C

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IS MATTER AROUND US

R
A
RM
PA
 What is matter?
- -

Anything that has a fixed volume/mass occupies some space

Eg: phone, laptop, water, air

-
Panch Tatva by Indian Philosophers
-

1. Air
2. Earth

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3. Fire
4. Sky
5. Water

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Properties of Matter
-

1. Particles of matter have space b/w them

2. Particles of matter are continuously moving
3. Particles of matter attract each other

States of matter
R -
due to movement
A
-

Space Kinetic Energy Movement

-
Force of attraction
-
-- -

Low Low Low High

Solid
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Medium -
Medium
an Medium Medium
↑
Liquid

High Low
aHigh High Low
I
Gas
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Shape change -It may break

Solid
-
-
Has definite shape, distinct boundaries, negligible compressibility

Effect of Change of Temperature

Temperature↑- Force of attraction↓-Movement of particles↑ - Space↑

Heat Heat
Solid -> Liquid - Gas
Eg: Ice -> Water -> Vapour
 Effect of Chsnge
-
Ba of Pressure
Solid CO2
-

Solid -
Pressure
Gas

Gas ->
I
Pressure
Solid

Liquification of gas: Temperature ↓

X

C
-

Pressure ↑

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Change in Matter
-

R
A
Temp↑
Gas -> Plasma (gas ionisation)
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A ↓
4th state of matter
Predicted
↓
I
S. N Bose and Einstein, 1924 -> Visualised

Cooling at
I Gas -> Bose-Einstein Condensate (5th state of matter)
OK ↓
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v (Bosons particle)
Absolute zero
W
#
Eric Cornell -> By using Rubidium 87 atoms ->Crude
Boson Boson
↓ ↓
(Scientist)
(1995) ↓
-In lab 1st time in 2001
+

Bosons particles ↓
Awarded Nobel Prize in Physics
created
Favourable Condition for Evaporation
-

Liquid -> Gas

1. Increase in Temperature
2. Increase in Surface Area
3. Increase in Wind Speed
T
-->
Rate of evaporation↑

4. Increase in Humidity -> Rate of Evaporation↓

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Classification of Matter

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-

R
A
RM

What is Pure Substance?

-
Substances that is made up of only one type of particle
I
It has uniform composition and properties
-> eg: Sugar crystal, iron piece, salt, distilled water
PA

lemonade
. . .

-> impure
. . .
- - ↑
---

.....
~

.
↓
-

Impure
I
-

↓ ↓
H2O Fat Protein
H2O salt sugar
 Element-Iron rod, H2
-

Basic form of matter can’t be broken into simple substances

Compound - H O (water)
-
2

Can be broken into simple substances

Mixture

C
-

↑
Two or more different type of substance particles
-
Don’t have fixed composition

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Types
-

- Homogenous Alloy -can be seen with naked

I Heterogenous -> Eg: Sand eyes

Homogenous Mixture
-

I
Has a uniform mixture throughout

Also known as “Solutions”

R
Cannot be separated by physical process
Solid-Liquid
-
A
Liquid-Liquid
: Solid-Solid - Eg: Alloy
Gas-Gas Pure Air
RM

·
->
·
Small particle size - A<1
> nm diameter

Heterogenous Mixture
--
Has a non-uniform composition
PA

Constituents can be separated through physical properties

-

Also called “suspension”

-
Particle size >10 nm diameter
 C
SS
- - --

Sand, sand solution -

Lemonade, alloy

Tyndall Effect - Scattering of light

particle size A><1 nm
Homogenous -> Will not scatter light ->
-

Heterogenous - Will scatter

- -
not scatter
dete
u
R
light light
particle size >10 nm (large)
homogenous heterogenous

M ↑
A
RM

.
Concentration of Solution
-

Solute
Two components
I
Scattering of light
Solvent
PA

Eg: Tincture of Iodine (Antiseptic) -> Solution of Iodine in Alcohol ↓

Tyndall effect
I I
Solute Solvent
↑
Saturated solution -> Not much solute can be dissolved
I
Concentrated Solution -> Solute > Solvent
I
Dilute Solution -Solvent > Solute

~ Concentration of Solution = Amount of Solute

-

Amount of Solution
 -
Mass by % = Mass of Solute x 100
-

Mass of Solution

40 g ->
Salt - Solvent
-
Ques. Solution
I 160 g - Water->Solvent
--

Mass by %?

C
Sol
- -
n
40 X 100
40 + 160

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-
40 x 100
-

200
= 20%

Colloidal Solution
-

1. Disperse Phase
R
A
2. Disperse Medium
·
Particle size ->1 nm ->10 nm
-
It appears to be homogenous but actually is heterogenous
RM

Eg: milk, starch solution ->Colloidal

-
Shows Tyndall Effect

Separation of Components of a Mixture

-

· Dye from ink - Evaporation

W Different colours from dye -> Chromatography ->Drug from blood
PA

Colour
↓ -> Pigment from natural colour

- Cream from milk -> Centrifugation - sublime

I
Mixture of salt and ammonium chloride/naphthalene/anthracene -> Sublimation (solid to gas)
I Two immiscible liquid -> Separating funnel
↓
oil in water
↑ Two miscible liquid ->Distillation
↓
(Acetone and water) Boiling point is significant different
 & If Boiling Point different less than 25 K -> Fractional Distillation
Eg: Air

Physical and Chemical Changes

-

Physical Changes: matter changes form but not chemical identity

-

·
It is reversible

C
Eg: melting, shredding, boiling, chopping

Chemical Changes: A chemical reaction forms new product

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Iron oxide layer deposition
-

/
It is irreversible -
Eg: combustion, rotting, rusting, digestion

Burning of candle Both physical and chemical changes

-
-
W
Cutting of fruits Physical
Milk turning into curd
R
Chemical
A
-> Thread: chemical change

bi
Wax: physical change
RM

/
Behaviour uniformity: Gas

10% of glucose in water means: 10 g of glucose dissolved in I

100 g of
90 g of water
water
PA

/
Water can be separated by Chemical methods

~
Brass is a homogenous mixture

/ In sugar solution: sugar is solute, water is solvent

I
Brass is solution of molten copper in solid zinc
I Blood and Sea are heterogenous mixture

-
Cooking of food and digestion of food: both are chemical changes

C
SS
R
A
RM
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 STRUCTURE OF ATOMS

C
SS
R
A
RM
PA
 What are atoms?
-

- Building blocks of matter

- Democritus named atom

Laws of Chemical Combination

-

- Given by Lavoisier and Joseph Proust

C
Law of Conservation of Mass
-

-
In a chemical reactions the mass of reactants and product remain constant

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Law of Constant Proportion
-

-
Many compounds were composed of two or more elements and each such compounds had
the same elements in the same proportion, irrespective of where the compound came from
or who prepared it

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

-
R
1. All matter is made of very tiny particle called atoms
2. Atoms are indivisible particles, which cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical
A
reaction
3. Atoms in a given element are identical in mass and chemical properties
4. Atoms of different elements have different masses and chemical properties
RM

5. Atoms combine in the ratio of small whole numbers to form compounds

6. The relative number and kind of atoms are constant in a given compound

Symbols of Elements
-

L
The symbol of iron is Fe -> from Latin name ferrum
-
Na from natrium
PA

L Potassium symbol K -from Kalium

Copper -> Cyprus (country name)
-
Berzelius -> gave for the first time the symbol for chemical element
W
Dalton used it for the first time
 Atomicity
- -

H- H H2- Diatomic
He->Monoatomic
Cl
I

C
-

Cl C
......

-
Cl -> CCl4
I
Cl

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iO - >
H2O - Triatom
H H

R
Dalton mentioned atoms are indivisible particle but
subatomic particles (electron, proton, neutron)
A
-
Electron discovered by J J Thomson
-
Proton discovered by Rutherford or Goldstein

↓
RM

I Neutron discovered by Chadwick

discovered Canal rays

PA
 -
Thomson’s Atomic Model
-
J J Thomson is 1904 proposed that an atom was a sphere of +ve electricity in which
were embedded no of e sufficient to neutralise the +ve charge
-

>
This may Mu
compare
be comparedwith
with aa watermelon in which seeds were embedded or with a
pudding containing currents (dry fruits)
/
This model of atom is called Thomson Model

C
SS
Rutherford Model
R
A
-

↑
Ernst Rutherford was interested in knowing Showthe
how the
e are arranged within an atom. Rutherford designed
-
RM

an experiment for this

-
In this experiment fast moving X particleIn
-

were
were
made to fall on thin gold foil

- Gold foil -> He wanted a thin layer as em

possible
possible
↓
About 1000 atoms thick
PA

2 - Deflect
4
· x-> 2He 1 ->Rebound
6 ->Passed without deflection
↑
It was expected that particle would be deflected by the subatomic particles in the gold
atoms. Since, theOh
2 particle were much heavier than the proton, he did not expect to see
large deflection
-
But the ⑫X particle scattering experiment gave totally unexpected result
 Observations
-

1. Most of the fast moving X- particles passed straight through the gold foil, i.e. went
undeflected
2. Some of the particles were deflected through small angle, and a few were deflected
through large angle
3. Surprisingly, one out of 12000 particles (very few) appeared to rebound

C
In other words of Rutherford, “This result was almost as incredible as if you fire a 15-inch
shell at a piece of tissue paper and it comes back and hits you”

SS
Explanations
-

1. Most of the space inside atom is empty because most of the X particles passed through
the gold foil without getting deflected
2. Some particles were deflected from their path, indicating that there is a positively
charged body in an atom
R
3. The x particles deflected through small angles were those which passed close to this
-

positive body
A
4. The X particles deflected through large angles were which passed very close to the
-

positive body
RM

Rutherford Model
-

↑ The small heavy positively charged body present within the atom was called nucleus
I
Rutherford put forward a model of atom known as Rutherford’s nuclear model
W An atom consists of two parts:
-

Nucleus
PA

I
Extranuclear part
-
The entire mass of the mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus. Since the e have
-

neglible mass, the mass of the atom is mainly due to protons. Hence, protons must be
present in the nucleus
I Since some⑰ x particles are deflected back and X particles are heavy particles, these could
-

be deflected back only when they strike heavier body inside the atom
I
Since number of deflection is very small this shows that the heavy body present in the
atom must be occupying a very small volume
 Drawbacks of the Model
-

I
The revolution of e in a circular orbit is not expected to be stable
-

I
Any particle is a circular orbit would undergo acceleration
/ During acceleration, charged particles would · undergo acceleration
radiate energy
↑
Thus, the revolving e would lose energy and finally fall into the nucleus
-

·
If this were so, the atom should be highly unstable and hence matter would not exist in
the form we know

C
I
We know that atoms are quite stable
The e do not fall into the nucleus as a result of attraction, Rutherford suggested that e

.
>

were not stationary but were revolving around the nucleus in certain circular orbits. As a

SS
result, centrifugal force comes into play which balances the force of attraction

Bohr’s Model of the Atom

-

I
To explain the stability of atom, Niels Bohr, a Danish physicist in 1913 proposed a new

I
model of atom
-

form of radiations
R
e revolve only in certain fixed orbits around the nucleus without losing energy in the
A
The main points of this model of atom (called postulates of Bohr’s model of atom) are
as follows:
1. An atom consists of a small heavy positively charged nucleus in the centre and the
RM

electrons revolve around it in circular paths called orbits

2. So as long as an e revolving in a particular orbit, it can neither lose or gain energy.
-

Thus, the atom is stable and does not collapse. The atom with lowest energy is called
ground state of atom
3. Energy lost or gained, when e jumps from one orbit to another
-
PA

AE = E n E nz

· In excited state, atom is stable

Ions
--

↑
The charged species are called ions
- -ve charged ion -> Anion N>M>L>K

S +ve charged ion ->Cation E 1234

<E <E <E
-
Positron ->Discovered in 1932 by Carl Anderson K, L, M, a
M, ……
N

Eg: Sodium Chloride (NaCl) constitutes +ve charged Na+ (sodium) and -ve charged Cl-
(chlorine)
 Neutrons
-

/
Sub-atomic or fundamental particle which carries no charge
It is neutral particle but has a mass nearly equal to that of proton (i.e., 1 amu)
I

Atomic Number
-

-
Z = no of proton

C
I Atomic no is always a whole no., because they contains whole no. of protons
-
All atoms of the same element have the same no of protons in the nucleus and hence
have same atomic no.

SS
-
MNo No
of two elements have the same atomic no.
- Atomic no. is always a whole no. This is because an atomic no. of an element does not
M change during a chemical reaction
-

Mass Number

-
↑

of the element
R
Mass no of an element is the sum
sun of the no. of protons and neutrons present in the atom
O
A
Since protons and neutrons are present in the nucleus, these particles are collectively
called nucleons. Thus, Mass no. of an element is equal to no. of nucleons in the atom of
that element
RM

⑰
p+n
PA

Z = no. of e = no. of p+
-

M=p+n
M=Z+n
M-Z=n
# For fluorine, A = 19, Z = 9, calculate p, n, e in the neutral atom and the ion formed by it
-> p=e =9
-

n = A - Z = 10
9 = 2, 7,⑳
1
Valency = 1

C
Distribution of e
-
-

The maximum number of e that can be present in the nth shell is equal to 2n . Thus, we
2
-

have

SS
- Last shell/orbit -> Valence shell > e- - Valence e
- >
-

R
A
RM
PA
 Valency of e
-
-

- The e present in outermost shell of the atom of an element is called valance e , -

outermost shell is called valance shell

Valency
- -

- The no. of e gained, lost or shared by the atom of an element so as to complete its
-

octet, called valency of the elements

C
I
Also known as combining capacity of an element

SS
Calculation
-

~ To calculate the valency of an element, the electronic configuration of the element to 1st
written, then the valency of element calculated as follows
I For m /
For ee having valence e 1,2,3, valency = no. of valence e
elements - - -

↑
Fora ↑ For D
elements ee having valence e 4,5,6,7 valency = not& e to be added so that the valence shell has
- -

-
-

8 =>
e, i.e.;8 Valency = 8 - no.=of8 valence
e i.e valency no ofevalence e
-
-

Examples
R -
A
-

F -> Z= 9, E.C = 2,7 and Chlorine - Z= 17, E.C = 2,8,7 have 7 valence e -> Valency- 8-7 = 1
-

O -> Z= 8, E.C = 2,6 and Sulphur ->Z = 16, E.C = 2,8,6 have 6 valence e ->Valency-> 8-6 = 2
-

N ->Z = 7, E.C = 2,5 and Phosphorus ->Z = 15, E.C = 2,8,5 have 5 valence e -> Valency ->
u
RM

8-5 = 3

Writing Chemical Formulae of a Compound

-

-
For eg:
- Aluminium Chloride
Al Cl AlCl3
↑1
PA

& Carbon Tetachloride

C Cl CCl4
↑
4 1
mum
- Compound having 2 elements -> A B
↑ No of valence e in A = 2
- No of valence e in B = 63
-
If A B -> A B -> A B 2 2

2 2

An ion M3 contains
+
#

C
e = 10
n = 14
A=?

SS
Z=?
What is A and Z of element M?

-> e = 10
Z = 13
n=M-Z
14 = M - 3
M = 27
R
A
27

13
M

Isotopes
RM

-
Isotopes are the atoms of the same elements which have same atomic number but different
mass number
~
That isotope of an element differ only in the number ofoccus
nucleus
neutrons present in the nucleus

Isotope of Hydrogen
-

1. !H (e = p = 1, n = 0) -> Protium
PA

2. H (e = p = 1, n = 1) -> Deuterium
2 -

3. 3H (n = 2, p = e = 1) -> Tritium
-

↓
radioactive
 Isotopes of Carbon
-
1. 6C (e = p = 6, n = 6)
2. 6C 14(e = p = 6, n = 8)-> We use to determine Rock age
3. ·
C = p = 6, n = 7
#Characters of Isotope
Characteristics
-

1. Same chemical properties

-

some electronic configuration, so same no. of valence e . Since chemical property depends
-

C
I

upon the no. of valence e . Therefore they have same chemical properties
-

2. Different physical properties

-

SS
Since, the isotopes of an element have different masses, different physical properties like
melting point, boiling point, density etc

# Atomic mass of chlorine = 35.5

35
17
Cl
3
:
:
37
Cl
17
1
= 35.5
R
Atomic mass = 35 x 3 + 37 x 1
-

3+1
A
Isobars
RM

↑ Atoms of different element have same mass number but different atomic number
A = same, z Different, .. e, p -> Different
-

8 Eg: Ar ee = p = 18, n = 22
>

Ca e = p = 20, n = 20
-

3
Isobars

Important Characteristics
PA

1. They are atoms of different element

2. Z = different, A = same
3. Have different physical and chemical properties
4. No. of protons, electrons, neutron are different

m
Some important characteristics of isobars
Isotopes
/
-
They are atoms of different elements
↑
-
Different
⑳Samehave
They atomicelement having
number,atomic
different number ofsame
number no. of neutrons
protons/number of electrons
II nThey
= same
have same mass number
Y
They possess different physical and chemical properties
>
Different
They
-
- mass number/number
have different of neutrons
number of protons, electrons, neutrons
 Eg:
-

16
O e = p = 8, n = 8
3
8-
Isotone
15
N e = p = 7, n = 7
-

C
235238

92
U I
92
U Z = 92 for both -> Isotope

48 48
↑ K Ca A = 40 for both -> Isobar

SS
I
19 20

·
e
He 3 2He 4 Z = 2 for both - Isotope
,

I6 18

8
X X Z = 8 for both - Isotope
8

T
Mole Concept
-

Avogadro no. = 6.022 x 10

23
R
A
↓
1 mole
I
No. of mole = Given mass (m) = Given no. of particles (N)
RM

- -

Molecular mass (M) Avogadro no. (N )

⑧

n=m=N
- -

M NO
PA

-
What will be no. of moles in 2 g of He?
-> n = 2 = 1 = 0.5 mole
- -

4 2

24
No. of moles in 12.044 x 10 particles of N atom?
·

-> n = 12.044 x 10 = 20
24

6.022 x 10 23

I The proton/neutron is 1836/1840 times heavier than electron

 W No. of e determines chemical properties
-

# An atom has:
A = 37
Z = 17
protons = ?

C
-> p=e=Z
-

= 17

SS
Orbit/shell close to nucleus is K shell
- Mass of e in orbital shell = 9.108 x 10 -
28
g

-
Value of proton = +0.16 x 10
-

R18
C

Weight of atom depends on proton and neutron

A
-
If both K and L shell are full, the Z of an electron will be: 10 -> He
RM
PA
 C
SS
METALS AND NON-METALS

R
A
RM
PA
 Difference between Metals and Non-Metals
-

Property Metals Non-metals

I
Physical State Generally exists in solid state They exists in solid and

C
Except: Hg (liquid at room gaseous state
temp.) Except: Br (liquid)
Ga: 30 C
.

SS
Cs: 28.5 C

Lustre They have shining surface They lack luster

Except: lead (dull Except: Iodine, diamond, and

Hardness
R
appearance)

Are hard in nature

graphite

Are soft in nature

A
Except: Na, K, Cs, Hg, Ga, Zn Except: Diamond is the
(soft metals, can be cut by hardest natural substance
knife) known
RM

Pen
Ductile Beaten into sheets Au and Ag They are not malleable
Ductility are more malleable
Except: Hg, Na, K, Zn

one
Malleable Drawn into wire, Au and Ag They lack ductility
PA

Malleability more ductile I

Except: Hg, Na, K, Zn Metal with highest
conductivity
Melting and They have high melting and Low melting and boiling point
Boiling point boiling point Except: Diamond, Graphite,
High BP = 5650 C (Rhenium Si, C, B
-

- Re)
Except: Hg
Density They have high density Have low density

...
Except: Na and K (they float Except: Diamond
on water)
Highest density: Osmium
Are brittle
Brittleness They are hard Except: gases
Except: Zn

C
Do not form
Alloy-formation Stainless steel is alloy of Ni, Except: Carbon is allowed

SS
Cr, and Fe with iron to form steel
German Silver: Cu, Zn and Ni

Thermal and Are good conductor of heat Bad conductor of heat and
electrical Except: Lead and Hg electricity
conductivity Except: graphite which is a

Sonority
R
They are sonorous
good conductor of electricity

Are not sonorous

A
Types of ion Cation Anion
RM

Nature of oxides Basic in nature Acidic in nature

PA

Chemical Properties of Metals

Reaction of metal with oxygen (burning in air or formation of oxides)

Almost all metals combine with oxygen (or air) to metal oxides

Metal + Oxygen Metal Oxide

+ HCl AlCl + H O
 Generally, metal oxides are basic in nature

Reaction of metal with oxygen

-

Exception:
-

Some metal oxides such as Aluminium oxide, Zinc oxide show both acidic and basic behaviour,

C
↑

such metal oxides which react with both acids as well as bases to produce salt and water are
called amphoteric oxides

SS
·
Metal oxide + Acid -Salt + water
·
Non-metal oxide + Base - Salt +
water

R
Order of reactivity of metal with oxygen:
1. Different metals react with oxygen at different rates
2. Sodium and potassium react vigorously with oxygen catch fire if left open that’s why
A
kept in kerosene oil
3. At room temp. the surface of magnesium and aluminium are covered with thin layer of
RM

oxide which prevents the metal from further oxidation. They burn in air only by heating
4. Zinc burns only on strong heating
5. Iron burns in the form of fillings
6. Gold and Silver do not react with oxygen even at high temp.
PA
Reactivity Series
-

TRICK
-

I Cold water

C
Na
Reacts vigorously
=>

Car
Heat Mangi

SS
Al
Hot water
Zn
Steam Ferrari
Phir bhi
Kya

L
R Mili
Ag
Audi
->

Hy
A
RM

-
FIG React aso
d
X H
-

d ans Metals -> d Acid

I H2 evolve sted It Its they don’t

Reaction of metal with water

-
PA

-
Metal react with water and produce a metal oxides and hydrogen gas. Metal oxides that
are soluble in water dissolves in it further to form metal hydroxide

I
All the metals do not react with water as the metals placed lower in the reactivity series
are less reactive towards water

-
Metal + Water -> Metal Hydroxide
 ·
Gold (Au) -> dissolves in Aqua Regia
↓
HCl : HNO3
3:1

C
SS
-
Reaction of Metal with acid:
-

R
Except few less reactive metals (such as Cu, Hg, Ag, Au, Pt, etc.), all metals react with dilute
A
sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid to produce salt and hydrogen gas
Salt

i
Metal + Dilute Acid Salt + Hydrogen

...
RM

MASH Hydrogen gas

Metal Acid

Hydrogen gas is not evolved when a metal reacts with nitric acid. This is due to strong
oxidising nature of nitric acid. It oxidises the H, produce to water and itself get reduced to
PA

any of the nitrogen oxide excep

(N, NO
(NO, O, NO).
, N O).But
22 But magnesium (Mg) and manganese (Mn) react with
dilute HNO to evolve H gas

-
 Reaction of metals with solutions of other metal salt

Metal I + Metal2Salt -> Metal I Salt + Metal2

-
↑
Metal I is more reactive

C
-
Metal2 is less reactive

Reaction with Oxygen:

SS
-

/
Non-metals do not react with water, steam or dilute acid
-
The reason is that they act as an electron acceptor and cannot H+ ions of acids to reduce
them to hydrogen gas
- But on heating, readily form oxides or salts with conc. acids

R
A
RM

Reaction between Metals and Non-metals Ionic Bond Formation:

I
PA

H -
H
↓
Sharing of e
-
->

e donor
- ↓ ↓
e acceptor
-

Covalent bond (weak bond)

!
Transfer of e -> Electrovalent bond (ionic bond)
ionic compounds (very strong)
 C
SS
I R
A
Ionic bond formation

Properties of Ionic Compound:

RM

1. Physical nature: Ionic compounds are hard crystalline solids because of strong force of
- -

attraction between the positive and negative ions. These compounds are generally brittle
and break into pieces when pressure is applied

2. Melting and Boiling point: these compounds have high melting and boiling points as large
PA

as the amount of energy is required to break strong inter-ionic attraction

3. Solubility: these compounds are soluble in water (polar solvent) and insoluble in organic
- -

solvents (non-polar solvent) like kerosene, benzene, ether, petrol, etc.

4. Conduction of electricity: the conduction of electricity through a solution involves #

-
move t
movement
of charged particle. Ionic and electrovalent compounds are good conductors of electricity,
but they conduct electricity either in molten form or in their aqueous solution
 K
Na
Ca Electrolysis
Mg
Al
Zn
Fe

C
Reduction with Carbon
Pb
Cu

SS
Ag
Native state
Au

Extraction of Metals from Ores

-
R Metal + Impurities -Gangue
A
RM

- High % of Fe
PA
 C
SS
k ↓
Heating in very
limited O Heating in

"I
- -

abundance of O2

With Carbon
R
A
-
Refining -> Electrolytic refining
Electrolysis reaction:
RM

Pure metal -> Cathode

↑
=
NaCl
t
Cathode: Na + e - Na
/
/
-

Anode: 2Cl -> Cl + 2e

=z
->

-
Impure metal -> Anode

I
Metal Salt -> Electrolyte
PA

-
3MnO + 4Al ->2Al23
2 O + 3Mn

I
Thermite process: Fe23
O + Al -> Fe + Al23
O
↓ ↓ ↓
More reactive
Heat evolve Railway tracks join
↓
Exothermic
↓
Displacement
 Corrosion
- -

1. Iron ->Brown (Iron Oxide)

2. Copper Green (Copper Carbonate)
3. Silver -
Black (Silver Sulfide)

C
Alloying
- -

I Alloy: homogenous mixture/solution of two or more metals/non-metals

SS
90% 10%

R 30%
: 70%
BCUZ
A
RM

Rolled gold Cu + Al

Gold (Au)
↓
PA

22 carat
↓ ↓
22 parts 2 parts
A X ↓
Au Cu Ag
I
Alloys have low conductivity compared to their respective metals

Galvanisation/Anodising

*
Zinc coating Aluminium layering done electrolytically
done physically

C
Purest form of Iron: Wrought iron

SS
Soft silvery metal, with low density that reacts vigorously with water and corrodes quickly in
air and has atomic no 3: Lithium (white gold)

Element used to make coils in water heaters: Nichrome

R
Metal earlier called Wolframite and has the highest melting point: Tungsten (W)

Element found in water and responsible for cancer: Arsenic

A
NO (nitrate): Blue baby syndrome
RM

- Gallium is used in LED semiconductor technology

/ Silicon dioxide: it has high melting point

Potash alum ->KAl(SO42 ) .12H2O ->Metal sulphate, composed of potassium, aluminium, and

-
sulphate ions in the ratio 1:1:2-Plays an important role as a flame retardant, a mordant and
PA

as astringent

The process in which a carbonate ore is heated strongly in the absence of air to convert it
into metal oxide is called Calcination

-
Fool’s gold: Pyrite

/ Boron is an example of metalloid

-
Gypsum: CaSo. 2H O
4 2
·
Celestine: SrSO4 . 2H O
2
↑ Epsom salt: MgSo42
.7H O
- Constantan is an alloy of copper and nickel

-
· is a combination of cobalt and chromium
Talon ore
Talonite ore

- Amalgam: Hg

C
SS
R
A
RM
PA
 C
SS
PERIODIC TABLE

R
A
RM
PA
 Early Attempts

Dobberneir’s Law of Triads

-

I
Gave Triads Theory in 1817
I
Increasing atomic mass ->Middle atomic mass will be average of 1st and 3rd element

C
SS
8)
O
R
A
RM

Newland Law of Octaves

-

- In 1865
-
The law states that: when elements are arranged in increasing order of their atomic mass,
PA

the properties of every eighth element resemble the property of the starting element.
Newlands arranged the elements in horizontal rows, with each row having seven elements
Based on Musical notes
->
I 2 3 4 567
 Newlands published his concept on 1864, however recognised in 1865. The law was
only true for elements upto Calcium. It failed for the following reasons:

1. The law was only applicable up to Calcium

2. With the discovery of rare gases, it was the ninth element and not the eighth
having similar chemical properties

C
SS
Mendeleeve’s Periodic Table
-

- The periodic table was created in 1869 by Dimitri Mendeleev, a Russian chemist and
inventor
~
He arranged the 63 known elements at the time in order of their increasing relative
atomic masses
He divided the table into eight groups and seven periods

:
R
The law states that the properties of elements are a periodic function of their
relative atomic masses
A
RM

69 7
.

-
44 -
72 -
-

X
PA

Eka Boron ->44 (Scandium)

Eka Silicon -> 72 (Germanium)
Eka Aluminium -68
 C
SS
1.
n

R
Defects in Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
e

The position of hydrogen not fixed

A
2. The increasing order of atomic weight is not maintained
3. Some elements in the same group differ in their properties
4. Lanthanides and actinides were not included in the table
RM

Modern Periodic Table

-

I
It is given by Henry Moseley in 1913
W
He said: Chemical properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic number
PA

The modern periodic table contains: 18 Groups and 7 Periods

 ↓ Valence shell increases

C
↑
&

SS
->
G - -

⑧
-

LM
⑧ -> 2

⑧
, 8 ,
1 -

R -O
A
Period
↓IdddIt
- -

↑ ↓
pd: 6 -
13
->

O
RM

pd: 7 ->

c
-
Group 3rd
Hydrogen
Y
H Group 1A
1st group: Alkali Metals
.
2nd group: Alkaline Earth Metals
PA

/
Lanthanides and Actinides are collectively called as

mu
Group 15: Pnictogen
Pnictogens Inner Transition Metals
- Elements in these
Group 16: Chlcogen
Chalcogens
groups are known as
I
Group 17: Halogens
 Atomic Mass Exceptions
↓
Z H 1
1-
↓ ↓
Even Odd Be - 9
n

C
mass - 2Z 2Z + 1

↑ 3 N -> 14

SS
3
.5.5
Ar-40
Cl
17
18

Diagonal Relationships

S
-

R
This relationship is prominent among the lighter members of the second and third
periods
A
I A diagonal relationship in the periodic table is when two elements that are diagonally
adjacent in the second and third periods have similar properties
Some examples of diagonal relationships include:
RM

I Boron and silicon are both semiconductors

·
Li and Mg
·
Be and Al
1 pd 2
-

I
Carbon and phosphorous
2pd 8
-

3 pd 8
-

-
Mendeleevium: 101
4 th 18
PA

I
Sea Borgium: 106
5th 18
-

6th 32
--

Trends in Periodic Table

-

-
Atomic Size: increases down the group
-

-
Electronegativity: decreases down the group
-

/
Metallic Character: increases down the group
- -
 W Horizontal rows: Periods

- Vertical columns: Groups

>
Largest atomic radii: Lithium

= C
Position of non-metals in periodic table: on the right side

Nuclear charge experienced by valence electrons decreases down the group: the

SS
-

outermost electrons are farther away from the nucleus

Group 3-12 are called Transition elements: d-block

Mass no. of the titanium: 47.78

Mass no. of potassium: 39

R
Z = 19 x 2 + 1
A
Atomic no. of lead: 82

Atomic no. of Francium: 87

RM

Atomic no. of Gallium: 31 ↑

Gallium and Caesium melting point is low
↓
Atomic no. of Carbon: 6
-
element of Group 13
I
Low melting point: 303 K
Atomic no of Hydrogen: 1
I
Widely used in doping semiconductors and
PA

producing solid-state devices such as

/
Atomic no of Chromium: 24 transistors
I
Liquifies just above room temperature
I Atomic no of Sulphur: 16

/ Sodium is located on: left side of periodic table

↓
very reactive metal hence kept in Kerosene oil
-
Atomic mass of Oxygen: 16

I
Valency of Boron: 3

W Leftmost group of periodic table: Alkali metals

C
Cobalt belongs to group 9

: Group that consists of elements that are non-reactive, monoatomic, and low boiling

SS
points

- Electrons that are there in the outermost shell of a group 16 element: 6

R
A
RM
PA
 - What are Acids and Bases?

Acids: Sour substance, Corrosive in nature

Types:
-> Has source

C
1. Organic acids: from nature
2. Mineral acids: eg: HCl, H24
SO , HNO3
↓
Corrosive

SS
Bases: Bitter substances

R
A
-
RM

- -
6-8% acetic acid and
Used as Preservatives
,Banana remaining water
-

, Tomato
PA

~
Lacto term used for milk products
 Indicators: indicates if anything is an Acid/Base
-

-> Algae + Fungus

Litmus Paper: Lichen
->

)
I
Purple dye
natural indicator ↓
Neutral

C
Belongs to Thallophyta
Blue to Red in Acid
Red to Blue in Base

SS
Phenolphthalein
-

Acid: Colourless
! A
Base: Pink smell

-
Methyl Orange
Acid: Red
R
A
Base: Yellow

Yellow stain curry

RM

* Red Brown stain

↓
when washed
however changes
to yellow again
PA

Due to Soap when dried

(Base)

-> How do acids and bases react with metals?

M A S H ↓
X few bases when react with metal IProduce H2 gas
↓ ↓ ↓
Metal Acid Salt Hydrogen
->How do metal carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates react with acids?

↑ Metal carbonate + Acid -> Salt + H2O + CO2

Na CO23
· + HCl -> NaCl + H2O + CO2
Quick lime
-
Ca(OH)2 + CO2- CaCO3 + H2O - -

CaO + H2O -> Ca(OH)2

C
↓ ↓
Lime water
↓ White
ppt
Limestone
Chalk

SS
Turns lime water Marble
milky

-> How do acids and bases react with each other?

A + B -> S + H2-
O R
Neutralisation reaction

↓
A
Exothermic (Heat evolved)
RM

Antacids: to neutralise the acidity in our stomach

I
Milk of magnesia - Mg(OH)2
PA

- Reaction of metallic oxide with acids

I
Base + Acid -> Salt + Water

-> Reaction of non-metallic oxide with base

-
Acidic + Base ->Salt + Water
-> What happens to an acid or base in a water solution?

HCl H + Cl
+ -

/ - >

H2O -> H3
O Hydronium ion

NaOH Na + OH -Hydroxide ion

+

C
->

More H O -> Concentrated

I
-

37
Less H3O -> Less acidic

SS
/

Acid is added to water vice versa is not possible

-
Acid Why?
as Highly exothermic

I . . . . . .

R HO
A
Water
RM

I
Those bases which dissolve in water are called as Alkali -> Corrosive
/ All alkali are basedbut
butnotnot
vicethe vice versa
versa
PA

1.6 H3O I
OH
-

Milk of Magnesia
↓ ↑ * -> Sodium
0 Hydroxide

pH Scale: Power of Hydrogen -> gives strength of Acid or Base

↓
pH in German means: Potenz
 Importance of pH in our daily life

M Our body works in a pH of: 7-7.8

↑
pH in our digestive system: 1.6
~
pH change as a cause of Tooth Decay: 5.5 ↓
-
Use of pH by plants for self defence
Acid Rain: 5.6H
:

C
Saliva pH: slightly acidic (6.4)
Uses it as self-defence
↑
Blood pH: slightly alkaline (7.4) -
Nettle leaves (Herbaceous plant) -> Formic acid ->Methanoic acid
. Dock Plant neutralises Nettle leaves sting (basic in nature)

SS
↓
Planets: thick clouds of H SO Venus Present in Ant sting
out
-

Oil of Vitriol

Salts R
A
pH of salts
Less than 7 -> Acidic salt
More than 7->Basic salt
RM

·
Strong
Acid + Base Salt
M4 A + B ->Salt + Water (Acidic)

14
A + B - Salt + Water
Strong A + Strong B
(Basic)
Neutral salt
Strong A + Weak B Acidic salt
Weakstrong
A + Strong B Basic salt
PA

Common salt- raw material for chemicals

Rock salt -> NaCl
Table Salt -

Sodium Hydroxide
electrolysis
*
NaCl (aq) + H2O NaOH + Cl + H -> Chlor-alkali process
↓ 1
Brine cathode anode cathode
 Bleaching Powder
- used for making Bleaching
-
Ca(OH)2 + Cl2-> CaOCl2 powder
↓ ↓ ↓ Oxidising agent

Lime water Calcium Hypochlorite to make drinking water germ

free

C
Uses:
-

Chlorine: water purification

-
&
Cotton and linen: Textile industry and bleaching

SS
Paper factories: wood pulp bleaching

Baking Soda

-
NaCl + H22
O + CO + NH
3
->
R
NH4Cl + NaHCO3
↓
Baking Soda (common name)
A
-

-
Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate
Uses

--
1. Baking powder: Baking soda + edible acid (tartaric acid)
RM

2. Soda Acid fire extinguisher

3. Antacids
Heat/Water
-
NaHCO3 + H+-> CO24
PA

Washing Soda
A
-
·
2 NaHCO3 -> Na23
CO + H2O + CO2

-
Na25
CO + 10 H 2O -> Na 23
CO . 10 H2O
↓
Water of crystallisation
Uses of Washing Soda
-

1. To remove permanent hardness of water

2. Glass, soap and paper factories
3. To manufacture Sodium compounds ->Borax
->
4. As a Cleansing agent for domestic purpose Na2472
B O . 10 H O
↓
Used in Toothpaste/mouthwash

C
SS
Plaster of Paris
Gypsum: CaSO4. 2H O -> CaSO4. 1/2 H2O
2

.
↓
-

Plaster of Paris
373-273 -> 100 C

↑
Some more salts
-

-
Blue vitriol: CuSO4. 5H O
It
R
when heated: colourless
A
2

-
Green “ : FeSO4 .7H O
2

-
White “ : ZnSO4. 7H O
2

Epsom salt: MgSO .7H O

RM

·
2

-
Potash Alum: KAl(SO42 ) .12H O
·
2

I Mohr’s salt: (NH42) Fe(SO) .6H O 2 2

↑ Sodium Benzoate: used as preservative in jam, tomato sauce

CH COOH
* 3
-
Ethanoic acid: Acetic acid
PA

W
Glauber salt: Na24
SO .10H O 2

-
Acid found in Spinach: Oxalic acid

-
Another folic acid: Pteroylglutamic acid

-
Citric acid: Oranges
&
Muriatic acid another name for Hydrochloric acid
↓
used in chlorides, fertilizers and dyes,
in electroplating and in the
photographic, textile and rubber
industries

C
M Bases used in window cleaner: Ammonium hydroxide

SS
↑ moist baking soda should be applied when ant bites

I
Litmus paper changes to blue color when put in soap water

I pH of water: 7

I
Double salt
-
R
Dolomite: formed from CaCO3+ MgCO3
A
I
Formula: CaMg(CO ) 32
RM
PA
 Carbon
- -

↑ Atmosphere: 0.036%
+
↑
Earth crust: 0.02% -> C
I Atomic no: 6 -> 2, 4

4
C4
-

+1
- e sharing
.

L
Alkali metals: Li, Na, K
1

C
I Halogen: 7
W+1 Covalent Bond

SS
Bonding in Carbon: The Covalent Bond
e

H*1
-
*H =-
O O O O =

-
Strength: weak
R
Nitrogen:
Low Melting Point/Boiling Point
N
: N
A
Allotropes of Carbon
Graphite: 1C 3C> -Slippery
RM

->

3Good conductor of electricity

I
Diamond: 1C -> 4C -Hardest substance known

-
Buckmister Fullerene: C 60
↓
PA

Arranged in football shape

Versatile Nature of Carbon

-

- Catenation: unique ability to form bonds with other carbon atom- Large molecule
↓
- -

C-C-C-C-C
Due to small size of C atom
/
ane: C-C single bond Saturated compounds
/
ene: C=C
- yne: C=C
-
> Unsaturated compounds

Alkane: Cn H2n
· +
2
I
Hydrocarbon-> C-H
I
Alkene: C Hzu
n

W
Alkyne: CnH2n -2

C
SS
Saturated and Unsaturated Carbon Compounds

H I -H
H- ~H
H C-C H -
C=C
H-H
-

H - H
↓ ↓
ene
ane
↓
C H2n
n 1
R H-C=C-H
A
+

yne
RM

Nomenclature
1C: Meth

:
2C: Eth I 23

3C: Prop Root: CH-CH-CH

3 2 3
↑ 4C: But
/
5C: Pent continuation of Parent chain
PA

6C: Hexa
7C: Hepta
/ 8C: Octa
Chains, Branches, and Rings
Molecular formula same
-

-C
-
C-C-C-C C-C
- C -

Structure - Different

C-CI

C
-
C C -> cyclical -> C
n Hzu
~
C-C

SS
Isomers: compounds with identical molecular formula but different structural formula
-

-Difference in CH atoms

·
2
Homologous Series
Homogenous Series CH3OH, CH32
>
, CH OH, CH3CH CH OH
- 2 I

↓
H -1 H H

H
- , i
H H
R
H C-C-C H Same chemical properties
A
RM
PA
 Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds
-

v
CH4: Methane
-

v
CH Cl: Chloro Methane
:

C
3
~
2 ·
CH3CH Cl: Chloroethane
Propane
z
CH3OH: Methanol
I

CH3CH OH: ·Propanol

Ethanol

SS
W -

2
W
CH3COOH: Ethanoic acid
-

W
HCOOH: Methanoic acid
-

~
> - -

R -
-
A
↑
Primary: CH32
- -
CH OH, CH5CHiCH2CHIOH
RM

·
Secondary: CH CH2CH CH2CH
;
-

OH

CH
-
- !?
Tertiary: CH3CH CH CH:CHs
OH
PA

Aromatic Compounds
-
I kI - Benzene -
Erich Huckel gave formula: 4n+2ne- C-C
->
↓ C=C
->

C=C 2π
-

For aromatic compounds

-
 Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds
-

1. Combustion:
-

CH32
CH OH + O2- CO2+ H O + Heat and light
2

↓
Exothermic
-
Saturated: burns with clear blue flame

C
-
Unsaturated: burns with yellow sooty flame
I
LPG: Propane + Butane
CNG: Methane

SS
-

2. Oxidation
-

Alkaline KMNO4
CH CH OH -> CH3COOH
KT Cr O
31 22
H
Ethanol Ethanoic acid

Unsaturated Hydrocarbon: HI
R
3. Addition Reaction -> Hydrogenation
A
-

H-H
R -- R H 11

C=C
2
- R-C-C-R
R- R Ni/Pd II

R-R
RM

↓ -Unhealthy
↓
Vegetable oil saturated
healthier
↓ ↓Animal fats
unsaturated fatty acids

4. Substitution Reaction
PA

- Saturated Hydrocarbons ->are unreactive and inert

CHn2
+ Cl - CH3Cl + HCl [sunlight]

H further continued, then forms CHCl2 Chloroform

-
I
H-C-H ⑬
1 I
H Cl
 Some important Carbon Compounds- Ethanol and Ethanoic Acid

I
Ethanol ->Good solvent; used in Cough syrup
I Can be made from Sugarcane juice -> Molasses Fermentation
-> Ethanol
Tincture of Iodine
Conc. H SO4
CH CH OH -
32 CH2=CH2
2

443k
↓
H H Ethene

C
I I
H-C-C OH -

- W
H H

SS
Properties of Ethanol

Reactions of Sodium
W 2CH32
-CH OH + 2Na - >
CH32
CH ONa + H2

Properties of Ethanoic Acid

R in Vinegar: 5-8%
A
↓
↓ -
Commonly known as Acetic acid
Also known as Glacial Acetic Acid as Melting Point is 290 K
RM

↓
Freezes during winters

Reactions of Ethanoic Acid

PA

1. Esterification Reaction
I
Acid + Alcohol reaction COOR group -> Ester
Me
*
CH25- ean
COOH + OHCH CH +H O
CH>COOCH2CH 32
 2. Reaction with a base
CHs
· COOC H + NaOH CH3COONa
W > CH+ COONa
C22
H OH+ C H OH
↓
Saponification rkn
↓
For making soaps
I

C
Sodium salts of long
chain of carboxylic acids

SS
Detergent: Sodium
- salt of long chain Sulphonic acid

3. Reaction with Carbonates and Hydrocarbonates

2CH3COOH + Na23
CO -> 2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
I

R
Alkylebenzene widely used in production of phenol: Cumene
A
&

-
Strong reducing agent used to reduce aldehydes, ketones, esters, carboxylic acid chlorides,
carboxylic acids and even carboxylate salts to alcohols: Lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4)
RM

-
Two double carbon- carbon bonds are known as dienes

-
Isopentane also called 2-methylbutane and is branched structure with formula C5H12
↓
CH
PA

13
CH-CH-CH-CH
3 2 23

Nitromethane formula: CH NO

!
H
O
H-C-N
E
O
.

H
I
Sedimentation not used to purify organic compounds
I
Alkanes were earlier known as Paraffin

- Paradichlorobenzane
Be is used as fumigant insecticide to contra cloth moths and chemical
formula is: C642
H Cl

I Root is used to represent the no. of carbon atoms in the parent chain

C
↑ Examples of monosaccharides: Fructose (fruit sugar) and Glucose
I
Simplest form of Sugar

SS
-
Cereals: Maltose

-
Largest compound of natural gas: Methane (seen in Paddy field, they are Marsh gas)
↓
Also seen in where there are Termite

I Butane gas: C"10

H
R
A
! Alkane: C H
n 2n +
2

=2x4+2
RM

-
Three carbon molecules broken down from six-carbon molecules of glucose during the first
step in the process of nutrition in all organisms is called: Pyruvate
Cytoplasm
Glucose ->Pyruvate

- Dicholorodifluromethane: CCl22
F
PA
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Dazzling white flame

white ppt.

Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium oxide

Mg O MgO
Product
Reactants to balance oxygen

According to the LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS, in a chemical equation,

mass remains constant.

In a chemical reaction, bonds break and re-generate but the number of

atoms remains the same.

Example : to balance hydrogen

Fe + HO Fe O + H

to balance oxygen

to balance iron
 Types of chemical reactions

1. Combination Reactions

Compound Compound
New Compound

Two reactants combine to form a single product.

CaO + HO Ca (OH)
(quick lime) (slaked lime)

Vigorous reaction and heat evolves

Exothermic Reaction

applied on walls
Ca (OH) + CO CaCO
whitewashing
walls
(lime water) shiny finish
(Milky)
Marble

Outer part of egg CaCO Limestone

Chalk

CH + 2O CO + 2H O
exothermic
methane
evaporates
C + O CO (Burning of coal)
exothermic
 All combination reactions are not exothermic in nature.

Respiration is an exothermic reaction :-

CH O + 6O CO + 6H O + energy

Decomposition of waste is exothermic reaction.

2. Decomposition Reactions

A B A B

Reactant Product

Energy usually consumed in this reaction- ENDOTHERMIC

Eg. Pb(NO ) PbO + NO + O

heat

brown fumes evolve

thermal decomposition

Eg. Cu(NO ) CuO + NO

(blue) (black) (brown)

light
Eg. 2AgCl 2Ag + Cl
photochemical
light decomposition
2AgBr 2Ag + Br

used in black and white photography

Eg. FeSO . 7H O FeSO Fe O + SO + SO
(green)

Eg. CaCO CaO + CO

quick lime

used in cement industry

3. Displacement Reactions

Vicky Selmon-Katrina Vicky-Katrina + Selmon

Selmon displaced by Vicky

Eg. Fe + CuSO FeSO + Cu

Iron is more reactive than Copper

Cu + FeSO NO REACTION (Not feasible)

copper cannot displace iron as it is less reactive than iron.

4. Double Displacement Reaction

AB CD AD CB
 Na SO + BaCl BaSO + 2NaCl

exchange
of ions

5. Oxidation and Reduction Removal

of oxygen

addition
of oxygen

2Cu + O 2CuO (Oxidation)

copper oxidises

hydrogen oxidises
(Addition of oxygen)

CuO + H Cu + HO REDOX REACTION

copper reduces
(Removal of oxygen) both oxidation and
reduction takes place
simultaneously
 oxidation

ZnO + C Zn + CO REDOX REACTION

reduction

Day-to-Day Life Examples

1. Corrosion (Oxidation) :

in air
Fe Fe O
Rusting
iron oxide
(Reddish brown)

Cu CuCO
copper carbonate
(Green)

Ag Ag S
silver sulphide
(Black)

2. Rancidity :

When fats gain oxygen, it oxidises and thus causes rancid smell.

O NO gas

To prevent
oxidisation of
fats
Chips
Laws of Gases

1. Boyle’s Law (1662)

P 1 (At constant temp.)

V

PV = PV

2. Charle’s Law (1780)

V T (At constant pressure)

inflated balloon
balloon

3. Gay Lussac’s Law (Law of combining volume of gases)

P T (At constant volume)

(Blast)
Deo Deo
4. Dalton’s Law (Law of partial pressure)

Total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of partial pressure

of each gas.