moves in Othello. It was known for its efficient pruning
techniques​(Artificial Intelligence…).
4. Checkers (Chinook): Chinook, the checkers program, solved checkers by calculating
optimal endgame strategies using an endgame database, making it unbeatable​(Artificial
Intelligence…).
 5. Go (AlphaGo): AlphaGo, developed by DeepMind, used deep learning and Monte Carlo
Tree Search (MCTS) to play Go. It became the first AI to defeat a professional human
player​(Artificial Intelligence…).
6. Poker (Libratus): Libratus, a poker-playing AI, excelled in games with incomplete
information by using a combination of game theory and machine learning​(Artificial
Intelligence…).
7. Advances in AI: These programs highlight how AI has evolved from using brute-force
search to incorporating advanced learning algorithms and probabilistic models​(Artificial
Intelligence…).

15. Explain semantics and atomic sentences w.r.t. AI:

1. Semantics Definition: In AI, the semantics of propositional logic refers to the rules that
define the truth values of sentences relative to a model​(Artificial Intelligence…).
2. Atomic Sentences: These are the simplest sentences in propositional logic, consisting
of a single proposition symbol (e.g., P1,2P1,2P1,2, "There is a pit in square
[1,2]")​(Artificial Intelligence…).
3. Truth Assignment: The truth value of each atomic sentence is determined directly by
the model. For example, in a specific model, P1,2P1,2P1,2 might be true if a pit exists in
that square​(Artificial Intelligence…).
4. Complex Sentences: Atomic sentences can be combined using logical connectives (¬,
∧, ∨, ⇒) to form more complex sentences, whose truth values are derived from the
atomic ones​(Artificial Intelligence…).
5. Model: A model provides truth assignments for each atomic sentence. For example, a
model might define P1,2=falseP1,2 = falseP1,2=false, meaning no pit exists in that
square​(Artificial Intelligence…).
6. Recursive Evaluation: The truth of a complex sentence is computed by recursively
evaluating the truth of its atomic components based on the model​(Artificial
Intelligence…).
7. Use in AI: AI systems use semantics to reason about knowledge and infer new facts
from known information​(Artificial Intelligence…).

16. Explain how Propositional Logic is used to solve Wumpus world

problem:

1. Knowledge Representation: In the Wumpus world, propositional logic is used to

represent the environment, with symbols denoting pits, Wumpus, and percepts like
breeze and stench​(Artificial Intelligence…)​(Artificial Intelligence…).
2. Logical Inference: Based on the agent's percepts (e.g., breeze), the agent infers the
presence or absence of pits in adjacent squares using logical implications​(Artificial
Intelligence…).
3. Rules: Rules such as "Breeze ⇔ (Pit in an adjacent square)" allow the agent to reason
logically about the environment​(Artificial Intelligence…).
 4. Safe Movement: The agent infers which squares are safe to move into by deducing that
no pits or Wumpus are present​(Artificial Intelligence…).
5. Updating Knowledge Base: As the agent explores, it updates its knowledge base with
new percepts, refining its understanding of the world​(Artificial Intelligence…).
6. Avoiding Hazards: By combining percepts, the agent avoids hazards (e.g., deducing
there's no pit in a square based on lack of breeze)​(Artificial Intelligence…).
7. Goal Achievement: The agent uses logical reasoning to safely navigate to the square
containing gold and then exit​(Artificial Intelligence…).

17. Short note on standard logical equivalences for arbitrary sentences of

propositional logic:

1. Commutativity: α∧β≡β∧α\alpha \land \beta \equiv \beta \land \alphaα∧β≡β∧α and

α∨β≡β∨α\alpha \lor \beta \equiv \beta \lor \alphaα∨β≡β∨α, meaning the order of
conjunctions or disjunctions can be swapped​(Artificial Intelligence…).
2. Associativity: (α∧β)∧γ≡α∧(β∧γ)(\alpha \land \beta) \land \gamma \equiv \alpha \land
(\beta \land \gamma)(α∧β)∧γ≡α∧(β∧γ) and similar for disjunctions, grouping does not
change truth values​(Artificial Intelligence…).
3. Double Negation: ¬(¬α)≡α\neg(\neg \alpha) \equiv \alpha¬(¬α)≡α, a key equivalence
where negating twice returns the original proposition​(Artificial Intelligence…).
4. Contraposition: α⇒β≡¬β⇒¬α\alpha \Rightarrow \beta \equiv \neg \beta \Rightarrow
\neg \alphaα⇒β≡¬β⇒¬α, the contrapositive of an implication is equivalent to the
original​(Artificial Intelligence…).
5. Implication Elimination: α⇒β≡¬α∨β\alpha \Rightarrow \beta \equiv \neg \alpha \lor
\betaα⇒β≡¬α∨β, translating an implication into a disjunction​(Artificial Intelligence…).
6. De Morgan's Laws: ¬(α∧β)≡¬α∨¬β\neg(\alpha \land \beta) \equiv \neg \alpha \lor \neg
\beta¬(α∧β)≡¬α∨¬β and ¬(α∨β)≡¬α∧¬β\neg(\alpha \lor \beta) \equiv \neg \alpha \land
\neg \beta¬(α∨β)≡¬α∧¬β​(Artificial Intelligence…).
7. Distributivity: α∧(β∨γ)≡(α∧β)∨(α∧γ)\alpha \land (\beta \lor \gamma) \equiv (\alpha
\land \beta) \lor (\alpha \land \gamma)α∧(β∨γ)≡(α∧β)∨(α∧γ), distributive property
over conjunction and disjunction​(Artificial Intelligence…).

18. State and explain Minimax algorithm and alpha-beta pruning algorithm:

Minimax Algorithm:

1. Purpose: Minimax is used in game theory to find the optimal move for a player
assuming both players play optimally​(Artificial Intelligence…).
2. Recursion: The algorithm explores the entire game tree by recursively evaluating the
utility values of terminal states​(Artificial Intelligence…).
3. MAX and MIN Players: MAX tries to maximize the minimum value, while MIN tries to
minimize the maximum value in a game state​(Artificial Intelligence…).
4. Utility Values: Each terminal state is assigned a utility, and the values propagate up the
game tree to determine the best move​(Artificial Intelligence…).
 5. Complete Search: The algorithm explores every possible move, making it
computationally expensive (O(b^m))​(Artificial Intelligence…).
6. Depth-First Search: Minimax performs a depth-first search, making it ideal for games
like chess and tic-tac-toe​(Artificial Intelligence…).
7. Optimality: It guarantees an optimal strategy if both players play perfectly​(Artificial
Intelligence…).

Alpha-Beta Pruning:

1. Optimization: Alpha-beta pruning improves minimax by skipping irrelevant branches in

the game tree​(Artificial Intelligence…).
2. Alpha and Beta Values: Alpha represents the best option for the MAX player, while
Beta represents the best for the MIN player​(Artificial Intelligence…).
3. Pruning Condition: If a node's value is worse than the current alpha or beta, the
algorithm prunes that branch​(Artificial Intelligence…).
4. Efficiency: Alpha-beta pruning reduces the number of nodes explored from O(b^m) to
O(b^(m/2))​(Artificial Intelligence…).
5. Move Ordering: The algorithm performs better with good move ordering, reducing the
search depth needed​(Artificial Intelligence…).
6. Same Result: Alpha-beta pruning returns the same result as minimax but faster,
allowing deeper searches in games​(Artificial Intelligence…).
7. Real-Time Application: Used in real-time strategy games, alpha-beta pruning enables
more effective decision-making with limited computational resources​

19. Problems on applying Minimax or Alpha-beta pruning on a given tree

1. Minimax: In the Minimax algorithm, the objective is to minimize the

possible loss for a worst-case scenario, assuming the opponent also plays
optimally. Each node in the game tree represents a game state, with
players (MAX and MIN) trying to maximize or minimize utility​(Artificial
Intelligence…).
2. Alpha-Beta Pruning: This technique improves Minimax by reducing the
number of nodes evaluated in the game tree. It prunes branches that
cannot influence the final decision, improving efficiency without sacrificing
optimality​(Artificial Intelligence…).
3. Example of Alpha-Beta Pruning: In a game tree, Alpha represents the
highest value that MAX can guarantee, and Beta represents the lowest
value that MIN can guarantee. If a node's value is worse than the current
alpha or beta, it can be pruned​(Artificial Intelligence…).
4. Branch Pruning: For example, if we know that a node for MIN has a lower
bound greater than the best option for MAX, we can prune that
branch​(Artificial Intelligence…).
 5. Time Complexity: With optimal move ordering, Alpha-beta pruning can
reduce the time complexity from O(bm)O(b^m)O(bm) to
O(bm/2)O(b^{m/2})O(bm/2), where bbb is the branching factor, and mmm
is the depth​(Artificial Intelligence…).
6. Game Tree Example: Alpha-beta pruning can be visualized in a game tree
by progressively evaluating nodes. If a node's value exceeds the current
alpha or beta, further exploration is unnecessary​(Artificial Intelligence…).
7. Practical Application: This method is widely used in two-player games
like chess, checkers, and tic-tac-toe to enhance performance by pruning
irrelevant nodes​(Artificial Intelligence…).

20. Explain the following terms with examples:

i) Completeness:

1. Definition: A search or inference algorithm is complete if it guarantees

finding a solution whenever one exists​(Artificial Intelligence…).
2. Example: The A* search algorithm is complete because it will find a
solution if one exists, provided it has enough time and memory.
3. Logical Completeness: In propositional logic, resolution is complete,
meaning if a set of sentences is unsatisfiable, it will always derive a
contradiction​(Artificial Intelligence…).
4. Proof Example: PL-Resolution is a complete proof procedure that, if
applied to an unsatisfiable set of sentences, will derive an empty clause,
signaling the contradiction​(Artificial Intelligence…).
5. Applications: Completeness is critical in problem-solving and
theorem-proving where all possibilities must be explored​(Artificial
Intelligence…).
6. Limitation: Completeness doesn't always guarantee efficiency. For
instance, exhaustive search methods are complete but can be
computationally expensive​(Artificial Intelligence…).
7. Practical Example: A maze-solving algorithm that explores all paths until it
finds the exit is complete but may not be efficient.

ii) Valid Statement:

1. Definition: A valid statement (or tautology) is true in all possible

interpretations or models​(Artificial Intelligence…).
 2. Example: The statement P∨¬PP \lor \neg PP∨¬P (either P or not P) is
valid because it holds true regardless of whether P is true or false​(Artificial
Intelligence…).
3. Use in AI: Valid statements are used in deduction and reasoning, as they
guarantee correctness in logical systems​(Artificial Intelligence…).
4. Relation to Theorem Proving: In propositional logic, proving that a
statement is valid is equivalent to showing it is true in all models​(Artificial
Intelligence…).
5. Tautology: Another term for a valid statement, tautologies are often used
to simplify or derive logical consequences in AI​(Artificial Intelligence…).
6. Logical Equivalence: Valid statements can be used to infer equivalences
between propositions, aiding in optimization of logical expressions​(Artificial
Intelligence…).
7. Practical Example: In decision-making systems, valid statements help
ensure that certain conclusions are always correct, regardless of the input
data.

iii) Satisfiability:

1. Definition: A sentence is satisfiable if there exists at least one model in

which the sentence is true​(Artificial Intelligence…).
2. Example: The sentence P∧QP \land QP∧Q is satisfiable if both P and Q
are true in at least one interpretation​(Artificial Intelligence…).
3. Relation to NP-completeness: The SAT problem (determining
satisfiability of propositional logic) was the first problem proven to be
NP-complete​(Artificial Intelligence…).
4. Applications: Satisfiability is critical in areas like constraint satisfaction
problems, scheduling, and AI problem-solving​(Artificial Intelligence…).
5. Logical Connection: A formula is satisfiable if it is not a contradiction.
Conversely, a formula is unsatisfiable if no assignment makes it
true​(Artificial Intelligence…).
6. Use in AI: AI uses satisfiability to determine whether certain conditions can
be met, such as in pathfinding or game theory​(Artificial Intelligence…).
7. Example in AI: In a constraint satisfaction problem like Sudoku, finding a
valid solution involves determining if the board configuration is satisfiable